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RECOMMENDATIONS. 



Cincinnati, July 4th, 1859. 
It is not often that I am inclined to recommend a book. But Mr. 
Kerl's "Comprehensive English Grammar" contains so wide a range 
of valuable information upon the principles and structure of the English 
language, and presents that information in a manner so admirably 
adapted to attract, interest, and instruct teachers as well as pupils, that 
I deem it a duty, as well as a privilege, to express my high appreciation 
of his valuable work. I have read and carefully considered the work, 
— every word of it, — and feel no hesitation in expressing my belief, that, 
for clearness and conciseness of definitions, judicious arrangement and 
variety of topics, number and appropriateness of exercises, and the lucid 
and ingenious manner in which every subject and topic has been pre- 
sented and discussed, it is not surpassed by any kindred treatise in the 
English language. It has, therefore, in my judgment, pre-eminent 
claims, as a text-book, to be used not only in our Common Schools, but 
in our Academies, High Schools, and Colleges. It ought to have a place, 
at least on the table of every enterprising teacher in the public or pri- 
vate schools of this country ; for, as a book of reference, it will afford 
essential aid in giving breadth and exactness to his knowledge, and 
thus qualify him to impart a liberal amount of valuable oral instruction. 
Every graduate, every scholar, and every individual in professional life, 
who desires to write and speak the Anglo-Saxon tongue in its purity 
and native force, and who feels that the highest attainment of man, as a 
being of thought and action, is the art of using language with accuracy, 
elegance, and effect, — ought to keep this treatise by him, as a book of daily 
reference and occasional perusal for the cultivation and preservation of a 
correct taste in the use of our noble language. 

In constructing a synoptical view of the conjugation of verbs, and in 
the presentation and analysis of rhetorical figures, of versification and 
scanning, as well as of the principle and rules of punctuation, the 
author has made a decided hit; and merits, on this account alone, the 
gratitude of pupils, teachers, and the public at large. 
1* 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Let any one examine Wilson's elaborate Treatise on Punctuation, and 
compare it with the eighty pages on which Mr. Kerl has presented this 
whole matter, and he will readily accord to the latter the merit of be- 
ing more precise, clear, simple, and practical. 

In the matter of " False Syntax" or " Examples to be Corrected" this 
work, in regard to the number, variety, interesting character, and gene- 
ral adaptation of the exercises, ranges far above and beyond any kindred 
work. Great importance ought to be attached to this part of the book ; 
for no one can successfully teach English Grammar, as the art of speak- 
ing and writing our language correctly, unless he furnish his students 
with something to do, as well as something to learn. The chief of such 
exercises must consist in parsing what is right, and correcting what is 
wrong. The principles of grammar can never have any beneficial influ- 
ence over our manner of speaking and writing, till by some process they 
are made so perfectly familiar, that we can apply them not only to what 
has been said or written, but to whatever we are about to speak or 
write. 

The "Aids to Composition'' embraces many excellent suggestions, 
and its frequent perusal can not fail to render valuable assistance not 
only to beginners, but to all others who have not already formed cor- 
rect habits of composing, and who would acquire facility in expressing 
their thoughts in a clear, consecutive, and impressive manner. 

I can not close my brief review of this truly " Comprehensive Gram- 
mar " without again adverting to the " Examples to be Corrected" and to 
the admirable manner in which the subjects of " Rhetorical Figures," 
41 Poetry, Versification, and Scanning," have been presented and dis- 
cussed. These are among the crowning excellencies of the work, and 
merit a careful examination by all who would appreciate the beauties of 
chaste and refined literature. No one can read the authors exposition 
of a sinole one of the subjects just mentioned, without feeling that it is 
worth the whole price of the book. 

Let every teacher in the land, then, buy this work, read it, study it 7 
reduce its precepts to practice, teach them to others, recommend them 
to every body; and thereby benefit himself, and encourage an intelli- 
gent and meritorious author, who has bestowed upon this treatise many 
a long year of hard study, earnest research, and indefatigable and skill- 
ful labor. 

H. H. BARNEY, 

Principal of Cincinnati Normal School, and late Superintendent of 
Common Schools of Ohio. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 



Cincinnati, July 12th, 1859. 

Dear Sir:—- 

As carefully as my time would permit, I have looked over the 
sheets of your manual of the English Language. Though the examina- 
tion I was able to give it was only a general one, I believe it has no 
superior in the conciseness, precision, and clearness of its definitions. 
Of its completeness, arrangement, and adaptation to the purposes of a 
text-book for schools of all grades, I feel that I may speak with confi- 
dence. In these respects, though it is saying much, I believe it has no 
equal. In its copious parsing exercises and exercises in False Syntax, 
the teacher will find, what I have known many to look for in vain in 
other books, an almost inexhaustible supply of materials for practice in 
the analysis and correct construction of our language. This is what is 
most needed ; and because it has been so little attended to, much time 
has been utterly wasted in the study of English Grammar. In this depart- 
ment, the examples are not the worn-out exercises used by all preceding 
grammarians ; but they a»e fresh from pages scarcely yet dry, and have 
the interest of having been written by men that are now living and 
moving in the affairs of the world, and of being taken from the period- 
icals and papers which the young are reading daily. "Murray's 
Exercises" is nothing to compare with this department of the book, 
either in arrangement or in completeness ; besides, it is adapted to the 
rest of the work. The treatise on Punctuation is quite complete; and it 
is more satisfactory and usable than any collection of Rules with 
which I have met elsewhere, not excepting even Mr. Wilson's valuable 
work. 

To speak of the work as it deserves to be spoken of, I should have to 
review it: 1 should have to direct attention to its Rules of Orthography, 
Rules for the use of Capital Letters, Paradigm of the Verb, Rhetorical 
Principles, and many other points. The book has no equal either as a 
text-book, or as a vade mecum for the professional or the literary man. 

From the size to which the book has grown, it must necessarily cost 
more than twice as much as the grammars commonly in use ; but it will 
be worth more than its price. It combines, in the most masterly way 
all the advantages of all the text-books on Grammar, Exercises in Com- 
position, Aids to Composition, &c, &c, which it is now necessary for 
the student to purchase. 






RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Every schoolmaster has an ideal of what a perfect text-book in Gram- 
mar should be. Yours approaches more nearly to mine than any other 
book which I have ever seen. I shall introduce the book into my own 
school, and shall without hesitation or reserve recommend it to my 
fellow-teachers. 

ANDREW J. MCKOFF, 

President of the National Teachers' 1 Association, and formerly 
Superintendent of the Public Schools of Cincinnati. 



% tyomptftmmm Grammar. 



A 



TREATISE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



FOR THE USE OF 



kfwols, Colics, mft ^xifak $hhnt%. 



BY SIMON KERL. 



Fungar vice cotis, acutum 
Reddere quse ferrum valet, exsors ipsa secandi. 

Horace. 



N- 



PHILADELPHIA: 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 

CINCINNATI : MOORE, WILSTACH, KEYS, & CO. 
ST. LOUIS : STEVENSON & MORRIS. 

18 5 9. 






*n 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, 

BY SIMON KERL, 

In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern 

District of Ohio. 

fi^Any infringement of the copyright will he prosecuted to the extent of the law. 



CINCINNATI: 
MOORE, WILSTACH, KEYS & CO., Printers. 



DEDICATION. 



To John H. Sandfort, Esq., Jostak R. Lamkin, Esq., and Dr. Bernard 
Bruns, as a memorial of early friendship, of constant friendship, of 
friendship to endure forever; to President William W. Hudson* and 
Ex-Governor Sterling Price, who befriended rae at ihe threshold 
of manhood when I most stood in need of friends, whose memory is 
Imperishably blended with many of the dearest recollections of my 
life, and whose great merits and services in public life are surpassed only 
fey their private virtues; and to Richard G. Woodson, Esq., Charles D. 
Drake, Esq., and Gen. Livingston Edwards, whose kindness and 
favors have much facilitated the publication of the following pages, — - 
this volume is affectionately and gratefully inscribed. 



*Since the last pages have been sent to press, the green sod and the 
silence of the tomb ha^e closed over him, my worthy instructor, whom, 
if any one, it would have been a pleasure for me to gratify by the 
results of my labor. Those eyes which ever beamed the goodness of 
the heart, those lips which were so often eloquent with instruction or 
wreathed with social smiles, are now sealed in death. And the noble 
heart which mingled with so many others in the hallowed sympathy of 
pure affection, has forever ceased to throb. Often in familiar places 
often in the friendly group, shall we miss, with aching loneliness of 
tieart, the form of him whose learning and wisdom, whose manly and 
sraiable qualities, were such as will ever endear and sanctify the grave. 



ADVERTISEMENT. 

IN PRESS. 

KERI/S PRIMARY GRAMMAR. 

This is a small treatise, designed for beginners or young pupils and as 
an introduction to the present volume. It has been prepared with great 
care, in order to make it interesting, simple, progressive, comprehensive, 
and efficient, in as small a space as possible. 

READY. 

RERLS TREATISE ON THE ENCJEISH LMGUACIE. 

This book is designed to be a complete practical Grammar of our 
language, comprising also the essential principles of Composition. It 
is drawn rather from the literature itself than from other books of the 
same kind. It abounds in the best of illustrations and exercises, and is 
meant to be adapted to learners of any age, capacity, or attainments. 
The sections on versification, punctuation, rhetorical figures, capital 
letters, and false syntax, are such as can not be found in any other book. 

IN PRESS. 

KEML'S MEITAL ARITHMETIC, 

Published by Chas. Desilver : Philadelphia. Second edition revised, 
corrected, and improved. This little book is new in its plan ; and it is 
designed, by the kind of matter taught and the simplicity and compre- 
hensiveness of its arrangement, to furnish to those who wish to improve 
their skill in ciphering and calculating, as interesting and useful an 
auxiliary as the subject will possibly admit. 

Teachers and other persons that are not altogether satisfied with what 
they have in similar treatises, are respectfully requested to give the 
foregoing books a candid examination. 



PREFACE. 



To condense into one volume of convenient size and moderate price a 
comprehensive, minute, accurate, practical, interesting, well-methodized, 
and well-illustrated system of the principles which determine the pro- 
per use of the English language; to furnish authors, editors, printers, 
teachers, lawyers, physicians, and clergymen, or any other persons that 
take some pride in keeping out of low and slovenly habits in the use of 
speech, with a convenient manual sufficient with a good dictionary to 
supply them with whatever may be ordinarily needed to test the pro- 
priety of any phrase, sentence, or paragraph, that can be formed in 
our language ; to compress into one treatise what may have all the ad- 
vantages of a series of books without their disadvantages, and be essen- 
tially equivalent to a multitude of books now used in our schools under 
the various names of Primary Grammar, First Lessons, Elementary 
Grammar, Practical Grammar, Analytical Grammar, Grammar of 
Grammars, English Language, Analysis, Teacher, Murray's Exercises, 
Scholar's Companion, Etymology, Pronunciation, Punctuation, Rhetoric, 
Elements of Logic, Aids to Composition, &c, &c. ; to make it, in prac- 
tical value, for the present age what Murray's large Grammar was for 
its age, -and adapt it to all kinds of learners by making it simple, pro- 
gressive, practical, and philosophical ; to embody in it whatever seems 
worthy of preservation in all the best similar treatises one century 
back, and all the sound improvements of modern times, together with 
the various criticisms scattered over our literature, and made by authors 
upon authors, by comedians in their ridicule of current faults in 
speech, and by critics and reviewers upon the prevailing literature ; to 
enrich the entire subject by a personal survey of the best portions of 
our literature, by new illustrations and examples, by constant compar- 
ison of the idioms and analogies of our language with those of the 
languages which have furnished or influenced it, by what teachers, lo- 
gicians, and mental philosophers have said and written on the art of 
communicating knowledge, and by observations and meditations of my 
own; to avoid whatever seems objectionable in kindred treatises, 



Vlll PREFACE. 

improve what is capable of improvement, bring down to their 
proper sphere those parts which have been heretofore overrated, 
and bring out fairly and fully those parts, which, from the great 
difficulty of mastering them — such as Figures, Versification, Punc- 
tuation, Capital Letters — have been left deficient ; to interweave with 
the materials throughout the easiest and best modes of learning 
and of teaching, and to impart to the whole a sort of Shakespearian 
comprehensiveness, and fitness for the world, and make it what intelli- 
gent teachers have often described as a desideratum, — are the principal 
aims which have swayed me in the writing of this volume. So great a 
result I of course do not pretend to have achieved. It is, indeed, with 
a trembling and misgiving heart that I venture to offer my labors to the 
world, when I think how densely and brilliantly the intellectual firma- 
ment is already oversprinkled with the stars of mind ; and how much 
is expected, at this old age of the world, of the man who presumes to 
write a new book on a trite yet critical and difficult subject. And 
when I consider, that the majority of mankind care but little for what 
is not immediately essential to their happiness, that my subject has not 
the novelty to be of general interest, that it is supposed to be already 
harvested and even gleaned by much finer heads, that new things are 
very apt to be distrusted, that most men prefer to let the wagon run 
in the rut while it will run at all, that it is human nature to judge 
new authors by their faults and old ones by their merits, that I have 
not the fame to speak with that authority which would set upon my 
production the seal of " Standard Work ; " when I consider all these 
things, and then reflect how often our best endeavors and the best aus- 
pices end in failure, — I feel that there is but too much cause for my 
fears and anxieties. If man is, as the poet says, a harp of a thousand 
strings, it is reasonable to suppose that he must often experiment a long 
time, before he finds that particular chord which makes the music that 
will please the fastidious world. When a lawyer, a physician, a clergy- 
man, an editor, or even a politician, has determined to build his nest in 
some community, he soon gains, by ordinary prudence of conduct, the 
confidence of those around him, and finds a comfortable sphere in 
which he is accredited ; the manes of his illustrious predecessors do not 
crowd him out or diminish his. prosperity, and his mighty cotempora- 
ries in distant parts of the world never revolve into his own sphere : 
but the author at once comes in competition with the collected wisdom 
and mental activity of all ages and climes ; and unless he can grasp, 
condense, and adorn all the good of his predecessors, and with this and 
his own intellectual vigor move a step or two in advance of his age, it 
is very probable that he will have toiled in vain. 



PREFACE. IX 

As a preparation for the task before me, my plan was, to read all the 
best, most influential authors from the days of Chaucer to the present 
time, that I might obtain the standard of good usage ; to read all the 
respectable books on English grammar and philology, one century back, 
or from 1750 to the present time ; to read the most approved metaphy- 
sicians, that I might better learn the nature of the mind, and acquire 
greater skill for making definitions ; to read some of the best writers 
on education ; to be myself a teacher from time to time ; to read some- 
thing from every State in the Union, that I might obtain all the kinds of er- 
rors or improper expressions throughout our country ; and, finally, to bring 
to the illumination of the subject as much knowledge as I could, from the 
Greek language, the Latin, the German, the French, the Spanish, and 
the Italian. This stupendous undertaking has not been fully accom- 
plished ; yet so much of it, that it is hoped the corresponding effects 
will not unfavorably distinguish this book from others. A strong ob- 
jection against most grammars is, that the authors have too generally 
devoured other grammarians rather than gone to the original fountains 
of fact and truth. 

The plan of the present work is simply this : It is divided into three 
parts, which I have ventured to call Books ; because the wordpartf is al- 
ready excessively used, and the word book seems to be a more appropri- 
ate term for denoting what is complete by itself. Book First is a com- 
prehensive outline of grammar, leaching the pupil to analyze and parse 
plain literature ; Book Second aims to present, in a most systematic 
form, the language as it is in its correct state ; Book Third, as it is mis- 
used, — or it aims to present, in accordance with Book Second, all the 
kinds of errors ordinarily made inadvertently by people of at least 
some education. The principles to be taught in the three Books are 
accompanied by such an abundance of the best illustrations and exer- 
cises, that the whole treatise may be rendered in the highest degree 
intelligible, entertaining, and efficient. 

After the work was undertaken, my first object was to determine 
what it should communicate ; and the next, how this knowledge might 
be best communicated. After this I classified the entire subject as the 
black figures show, and then resolved to complete the treatise section 
after section, by writing each one again and again, until I thought it, 
after due comparison, the best then extant, or felt that I could not pos- 
sibly improve it. Book First has been written nine times, and no other 
part of the work has been written fewer than four times. 

In the writing of Book First, I have tried to imagine myself in the 
child's situation, — to think and feel as he thinks and feels, — that I 
might thus see what things are best for him, and then furnish them ac- 



X PREFACE. 

cordingly. It has been the constant effort to make this part as concise 
and pithy as possible, without omitting any exercises or illustrations 
that it could not well spare. The attention of inquiring teachers is in- 
vited to the exercises, the illustrations, the modes of parsing, the rules 
of syntax, and the arrangement and comprehensiveness of the principles 
taught. To the questions, though not made silly, prolix, and mechan- 
ical, some will doubtless object; yet what may not suit a man, may 
sometimes best suit a child; and a mode of teaching that has survived 
many fine theories, and come down to us from the days of Socrates, has 
very probably some intrinsic value, or is backed by Nature. With the 
addition of ten or twelve pages, which are already prepared, this nrst 
part is itself a complete treatise for beginners, and I purpose to have it 
thus published apart as an introduction to the main work. 

On Book Second, much labor and care have been bestowed ; and the 
attention of teachers is especially invited to the arrangement of the 
matter throughout, to what is said about verbs and substantives, and to 
all the portion from the end of Interjections to the close. The question- 
ing has been omitted, or so modified by interrogation points at the left 
of each page, as to be convenient and adequate without being in the 
way. Such written exercises are also required of the student, by the 
numbers placed on the left of each page, as are perhaps best adapted to 
his capacity and improvement. Some erroneous examples for correction 
are given occasionally, in order that the student may see the applica- 
tion and utility of what he is learning, and also guard himself against 
some of the most common kinds of errors. Besides, such is the ar- 
rangement, that the student who wishes, at the end of any section, to 
go more thoroughly into the subject, needs but to turn to the corres- 
ponding part of Book Third, in which he will find all the violations of 
the principles which he has just learned. Something of Punctuation is 
also given with the elements requiring it ; because it is doubtless better, 
not to defer the teaching of a thing till the knowledge requisite for un- 
derstanding it has been forgotten. Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, 
have not been kept so distinct as they are usually kept ; for the design 
was everywhere to follow nature, with a proper regard to the enter- 
tainment and ability of the mind, rather than to follow the arbitrary 
distinctions of books. So closely is grammatical etymology related to 
syntax, that the very existence of many of its properties is syntactical, 
or arises from the fact that words acquire properties from their relations 
to one another in the structure of sentences ; and to stop with the ety- 
mological parsing, is generally to stop almost in the middle, and leave 
the work unfinished. I have aimed to present first in full what is essen- 
tial to speech, and then (at the close of the Interjections) to proceed and 



PBEEACE. XI 

rise from one beautifying and invigorating property to another, and end 
with Versification, the one requiring the greatest skill. After this, a 
condensed and brief but fully adequate section on Analysis is introduced; 
and lastly, Punctuation. The sections on Figures, Versification, and 
Punctuation, are the result not only of very extensive research, but of 
much thinking ; and I trust they will not be altogether unworthy of 
perusal. I have often heard competent judges say, that these topics, 
as they are usually presented in our grammars, are absolutely worth 
nothing. The figures are not only a principal ingredient in the beauty 
and vigor of style, but the principles which they comprise lie at the 
very foundation of language or words, showing how their various estab- 
lished meanings are derived, and how genius may still extend legitim- 
ately their power and flexibility. There is too much of truth, beauty, 
and divinity in poetry, for its principles to be unworthy of being under- 
stood ; and no one will deny the importance of a sound, complete, and 
attainable system of punctuation. As to the best mode of treating this 
last subject, I was not a little perplexed. To give a multitude of rules, 
and append a comet's tail of exceptions to each, as Mr. Wilson has done 
in his valuable treatise, seemed plainly objectionable; for not even the 
whole of his exhaust the subject, and perhaps but few heads can be 
found that have ever been able to learn, retain, and apply them all. 
At last it occurred to me to present the subject like a complete, well- 
classified, and labeled cabinet of minerals, with not more precepts than 
seemed absolutely necessary; and I have accordingly endeavored to do 
so. Here and elsewhere examples are numerous, not because I could 
think of many, but because I always wished to give all the different 
ones to which the principle is applicable. It may, indeed, seem to some, 
that there are, throughout the volume, too many illustrations and exer- 
cises; and that these things, if deemed necessary, might be better supplied 
from reading-books and by teachers. But my experience in teaching is 
to the contrary. It is generally best that a book depend not too 
much on its neighbors; and teachers have not always time, nor always 
feel inclined, nor are everywhere competent, to supply these things. 
Children often forget to bring these auxiliary books, or have them not, 
and parents refuse to purchase them. Besides, the true mode of attain- 
ing a good Botany, for instance, is to begin with the collecting of plants; 
and I have tried to select sentences of every structure in the language, 
so that the volume, in this respect, might be to a considerable extent 
equivalent to Mr. Mandeville's Reading and Oratory. Nor are these il- 
lustrations Ollendorfian babblement, but many of them are the richest 
gems in our literature ; so that the student may not only read them with 
pleasure, but indirectly imbibe a good taste, as well as a knowledge of 



Xll PREFACE. 

the various structures of language. Finally, every teacher and every 
student can take of them what suits his purpose : a full shop orderly 
furnished for all purposes, is better than one sparingly furnished for but 
one purpose. 

In Book Third I have revolutionized the common classification of 
false syntax ; and endeavored to give the new classification something of 
the beauty, precision, and comprehensiveness, which Blackstone, Kent, 
and Parsons, have bestowed upon systems of law. The entire collec- 
tion is, I believe, more comprehensive than any other either in Europe 
or in America. Perhaps nearly all the most pithy and generally current 
errors collected by preceding critics, and deemed common property, have 
been appropriated ; and at least as many new ones have been added 
from my own reading of the most popular literature. The criticisms of 
authors, reviewers, and comedians, have also been carefully noticed, 
and used to the best advantage. Since not only the ignorance of na- 
tives, but also the influx of foreigners, is daily corrupting our language, 
it is the more important to guard its purity. It is surprising to observe 
what quantities of ungrammatical English are daily uttered; and how 
much our best literature is freckled with errors, — errors that are too 
gross and glaring to allow quibbling, yet are constantly corrupting the 
speech of the nation. Those teachers who are so enraptured with 
" Analysis " as to use it exclusively, will at last find out, I think, that 
it is not a little akin to the world-admired and fruitful speculations of 
Thomas Aquinas ; and that a part of the time wasted in superfluous 
analysis, may be spent as well in the correcting of false syntax. 

The corrections should be brief and spirited, and according to the Gen- 
eral Direction given at the beginning of the Book. At any suitable point 
the teacher may question the pupil more particularly, and thus ascer- 
tain how w T ell he understands the corresponding and more definite prin- 
ciples of Book Second, and assure himself that the class see to the bottom 
of the subject. Those who think these errors too numerous, may take of 
them what they want ; but let them remember, that 125 pages of errors, 
designed to cleanse a person's speech for his lifetime, or to root out the 
errors in the speech of fifty millions of people, are still a very small quan- 
tity in comparison with the end to be attained. The errors, as well as 
the illustrations, have nearly all been taken from authors that range from 
medium to supreme greatness ; but their names have generally been omit- 
ted, in order to save space, and to avoid the uncouthness which a multitude 
of references give to a book. If I shall sometimes appear to have been 
evidently hypercritical, let it be remembered that the momentum of a body 
will sometimes carry it a little too far. To the exercises for correction 
will be furnished hereafter, should the book be acceptable to the public 



PREFACE. Xlll 

a cheap Key in pamphlet form, which will be more convenient for use 
than a Key appended to the end of the book. The Aids, Remarks, and 
Observations, are rather informal or familiar criticisms, or else illustra- 
tions of chief principles, and can perhaps be read with profit and pleas- 
ure sometimes by teachers as well as by students. The two sections in 
the Appendix comprise each of them the germ of a book ; and a wise 
teacher or a thoughtful student will best know what to do with them. 
Of rhetoric and logic I have endeavored to incorporate with the other 
matter about all that a person of strong common sense will need; and if 
he wants more, he will know where to find it. 

Such, then, is a brief sketch of this treatise. It is throughout practi- 
cal rather than historical or metaphysical : one special purpose, namely, 
that of teaching the learner to speak and write correctly, and of furnish- 
ing incidentally only what may have a tendency to develop his powers 
as a writer or a speaker, has been constantly kept in view, and pursued 
in a purely scientific manner. The flavor and utility of tea, for instance, 
are independent of its history ; and a man may see enough of the world 
for all his comforts, without a transcendental ascension in a balloon. 
I have also constantly studied how to adapt the book to all kinds of 
learners, and what are the best modes of learning and of teaching. 
Books for men are made chiefly to please, and why should this be for- 
gotten in making books for children ? For these especially, since their 
attention is vagrant, books should be made entertaining as well as use- 
ful. When properly interested, their diligence and sagacity, like the 
courage of women, will do wonders ; but when their daily tasks so over- 
burden and worry them as to crush their nimble spirits and implant 
dislike, the injurious effects are apt to last through life. Hope and pride 
should be ever kept alive and active. Neither memory, nor judgment, 
nor imagination, should be alone exerted ; but all three should act to- 
gether harmoniously. Principles should be so well inculcated by exer- 
cises, as to operate in future practice with the promptness and facility of 
instinct. The world is and ever will be governed more by habits than 
by precepts. It is better to teach a child the color and fragrance of the 
rose by leading him to the bush, than by showing him the essence in an 
apothecary's bottle. Mechanical trumpery is as deleterious to the intel- 
lect as sweetmeats are to the body and temper. The true, the only 
right mode of teaching, is by definition and example. Let two men meet 
on the street, and one state a principle to the other; if the latter does not 
comprehend it, the former at once begins with, "For instance" &c. 
Every person comprehends principles according to his knowledge of 
facts, however vague this may be. Every additional fact gained, but 

2* 



XIV PREFACE. 

strengthens or modifies the principles of a thoughtful mind, or suggests 
new principles. The inexperienced child has not the facts, or, if he has 
them, is perhaps without the judgment to apply them rightly; so that 
abstract definitions without illustrations are not merely disagreeable to 
him, but have absolutely no soil into which they can strike their roots. 
Hence the necessity of furnishing abundant examples and exercises. 
Children are not quite angels, but have so much of earth in their com- 
position that they would famish on pure ambrosia and nectar. Refined 
theorists generally fail in practice, simply because they overshoot the 
world. Though some things must be taken in and digested long after- 
wards, yet the mind should not be thus made dyspeptic. 

Such are the quantity of matter and its arrangement, that the volume 
may be learned by average pupils in three sessions of five months each, 
the time usually allowed to this study ; though three years, if it be stu- 
died in connection with other things, will not be too long a time. Pa- 
rents foolishly estimate children's advancement by the number of books 
through which they pass, and then complain because they must buy so 
many. Each book is by itself a complete division in the flight of stairs, — 
a solid and valuable acquisition ; and the treatise may be learned and 
taught in a variety of ways, so that teachers may find it adapted to learners 
of any age, capacity, or attainments. Great care has been taken to pre- 
serve uniformity, and not to worry the student and break up his local 
associations of memory by useless variation; nor has the same thing 
been presented again and again in unprofitably different ways, when all 
the novelty and attraction are worn off. To every subject I have endeav- 
ored to give such a place and so much attention as it seemed to deserve ; 
and difficulties have been honestly met, and investigated to the best of my 
ability. I have been careful not to be unduly swayed either by conser- 
vatism or by popular novelties: I have inquired impartially, listened to 
every man's opinion, and at last followed my own judgment. I have 
ever kept in mind that the greatest object of thinking is truth and that 
this is most acceptable when it is arrayed in a seemly or handsome garb. 
Innovations have been cautiously avoided, or made only where it seemed 
obvious that they would be improvements. I have strong faith in the 
deliberate, sober sense of mankind ; and believe, with Pope, that common 
sense is always good sense, and good sense common sense. Severe 
judges will doubtless find in this work but too many imperfections; yet, 
from the care bestowed upon it, I can not forbear to have some hope, that 
it will not suffer materially when it is compared with other similar 
books. In spite of all the vigilance used, it is still very probable that 
pome errors and omissions have escaped notice; for in a science not do- 



PREFACE. XV 

veloped from a few indubitable axioms, not growing out of itself, and not 
dependent on demonstrative reasonings, but marshaled out of a vast 
chaos of innumerable particulars, and depending on moral reasoning, 
perfection is impossible. An ocean of learning and thinking would be 
inadequate. The work has therefore not been stereotyped, in order that 
I may avail myself of all the suggestions and criticisms of those persons 
who will be kind enough to make them. To be a respectable grammar- 
ian, however humble it may be, is no every-day affair. It requires such 
attainments, acumen, and taste, as are seldom found in the same indi- 
vidual. Many able men have written on grammar, with the most san- 
guine expectations of success ; yet, because their minds were warped by 
some darling grand absurdity, some long-petted dogma or oddity, the 
world has looked into their productions as into a distorting mirror, 
and turned away in disgust. Many rashly conclude that one man's 
language is as good as another's, that every person's language is good 
enough, and that "disciples are free when doctor's disagree." That a 
Shakspeare sometimes wrote ungrammatically, is put forth as a shield 
by thousands of idlers and ignoramuses. I have also frequently met 
with persons that utterly repudiated the expediency of studying gram- 
mar or language, and that seemed to think their own piebald gleanings 
at the ragfairs of polite company the standard of propriety and elegance. 
To these self-crowned Tom-Thumb Napoleons in literature, it is not easy 
to give an answer to their satisfaction. Suffice it to say, that I have 
never yet conversed with one of them, whose sentences were not as full 
of refuting ignorance as of presumptuous vanity. Language, as well 
as everything else, requires care and culture. Indeed, to make it in the 
highest degree available, there is nothing else under the sun, that 
demands such intense and soul-absorbing study. Besides, what a noble, 
what a venerable inheritance is the English language! How our 
hearts, our very beings, seem to cling to the sweet sounds, the more 
than Castilian richness, of its words! What other language is superior 
to it in all that can rouse, instruct, or delight? What other production 
can be compared with it in antiquity, ubiquity, utility, durability, and 

and now it bids fair to encompass the 
spoken or listened to by at least two 
hundred millions of people. It skims like the fabled fairies and genii 
over all parts of the land, and is now even diving the ocean, and gliding 
from continent to continent, with the rapidity of thought. Its greatest 
depth has perhaps never yet been fathomed, its highest heaven never been 
seen, and its farthest bounds never been reached, by all the genius and 
diligence of fifty generations. There came into it a Bacon to lay out 



XVI PREFACE. 

the intellectual empire, but the grand foundations reached no place 
where they could not rest firmly and securely upon it. There came into 
it a Shakspeare, and at once it made room for all the sallies of the 
mighty and darling genius, who, though he may have spurned the 
bounds of existence, must have often felt that he had not yet reached 
its own bounds. There came a Milton, who turned seraph while even 
yet mortal, but the historian of heaven never soared so far " beyond the 
bounds of all created things," never so far into the joys of Elysium, 
never so far into the woes and horrors of Pandemonium, never so far 
into the primeval beauties of Paradise, never so far into the glories of 
Divinity, that the language was ever exhausted, or unable to proceed 
still farther. It went with a Locke into the innermost recesses of the 
mind; and it accompanied a Newton in "unwinding the eternal dances" 
and glories of the sky, as well as in the illimitable reaches of mathemat- 
ical abstraction. And when a Chatham and a Webster came forth, it 
denied them not the world-shaking artillery of a Demosthenes. 
Indeed, what other agency, wielded by man, can be compared with 
language in power? The cannonry, "pomp, and glorious circumstance 
of war," may terrify nations and shake the earth, but the voice of the 
orator can rise above and sway all these, "wield the fierce democracy," 
"wrench the unworthy sceptre from tyrants," and throw into collision 
the empires of the world. It has no respect to persons. It is not the 
peculiar luxury of wealth and aristocracy: whoever seeks it rightly, 
generally finds it ; and its treasures, like the beauty and magnificence 
of nature, lie equally open to all. And then, it is everywhere. It 
cheers the winter fireside, tells "love's delightful story," pours the joy- 
ful tidings of salvation into the heart, reigns in the councils of nations. 
It drops from the sweet, prattling lips of infancy, summers high in bliss 
with the glowing imagination of youth, embodies the grave transactions 
of manhood, whispers the last tender and hopeful farewell of the dying 
Christian. It enters the most secret thought of man, links thought with 
thought through the whole journey of life, or forms the golden chain of 
memory and hope from the cradle to the grave. It is the great bond 
between the material and the spiritual world. It makes visible and 
audible the invisible soul. What else has such power of revealing the 
inner, the most exquisite flowerings of the heart; or of giving such 
glimpses into the innermost, cloistered divinity of the soul? In this, as 
in coral or in adamant, that divine essence perpetuates its own exist- 
ence on earth, and lives and communes forever with the future minds 
of the world. In this it builds its noble palaces of thought; palaces 
that are a wealth and a joy forever, — that are more splendid, more 



PREFACE. XV11 

durable, more felicitous, than those built of marble and gold, — that are 
not wrenched from the blood and painful toil of wretched thousands, — 
that are not to be enjoyed by a few only, but by all the world and all 
their posterity to the end of time; palaces from which every traveler 
refreshed and wiser may renew his journey of life for the better ; 
palaces that crumble not, fade not, but shall stand in their primitive 
strength, and with hue ever softened by the mellow tint of honor, till 
time shall be no more. Who now feels himself any the richer by the 
conquests of Alexander or Caesar ? but this, unlike the sword, adds to 
the sum of created things, and at once makes the treasure of one the 
treasure and blessing of all. 

What sage maxims; what grand principles of philosophy; what 
heavenly truths ; what ethereal tintings of poesy ; what stirring bursts 
of eloquence ; what noble principles of law, liberty, and government ; 
and what great monuments of genius, — does not our language contain ? 
The literature of another continent, of the grandest scenery in nature, 
of a noble race of freemen, — not the cringing sycophants of imperial 
courts, but of men stimulated by the most glorious recollections of the 
past, and the most ennobling thoughts and feelings of human nature, — 
is to be added to its present treasures. And we may venture to say, 
that with the cherishing and elevating principles of liberty and life which 
it now advocates, nation after nation will gladly come under its genial 
dominion ; and that with the powers which it now has, it will continue 
to grow and spread, will finally embody the greatest achievements in 
" the course of time," be the language spoken by " the last man," and 
perish itself with all its glories only when " the solemn temples, the 
gorgeous palaces, the cloud-capt towers, and the great globe itself," 
shall pass away. 

But to view it according to the practical spirit of the age. How often 
do men express their thoughts — not only in conversation, but even in 
letters and other writings — obscurely, inadequately, ambiguously, im- 
properly, or ridiculously ! What a multitude of bickerings, conten- 
tions, and iawsuits, arise from language misapplied or misunderstood ! 
How much does a proper knowledge of language tend to improve the 
wit, the pleasantry, the interest of conversation, — and indeed all the 
social joys of life. How often is the mind of a person judged by the 
language he speaks or writes ; and how quickly vanishes the magic 
of the finest form in the finest garb, when we notice that it sputters out 
the silly gibberish of the lowest ignorance. And what else can so reach 
and sharpen all the faculties of the mind as language can ? The sharp- 
ness of lawyers, for instance, is proverbial. Every other instrument we 



XV111 PREFACE. 

are constantly endeavoring to improve ; and why not improve this, — the 
greatest, the universally used of all instruments? Every college should 
have a professorship devoted to our language and literature alone; and 
pupils should never be required to pursue their miserable "melancholy 
way ,7 through the unintelligible jargon of foreign languages, before 
they understand the rudiments of their own. Since our language has 
but few inflections, the notion seems to prevail, that it is too simple to 
need much care or cultivation. I do not think so. The difficulty of ac- 
quiring any language not symbolic, depends rather on the cultivation 
and extent of the intellectual empire of the people, than on the terms and 
inflections of the language itself. This empire the language must sus- 
tain, and if there are but few terms or inflections, they will be loaded 
with many different meanings and distinctions, and will be often liable 
to ambiguity and misconception. If there are many terms or inflec- 
tions wisely located, they will, when they are once understood, serve 
nearly always as sure guides to the sense. 

My experience in teaching, though considerable, has not been so great 
as that of some other writers of similar books ; yet it is questionable 
whether a very experienced teacher is, after all, the most competent per- 
son to write even a school-book. His endless routine of drudgery may 
teach him more of mechanical dexterity ; but it also tends to destroy 
original thinking, comprehensive views, and powerful grasp of intellect. 
In the morning, his mind is burdened with the cares of the day ; in the 
evening, his animal spirits are. exhausted; and in a few years, his men- 
tal joints are probably stiffened. I have not, however, been so far re- 
moved from youth, that my stronger recollection of it may not have 
had some favorable influence in better adapting my production to the 
taste and ability of children. It is, in fact, some of the fruit of those 
air-castle schemes which bloom so profusely on the tree of life in 
youth. 

The book is epluribus unurn — but not in the worst sense of the phrase. 
While I have not copied, but always thought and written for myself, I 
am still very much indebted to my cotemporaries and predecessors. 
Frequently have I at last rejected my own definition, and adopted one 
in common use, because I concluded, that, like the definition of a 
straight line, it could not possibly be improved, and had the advantage 
of being already known. The greater portion of the illustrative exam- 
ples are quoted from memory, yet I trust the reader will generally find 
them exact. Had I been obliged to write them down, and then search 
for them when needed, the writing of the book would have been intol- 
erably irksome, and consumed almost a lifetime. 



PREFACE. XIX 

To the many and excellent volumes in the St. Louis Mercantile Library, 
I am mostly indebted for my information ; and thence of course to the 
high-minded, benevolent gentlemen, who have reared this magnificent 
temple of light in the heart of the empire valley. Some valuable hints 
were received from Dr. Shannon of Missouri; and the excellent instruc- 
tions of my tutor in Latin and Greek, Prof. George H. Matthews, 
have often been a light to me in the investigation of dark and dif- 
ficult subjects. To Messrs. Low and Tirrel of Washington University, 
I am also indebted for advice and encouragement. And not only the 
valuable suggestions, but also the gentle and delicate courtesies of 
Messrs. Barney and Rickoff, during my sojourn in Cincinnati, have 
been such as can not be soon forgotten. 

In other respects, I have been obliged to pursue my way with great 
difficulties ; yet as it would, under any circumstances, be unmanly to 
complain, or to ask indulgence, I shall allude to them no further. It is 
but just, however, that I should say a few words in behalf of others like 
me, for whom of course I naturally feel a sympathy. The luxury of be- 
ing a book-maker west of the Alleghanies, has doubtless been enjoyed, 
but never been either said or sung ; and I fancy, if it had existed in an- 
cient times, it certainly would have been added, by way of dessert, to 
Job's bill of fare. I know that it is natural not to want Christianity at 
Nazareth ; and it is certainly right that every person should wish to 
feed his "immortal mind" on nothing but the very best in the market. 
Nevertheless, it is to be hoped that our people, so patriotic in all other 
respects, will in future judge more charitably the literary productions 
of their own soil, and feel a livelier interest in them ; and that those 
persons who are pestered with the sin of habitual thinking, will not 
find it necessary either to abjure their favorite pursuits, or to forsake 
the beloved scenes of their youth and seek a genial home in other lands. 
In conclusion, I would add that this performance has not been written 
to the order of some speculating publisher; that to make it a useful 
book, I have made much greater sacrifices than men that look to their 
own interest ever make ; and that no sanguine hopes whatever are 
entertained concerning it in regard either to profit or to popu- 
larity. It is well known that the profit, when there happens to be any 
in such productions, almost invariably falls to a class of middlemen 
that flourish like those lilies which were long ago set above Solomon 
himself; and as to fame, I trust I am not so ignorant of the true 
value of earthly things, as not to know, that the wise, virtuous, and 
cheerful enjoyment of the ordinary comforts of life, with peace and in- 
dependence, is worth infinitely more than the whole of that which the 



XX PREFACE. 

world calls fame or glory. Like other climbers, I content myself with 
having viewed the scenery ; and also with the consciousness that the 
highest purpose of life is, to remove evil and do good. Having now led 
my little treatise forward to the threshold, T venture to open the door 
and introduce it to the world. And while I watch its entrance with 
feelings that I shall not undertake to describe, I trust I shall neverthe- 
less be enabled to bear its fate, whatever it may be, with Stoic firmness 
and Christian meekness. 



BOOK FIRST; 

OR, 

A SIMPLIFIED AND COMPREHENSIVE OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR: 

Being an attempt to present, in as small a space as possible, and in 
accordance with sound reason and the best authorities, such a tissue 
of principles, illustrations, and exercises, as may enable young pupils, 
assisted by a good teacher, to acquire sufficient knowledge for ana- 
lyzing and parsing almost any paragraph of plain literature. 



1. INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 

What is a letter f 

A letter is a mark, or character, used to represent one 
or more elementary sounds of the language. 

Examples : A, b, c, d, e ; rose, pink, crystal. 
Note. — A thing is elementary, when we begin with it to form other things. 
How many elementary sounds has our language, and how many letters to represent 
them ? 

About forty-two elementary sounds, and twenty-six letters 
to represent them. 

Ex. — Ale, at, square, art, what, (not,') fall, me, (pique,) met, her, (sir,) 
shine, spin, ode, move, (lute, ) son, (sun,) on, (for,) tube, -pull, (voice) 
[a-ee], (\oitd) [a-oo], gig, king, hither, theme, citron, chin, gin, (^udge,) 
shin, azure [zh], zone, (tase) [ks], (ezile) [gz], yet, wet. 

Into what two classes are the letters divided ? 

Into V©Wel§ and consonants. 

Which are the vowels ? 

A, e, ij o, it, and sometimes w and y. 

What is a syllable ? 

A syllable is a letter, or two or more combined, forming, 
in speech, but one distinct sound. 

Ex. — A, I, on, no, not, stretched, barb'dst, a-e-ri-al, pro-fu-sion. 
What is a word f 

A WOFCI is a syllable, or two or more combined, used as 
the sign of some idea. 

Ex. — Man, horse, tree, world, sky, strikes, well, fair, ah, mutability, because. 
Note. — An idea is the picture or notion which a word at once raises in the mind of a 
person that knows its meaning. 



2 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

How are words classified according to the number of syllables composing them ? 

Into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysylla- 
bles. 

Define these classes. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; a dissyllable, of 
two ; a trisyllable, of three ; and & polysyllable, of four or more. 

How are words classified according as they are formed, or not formed, from one 
another ? 

Into primitive, derivative, and compound. 

What is a primitive word ? 

A word not formed from another. 

What is a derivative word ? 

A word formed from another. 

What is a compound word ? 

A word composed of two or more others. 

Ex. — Primitive : Man, breeze, good, build, up. Derivative : Manful, breezy, goodness, 
builder, rebuild. Compound: Manslaughter, sea-breeze, dewdrop, newspaper, upon, 
sewing-machine. 

How are words divided according to what they denote ? 

Into nine classes, called Parts of Speech. 

Name them. 

The Noun 1 , the Pronoun 2 , the Article*, the Adjective*, the 
Verb 5 , the Adverb 6 , the Preposition 7 , the Conjunction 8 , and 
the Interjection 9 . 

Which denote objects ? 

The nouns and the pronouns. 

Which aid the nouns in denoting objects ? 

The articles. 

Which denote the qualities or properties of objects ? 

The adjectives. 

Which denote the existence, modes of existence, or actions of objects ? 

The verbs. 

Which are used chiefly to express the place, time, manner, or degree, of actions, 
states, or qualities? 

The adverbs. 

Which are used to denote the relations of objects, actions, states, or qualities, to 
other objects? 

The prepositions. 

Which serve to connect the parts of discourse ? 

The conjunctions. 

Which are used to express sudden or strong emotions ? 

The interjections. 

Ex. — " Poverty 1 has 5 , in 7 large 4 cities 1 , very 6 different 4 appearances 1 . It 2 is often 6 con- 
cealed 5 in 7 splendor 1 , and 8 often 6 in 7 extravagance 1 . It 2 is 5 the 3 care 1 of 7 a 3 very 6 great 4 
part 1 of 7 mankindl, to conceal 5 their 2 indigence 1 from 7 the 3 rest 1 . They 2 support 5 them- 



INTRODUCTORY VIEW. 6 

selves 2 by 7 temporary 4 expedients 1 , and 8 every 4 day 1 is lost 5 in 7 contriving 1 for 7 to- 
morrow 1 ." — Johnson. 

" Lo ! 9 Newton 1 , priest 1 of 7 nature 1 , shines 5 afar, 6 
Scans 5 the 3 wide 4 world 1 , and 8 numbers 5 every 4 star 1 !" — Campbell. 



Since the world furnishes thousands and thousands of objects for us to consider, or 
think about, and since we never speak without having something in mind, what is essen- 
tial to every thought or saying ? 

Something of which we think or speak. 

And what'is this something called ? 

The Subject. 

What more is essential to every thought or saying ? 

Something thought or said of the subject. 

And what is this something called ? 

The Predicate. 

How may the subject or the predicate, when denoted by a general or indefinite word, 
be rendered more particular or definite ? 

By taking notice of its qualities, or of its relations to other 
things. 

Ex. — " Soldiers are marching." " The young, hearty regular soldiers of the West- 
ern States, who first enlisted a year ago as volunteers, are now briskly marching in 

magnificent array and with martial music, to the river, to embark on the steamer Bald 
Eagle, for that Babylonish territory, west of the Rocky Mountains, which is now in a 
state of rebellion against the General Government." 

Since the same thing may be said either of one object or of several different objects, 
and since several different things may frequently be said of the same object, how may 
subjects and predicates be classified ? 

Into simple and compound, or into single and 

serial, 

Ex. — "Persons, horses, cattle, houses, and fences, were swept away by the overflow." 
" Steam grinds, saws, spins, weaves, drives, cuts, propels, and navigates ; ci-ushes the hardest 
substances to atoms, and draws out steel thread as fine as a gossamer." 

What is a subject combined with a predicate called ? 

A proposition : as, " Stars shine ;" " He is sick." 

What is a plirase T 

Two or more words rightly put together, but not making a 
proposition. 

Ex.—" In the next place ;" " To show you the fragrant blossoms of spring." 
What is a sentence ? 

A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 

Ex. — " Every man is the architect of his own fortune." " Happy is he who finds a 
true friend, and happy is he who possesses the true qualities to be a friend." 

How are sentences classified ? 

Into simple and compound* 

What is a simple sentence ? 

A simple sentence contains but one proposition. 

Ex.—" Wasps sting." " No man knows his destiny." " Keturn (thou) quickly." 



4 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

What is a compound sentence ? 

A compound sentence is composed of two or more simple 
sentences. 

Ex. — "As every thread of gold is valuable, so is every moment of time; and as it 
would be great folly to shoe horses (as Nero did) with gold, so it is to spend time in 
trifles." — Mason. 

What is a simple sentence called, when used to form a part of a compound sentence ? 

A clause. 

How are long sentences frequently produced ? 

By the combination of many different words, phrases, or 
clauses. 

Ex. — " An attack against the colony was meditated by Powhatan ; but his designs 
were frustrated by the revelation made by Pocahontas, his daughter, then but about 
twelve or thirteen years of age, who, in a dark and dreary night, came to Smith in James- 
town, and informed him of her father's determination to come and destroy the colonists." 

In what other way are long sentences frequently produced ? 

By extending some class of words (except articles), phrases, 
or clauses, into a series. 

Ex. — " His abilities and acquirements were considerable ; his temper was easy and 
generous ; his manners were popular ; and his conduct had generally been consistent and 
honorable." — Macaulay. 

What seem to be the several grades in the formation of speech, beginning with the 
lowest ? 

Letters, syllables, words, phrases, propositions, sentences, para- 
graphs, discourse. 

To what is language adapted ? 

To the world and every thing in it. It is made to suit the 
world. 

What fact in the very nature of things, has led to the making of nouns ? 

The fact that the world abounds in similar and in different 
objects. 

»: NOUN. 

What is a noun ? 

A noilli is a name. 

Examples : John, Mary, man, men, earth, sky, sun, stars, clouds, town, St. Louis, 
street, flock, flower, instructor, soul, motion, behavior. 

X^T" Note.— Always read the examples carefully, reflecting upon each, so as to learn 
clearly and fully what is meant by the definition. 

To what are names given ? 

To persons or other spiritual, beings, to brute animals, and 
to things. 

Note. — The word objects may be used as a general term for all these classes. 
Tell me which are the nouns in the following sentences : — 

" Lions and ostriches are found in Africa." 

" Thomas and Joseph drove the horses to the pasture." 

" Pinks and roses are blooming in the garden." 

" Care, sorrow, and discontent, destroy happiness." 

" Imaginary evils make no small part of the troubles of life." 

" Apples, peaches, potatoes, melons, corn, and beef, are brought to market." 
Can you mention some nouns denoting persons ? — places f — things ? 



NOUN. — PRONOUN. 5 

Into how many classes are nount: divided ? 

Two ; proper and common. 

What is a proper noun ? 

The peculiar name of a particular object. 

Ex.— William, Mary, George Washington, Webster, London, New York, Niagara, 
Mississippi. 

What is a common noun ? 

A name common to all objects of the same kind. 

Ex. — Boy, girl, tree, house, river, star, road, path, bucket, horse, cow, hog, chair, 
wagon. 

The same name is often given to many objects on account of the re- 
semblance which they have to one another; as, River, valley, hill, city: 
such names are common nouns. But, to distinguish one city from an- 
other, or one river from another, we have a particular name for each 
one: as, Boston, Chicago, New Orleans; Ohio, Missouri, Connecticut, 
Columbia : these are proper nouns. 

Mention two or more proper nouns ; — two or more common nouns. 

Tell which of the following nouns are common, which proper, and why : — 

Book, Susan, pen, boat, Thomas, loaf, water, slate, sheep, sleep, bird, blackbird, 
Napoleon Bonaparte, queen, Isabella, Jane, chain, Louis, Louisa, mountain, Alps, city, 
Philadelphia, month, September ; Bingham, the painter ; Main Street. 

3. PRONOUN. 

What does the word pronoun signify ? 

For a noun, or in stead of a noun. 

What is a pronoun f 

A word that supplies the place of a noun. 

Ex. — "She [Sarah Sprague] saw her [Sarah Sprague's] brother with him" [James 
Lewis]. 

For the sake of agreeableness and facility, every language has a few 
words that may be used in place of all the nouns. Thus, " William 
promised Mary that William would lend Mary William's grammar, that 
Mary might study the grammar," may be expressed more readily and 
agreeably by saying, " William promised Mary that he would lend her 
his grammar, that she might study it." Such words as the foregoing in 
Italics, are termed pronouns. 

Into what classes have pronouns been divided ? 

Into three ; personal, relative, and Interro- 
gative. 

Which are the personal pronouns ? 

/, my, mine, myself, me ; we, our, ours, (ourself,) ourselves, 
us ; — thou, thy, thine, thyself, thee ; you, ye, your, yours, yourself, 
yourselves ; — he, his, him, himself ; she, her, hers, herself ; it, its, 
itself ; they, their, theirs, them, and themselves. 

Which are the relative pronouns ? 

Who, (whoso,) whoever, whosoever, whose, whosever, whoso- 



6 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

ever, whom, whomever, whomsoever ; which, whichever, whichso- 
ever ; what, (whatso,) whatever, whatsoever ; that; and as. 

Which are the interrogative pronouns ? 

Who, whose, whom; which; and ivhat. 

What other words may be ranked among the pronouns ? 

One, ones ; other, others ; that, those ; none ; each other ; one 
another. 

What properties have nouns and pronouns ? 

Gender, person, number, and case. 

4. GENDER. 

The pupil should constantly bear in mind that language is made to suit the world, and 
not the world to suit language. — What, then, in the nature of objects, seems to have led 
to gender in words ? 

The fact that some objects are males, some females, and 
others neither. 

How many genders are there, and what are they ? 

Four; the masculine, the feminine, the com- 
mon, and the neuter. 

When is a noun or a pronoun of the masculine gender ? 

When it denotes a male. 

Ex. — Man, Charles, brother, horse, ox ; he, his, him, they, who. 
When is a noun or a pronoun of the feminine gender ? 

When it denotes a female. 

Ex. — Woman, Susan, instructress, niece, cow, hen ; she, her, hers, they, who. 
When is a noun or a pronoun of the common gender ? 

When it denotes either a male or a female, or both. 

Ex. — Parent, child, bird, friend : they, themselves, we, our, you, who. 
When is a noun or a pronoun of the neuter gender ? 

When it denotes an object that is neither male nor female. 

Ex. — Book, rock, rose, wisdom, vice, cloud, happiness, goodness ; it, they, which, what. 

Mention some nouns of each gender. 

Tell whether a noun or a pronoun, and why; what hind, and why; of what gender 
and why : — 

E-ufus, Emma, Joseph, Josephine, Julius, Julia, Henry, Henrietta, grandfather, ink- 
stand, lion, lioness, ]Vfcrs. Partington, Noah Webster, Daniel Webster, youth, damsel, mas- 
ter, mistress, cider, contentment, lady, joy, sorrow, neighbor, partner, servant, God, parent, 
father, mother, he-goat, she-goat, ewe, lamb, angel, corpse, copse, corps, ghost, seven, dig- 
nity, separation, hight, horizon; I, we, us, you, thy, he, himself, whoever, whatsoever, 
theirs, ones, others. 

5. PEKSON. 

What in the very nature of things, seems to have led to that property of words which 
is called person 9 

The fact that, in speaking, we may refer to ourselves, or to 
some object spoken to, or to some object spoken of; and that 
there are no other ways of speaking. 



PERSON. — NUMBER. 7 

How many persons are there, and what are they ? 

Three ; the first, the second, and the third. 

When is a noun or a pronoun of the first person ? 

When it denotes the speaker. 

Ex. — "I Franklin Pierce, President of the United States." " I Paul have written 
it." " We, the people." 

When is a noun or a pronoun of the second person ? 

When it represents an object as spoken to. 

Ex. — "Thomas, come to me." "Gentlemen of the jury." "0 Happiness! our 
being's end and aim." " Thou, thou art the man." " Wave your tops, ye pines !" 
When is a noun or a pronoun of the third person ? 

When it represents an object as spoken of. 

Ex. — "Experience and hope, pleasure and pain, life and death, money and power, have 
a mighty influence on the actions of mankind." " He knew it was what she wanted him, 
to buy." 

Which one of the persons is sometimes used for the others ? 

The third. 

Ex. — " Let thy servant be surety for the lad ;" i. e., Let me &c. " Surely my 
father will not bind me out to such a trade ;" i. e., Surely you will not &e. 

Tell me the person of the following words, and why : — 

I, you, he, we, my, us, thee, yourselves, thine, himself, themselves, it, she, hex's, which 9 
what, whatever, others. 

6. NUMBEK. 

What in the nature of things, seems to have caused that property of words which in 
called number? 

The fact that there are more than one of almost every kind 
of objects. 

How many numbers are there, and what are they ? 

Two. ; the singular and the plural. 

When is a noun or a pronoun of the singular number ? 

When it means but one. 

Ex. — Desk, key, leaf, boy, book, Arthur, James, chimney, shingle, deer, sheep, 
swarm, army, nation ; I, my, me, thou, thee, he, she, it, who, which, what. 
When is a noun or a pronoun of the plural number? 

When it means more than one. 

Ex. — Desks, keys, leaves, trees, boys, books, chimneys, ashes, shingles, deer, sheep, 
swarms, armies, nations ; we, our, us, you, ye, they, them, who, which, what. 
How is the plural of nouns generally formed ? 

By adding s, sometimes es, to the singular. 

Ex. Glove, gloves ; chair, chairs ; head, heads ; church, churches ; bush, bushes ; 
fox, foxes. 

What is a noun called, that denotes, in the singular number, more than one object ? 

A Collective noun. 

Ex.— Family, army, swarm, crowd, multitude, congregation, tribe, class. 
Spell the plural of each of the following words : — 

Stanza, tub, lilac, bud, bee, face, skiff, jug, bunch, dish, path, fork, duck, hill, mill, 
plum, elm, den, gun, man, woman, hero, negro, folio, cap, stirrup, war, soldiers, engineer, 



8 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

atlas, witness, goose, tooth, re enforcement, lint, plow, window, sorrow, law, ax, box, ox, 
toy, valley, dray, fly, story, discovery, mouthful, wheelbarrow, flock, ciowd, swarm, 
deer ; I, me, my, myself, thou, thyself, she, he, it, himself, one, otbci, that, who. 

The number, and why : — 

Lilies, sun, stars, roof, scissors, armies, army, mice, fingers, hand, oats, family, 
families ; I, we, you, they, who, none ; this, these, several, many, one, eight, an eighth. 



7. CASE. 

If I say, "Your brother's friend sent James to me," — u Your friend's 
brother sent me to James,"' — " My brother's friend sent James to you," — 
" James sent your brother's friend tome," — "I sent your friend's brother 
to James," — " I sent James to your brother's friend," — " You sent James 
to my friend's brother," — do you perceive that these sentences differ in 
meaning? The difference of meaning arises from the different relations 
•which the words have to one another, and these different relations are 
called cases. 

Again: if I say, "John shot a wild turkey in my father's field," 
you perceive that Jo hn denotes the doer; turkey, the thing affected by 
the action; and father's, neither a doer nor a sufferer, but a possessor. — 
"What three great realities, then, in the nature of things, seem to have 
principally led to that property of words which is called case ? 

That objects act, are acted upon, and possess. 

How many cases are there, and what are they ? 

Three; the nominative, the possessive, and the 
objective. 

When is a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case ? 

When it is the subject of a finite verb, or denotes that of 
which something is said or affirmed. 

Ex. — "John strikes James." "Joseph swims." "The field is plowed." "The 
rose is beautiful." 

What different things may be affirmed of objects ? 

Actions, states of being, qualities, and classes of objects. 

Ex. — " Mary dances ; Mary sleeps ; Mary is beautiful ; Mary is a seamstress." 
When is a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case independent or absolute f 

When its case depends on no other word. 

Ex. — " John, come to me." " The tree having fallen, we returned." " Alas, poor 

YoricTi!" 

Affirm actions of the following words; then qualities; then classes of objects: — 
Water, dogs, larks, trees, carriages, farmers, merchants, boys, girls, John, James, 

Alice, Milton, Washington ; I, we, you, he, who, she. 



When is a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case ? 

When it implies possession. 

Ex. — "John's horse;" " My brother' s farm;" "The children's books;" "The girls 
room." 

What is the comma in the latter part of the word John's called ? 

An apostrophe. 



case. y 

From the foregoing examples, you would infer that nouns of the singular number, 
and also plurals not ending in s, form their possessive case in what way ? 

By the addition of an apostrophe followed by the letter s. 

Ex. — "Mary's slate;" Burns's poems;" "The soldier's grave;" " Men's affairs." 
How do plural nouns ending in s, form their possessive case ? 

By the addition of an apostrophe only. 

Ex. — " The pigeons' roosting-place ;" " The soldiers' camp ;" " The boys' lessons." 
In what other way is possession sometimes expressed ? 

By the word of. 

Ex. — " John's home"=^The home of John ; " The deeds of our forefathers." 
Spell the possessive case of the nouns in the first line, and write it of those in the second : — 
Sister, * sisters, day, days, John, Jones, Thomas, women, beauty. Art, war, Sparks, 
Webster, fife, horse, horses, John Henry Thomson. 

* Thus : S-i-s-sis — t-e-r-apostrophe-s-ter's — Sister's. 



When is a noun or a pronoun said to be in the objective case. 

When it is the object of a verb or a preposition. 

Ex. — "The horse eats hay.'" 1 "This stream turns a mill." "The water flows over 
the dam." " I saw her with him." " He saw me with her." 

Note. — The word object as here used, means such a noun or pronoun as is required 
after a preposition, and frequently after a verb of action, to complete the sense. 

When must a noun or a pronoun agree in case with another noun or pronoun ? 

When it is but a repetition of the other, or when it denotes, 
by way of explanation, the same thing. 

Ex. — " I, I am the man." " Friends, false friends, have ruined him." " Smith, the 
barber." " Smith is a barber." 



Will you now repeat all the cases of some noun, — Boy, for instance, — in each 
number ? 

Singular. Plural. 

Nominative Boy, Nom. Boys, 

Possessive Boy's, Poss. Boys', 

Objective Boy ; Obj. Boys. 

What is this process called ? 

Declension., 

Decline brother, man, mechanic, farmer, Benjamin, city. 
How can the different cases of nouns be distinguished ? 

By their signification : or, the nominative may be found by 
asking a question with who or what before the verb ; the 
objective, with whom or what after the verb or the preposition; 
and the possessive is known by the apostrophe. 

Ex. — "Mary plucked flowers for John's sister." "Who plucked ? — plucked what? — 
for whom ? 



Tell which words in the following sentences are nouns, and why ; proper or common, and 
why ; gender, and why ; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and why : — 

Birds sing.* Ripe cherries are red. Cats catch mice. Brutus Mlled Caesar. Bona- 
parte marched into Russia. The dew refreshes the flowers. The sun illuminates the 
distant mountain's top. Fishes swim in the sea, and birds fly in the air. The Presi- 
dent's message has arrived. The stars gem the sky. Milton's poetry is elegant and 
sublime. The Indians' tents stood along the river. Hope soothes our sorrows, and 
stimulates our exertions. 

* The words printed in Italics, are verbs or prepositions. 



10 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

What is such a mentioning of the properties of words, as in the exercises above, 
called ? 

Parsing. 

8. PRONOUN CONTINUED. 

In accordance with what properties were pronouns originally formed ? 

The gender, person, and number, or else the place, of what 
they were to represent. 

In what properties must pronouns agree with the words for which they stand ? 

In gender, person, and number. 

How do pronouns differ from nouns ? 

They are not limited, like common nouns, by a meaning ; 
nor like proper nouns, by their sound. 

Note. — The word book, for instance, is confined by its definable meaning to a partic- 
ular kind of objects ; and can not range so widely as its gender, person, and number, 
would let it range. In like manner is the word Arthur, for instance, limited by its 
sound. 

What follows thence ? 

That they have a wider application ; each class may denote 
all objects denoted by nouns, and even more. 

In what two ways do they denote objects ? 

Either directly, without referring to their names ; or indi- 
rectly, by referring to their names. 

Ex. — "I will take what you send." " Joseph relieved his friend, who was in great 
distress." 

What is a personal pronoun ? « 

It is one of a class of pronouns whose chief use is, to 
distinguish the different persons. 

Ex. — " I told you he was not at home." " We told him you were not at home." 
What is a relative pronoun ? 

A relative pronoun represents a word belonging to the 
same sentence, and also connects different clauses. 

Ex. — " From the side of the mountain gushed forth a little rivulet, which lay, like a 
silver thread, across the meadow." 

What other and shorter definition may be given of a relative pronoun ? 

A relative pronoun makes its clause dependent on another. 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? 

An interrogative pronoun inquires for some object. 

Ex.—" Who took my hat ? " " Which is yours ? " " What ails the child ? " 
In what other way are interrogative pronouns sometimes used ? 

Responsively ; that is, in. reply. 

Ex.—" I do not know who took your hat." " No one can tell what ails the child." 
What may interrogative pronouns, when thus used, be termed ? 

Relative pronouns. 

What are those pronouns sometimes called which are formed by annexing self, selves, 
ever, or soever, to the simple pronouns ? 



Compound pronouns. 



DECLENSION. 



II 



DECLENSION. 



Eirst Pees. 



Singular. 

Nom. . Poss. 

I, my, or mine, 



Plural. 



Obj. 
me ; 



Nom. 
we, 



Poss. Obj. 

our, or ours, us. 



Skookb P, ES . Thou, o, you,^ Z^ } 

f Ifas. He, his* 

Third Pers. -j .Few. She, her, or hers, 
[ Neut. It, its, 

iVbwi. or Obj. 

1. Myself, or (ourself ) ; 

2. Thyself, or yourself ; 

3. Himself, herself, itself; 



thee, or you ; ye, or you, your, or yours, you. 
they, their, or theirs, them. 



him ; 

her ; 

it; 



Nom. 

One, 
Other, 



Poss. 

one's, 
other's, 



Obj. 

one ; 
other ; 



Nom. or Obj. 

ourselves. 

yourselves. 

themselves. 

Nom. Poss. 

ones, ones', 

others, others', 



Obj. 



ones, 
others. 



Nom. 



Sing, or Plu. 



Poss. Obj. 

whom. ( — ever or —soever.) 

which. " 

that. 

what. " 

as. 

none. 

thyself, yourself, himself, yourself, &c. ; one, 



f Who, whose, 

I Which, whose, 

That, whose, 

What, • 

As, 

None, 

Decline I, thou, you, he, she, it, myself, 
other, who, whoever, whosoever, which, what. 

Of what gender, person, number, and case are the following pronouns : — 

Him, his, its, he, them, it, I, you, thy, their, she, thou, me, your, us, they, my, mine, 
thine, yours, it, hers, theirs, we, thee, our, ours, ye, them ; myself, ourself, themselves, 
ourselves, thyself, yourselves, yourself, himself, itself, herself, one, none, one's, ones', 
other, others', who, what, which, whatever. 

Repeat all the personal pronouns of the first person. Why of the first person ? 
Repeat all the personal pronouns of the second person ? Why of the second person ? 
Repeat all the personal pronouns of the third person ? Why of the third person ? 
Repeat all the pronouns of the singular number. Why of the singular number ? 
Repeat all the pronouns of the plural number. Why of the plural number ? 
Repeat all the pronouns in the nominative case. 
Repeat all the pronouns in the possessive case. 
Repeat all the pronouns in the objective case. 
In what respects must pronouns agree with the words for which they stand ? 



gender, and why; person, and \ 



The pronouns, and why ; what hind, and why ; 
number, and why ; case, and why : — 

He saw me. We love them. He brought her horse. We esteem your principles. Thou 
hast often proved a friend to me. My desire is to serve you. They have forgotten our 
favors to them. John studies his lesson. Mary has lost her bonnet. This apple is 

neither yours nor hers, but mine. ( your apple nor her apple, but my apple.) It is your 

conduct, and not mine, that has made our condition so deplorable. I have hurt myself. 
I myself will go. Know thyself. By others' faults, wise men correct their own. (By 
other men's faults, &c.) The old bird feeds her young ones. None are completely happy. 

(No persons are &c.) Love what is worthy of love. ( the thing which is &c.) Take 

what you like. ( the thing which or the things which &c.) Whatever comes from the 

heart, goes to the heart. Whoever steals, will lie. The lady who had been sick, received 
the peaches which were ripe. We bought only such mules as suited us. Our poetry, I 
believe, and not our morals, has been worse than that of the Romans ; i. e., than the poetry 
of the Romans. Whatever I am, I tremble to think what I may be. 

In the foregoing sentences, substitute proper nouns for the pronouns where you can. 
Substitute common nouns. Substitute pronouns for the nouns. 



12 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OP GRAMMAR. 



9. ARTICLE. 

Since the same name is sometimes applicable to different objects, or 
may be conceived as denoting a very great number of objects of the 
same kind, it frequently becomes necessary to associate with the nouns 
certain limiting or specifying words, such as articles or adjectives, in 
order to make our meaning sufficiently intelligible or precise. Illustra- 
tions. — "Missouri is north of Arkansas." " The Missouri is north of the 
Arkansas." u Man is made for society ; but a man naturally prefers the 
man whose temper and inclinations best suit his own." 

What, then, is an article ? 

An article is a word placed before a noun to limit its 
meaning. 

How many articles are there, which are they, and what are they called ? 

Two ; the, the definite article, and a or an, the in- 
definite article. 

What does the definite article show ? 

It shows that some particular object or objects are meant. 

Ex. — " The horse, the horses ; the stage, the lion, the apples ; the green meadows ; the 
iron-bound bucket ; the brave Pulaski." 

What does the indefinite article show ? 

It shows that no particular one of the kind is meant. 

Ex. — " A bird, a mouse, an apple, a cherry, a horse ; an idle boy." 
What does it usually suggest ? 

That there are or may be other objects of the same kind. 

Ex. — " I found a ripe melon." " Cass is a statesman." 
How do a and an differ ? 

In application only ; in meaning, they are the same. 

Where is an used ? 

Before words beginning with a vowel sound. 

Ex. — " An article, an enemy, an inch, an urn, an hour ; an honest man." 
Where is a used ? 

Before words beginning with a consonant sound. 

Ex. — " A banquet, a cucumber, a dunce, a fox, a goose, a house, a jug, a king, a lion, 
a youth, a university, a eulogy ; a one-horse carriage." 

Place the proper indefinite article before each of the following words or phrases : — 

Razor, house, knife, humming-bird, chicken, ounce, insult, unit, arm, hall ; green 
meadow ; interesting story ; African. 

Correct the following : — 

An dictionary ; an hundred ; a evergreen ; an harbor ; a aunt ; a enlightened nation ; 
an sugar-loaf; a elm ; an marble ; an ruler ; an union ; a ignorant man. 

T lie article, and why ; definite or indefinite, and why : — 

The roses in the garden. A fish from the river. A daughter of a duke. The daughter 
of a duke. A daughter of the duke. A portrait of the notorious Barnum. 



ADJECTITE. 13 



m. ADJECTIVE. 

The learner should remember that the nouns, or names, are those 
words which denote all beings or things whatsoever that can be thought 
of or mentioned. Now, there are other words that describe or qualify 
what the nouns denote. The word river, for example, denotes something 
that may be deep, clear, swift, broad, crooked. Apple denotes something that 
may be red, large, ripe, mellow, juicy. Man denotes a being that may be 
tall, young, old, handsome, ugly, strong, weak, wise, good, bad, honest, 
friendly, industrious i &c. What a^re these describing words called ? 

Adjectives. 

What is an adjective ? 

An adjective qualifies or limits the meaning of a sub- 
stantive. 

Ex. — " White, green, good, kind, lazy, lofty, clear, shrill, benevolent, religious, wisest." 

" A bay horse ; a sharp knife ; a sharper knife ; a bright day ; a stormy night ; a quivering 
aspen ; a sun-tipped elm." 

Note.— Substantive is a general term denoting a noun, a pronoun, or any thing else 
used in the sense of a noun. 

Can the same quality exist in different objects, and in the same degree or in different 
degrees ? 

It can. 

Ex. — " Red lips ; redder lips ; red roses ; red peaches ; red flannel ; red clay ; red hair." 

By a little observation and reflection, it will be readily seen that the 
same quality may exist in different objects, in the same degree or in dif- 
ferent degrees. Several boys, for instance, may be equally intelligent; 
or some may be more so than others. Several ladies may be handsome ; 
but some of them may be more or less so than the others. In such 
a state of things originate the degrees of comparison. 

How many degrees of comparison are there, and what are they ? 

Three ; the positive, the comparative, and the 

superlative. ' 

When is an adjective in the positive degree ? 

When it ascribes the quality simply, or when it ascribes it 
in an equal degree. * 

Ex. — " High, strong, rocky, polite, ingenious, liberal, black ; as ivhite as snow." 
When is an adjective in the comparative degree ? 

When it ascribes the quality in a higher or a lower degree. 

Ex. — " Deeper, richer, finer, stronger, less good, better, more prudent, less prudent." 
When is an adjective in the superlative degree ? 

When it ascribes the quality in the highest or the lowest 
degree. 

Ex. — " Greatest, sweetest, happiest, fairest, least beautiful, most beautiful." 



14 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

How are adjectives of one syllable and some of two syllables compared, when we wish 
to express increase of the quality ? 

By adding r or er, st or est, to the word in the positive 
degree. 

Ex. — Pos. wise, comp. wiser, superl. wisest ; great, greater, greatest ; lovely, lovelier, 
loveliest. 

How are all adjectives of more than two syllables, and some of two syllables, compared ? 

By more and most 

Ex. — Pos. beautiful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful ; active, more active, 
most active. 

How are all adjectives compared, when we wish to express decrease of the quality ? 

By less and least. 

Ex. — " Wise, less wise, least wise ; arrogant, less arrogant, least arrogant." 
Some adjectives are not compared according to the foregoing rules, 
and are therefore said to be irregular. The following is a list : — • 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Pos. Comp. Superl. 

Good, better, best. 

Bad, ill, or evil, worse, worst. 

Much or many, more, most. 

Little, less, least. 

Fore, former, foremost, or 

first. 
Can all adjectives be compared ? 

Some can not be compared with propriety. 

Ex. — " Equal ; straight, dead, fall, square, round, speechless, eternal, endless.' 



Hind, 


hinder, 


hindmost. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Near, 


nearer, 


nearest, or next. 


Late, 


later, 


latest, or last. 


Old, 


older, or elder, 


oldest, or eldest. 



Into what two classes are adjectives usually divided ? 

Into qualifying 1 and limiting. 

Objection to this Classification. — It is not always easy to deter- 
mine to which of these classes a given adjective should be referred. 

Of all the adjectives, what three kinds, or classes, seem to be worthy of special notice 
in parsing ? 

The participial adjectives, the numeral adjectives, 
and the pronomial adjectives. 

What is a participial adjective ? 

A participial adjective is a participle ascribing the act 
or state to its subject as a quality. 

Ex. — " ThWrippling brook ;" " The twinkling stars ;" " Waving woods ;" " A roaring 
storm." 

Where is the participial adjective usually placed ? 

Before the noun which it qualifies. 

What is a numeral adjective ? 

A numeral adjective is used in counting or numbering. 

Ex. — " One, two, three ; first, second, third ; ten men ; tenth man." 
What is a pronomial adjective ? 

A pronomial adjective is a specifying word modify- 
ing in a certain way the substantive to which it belongs. 



ADJECTIVE. — RULES. 15 

Ex. — " Every person approves such conduct." " This world was meant for us all" 
Which are the pronomial adjectives ? 

All, any, both, certain, each, every, either, else, many a, neither, 
no, one, other, own, same, some, such, this, that, what, which, and 
yon, or yonder. 

Is the word which the adjective qualifies or limits, always expressed ? 

It is not ; but in parsing, it must be supplied. 

Ex. — " These apples are better than those " [apples]. " The idle [persons] are gen- 
erally mischievous." 

The adjective, and why ; whether compared or not, and how ; of what degree, and why ; 
what word it qualifies : — 

A rapid river. The blue sky. An aspiring man. A modest woman. The sky is blue. 
The loveliest flowers were there. The night grew darker and darker. She is beautiful, 
amiable, and intelligent. 

The adjective, and why ; the hmd, and why ; what word it qualifies or limits : — 

That field has been in cultivation four years. Every man in his own humor. Re- 
move the blustering, blundering blockhead. The first car is full. 

How is the relation of one word to another usually expressed ? 

By a Kule. 

Note. — Belation — how one thing is to another. (The teacher should explain the word 
at large ; also, all other abstruse terms.) 

Since articles are used to aid nouns in denoting objects, what Kule may be applied 
to them? 

Rule I. — Articles belong to the nouns which they limit. 

Since qualities must belong to objects, what Rule may be applied to adjectives f 

Rule II. — Adjectives belong to the substantives which they 
qualify or limit. 

Note II. — An adjective is sometimes used without a substantive, to complete the sense 
of an infinitive or a participle : as, " To be good is to be happy ; " " The dread of being poor." 

What Rule should be applied to pronouns, when used with reference to some object 
definitely known ? 

Rule III. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, in 
gender, person, and number. 

Note. — Antecedent — the substantive in reference to which the pronoun is used ; as, 
" Mary found her book." Mary is the antecedent of her. 

What Rule should be applied to a nominative used as the subject of a proposition ? 

Rule IV. — A substantive used as the subject of a finite 
verb, must be in the nominative case. 

What Rule usually applies to substantives in addresses or exclamatidtis ? 

Rule V.— A substantive independent must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

What Rule frequently applies to nouns or pronouns associated with participles or in- 
finitives ? 

Rule VI. — A substantive absolute must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

What Rule is applicable to a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ? 

Rule VII. — A substantive that limits the meaning of 
another by denoting possession, must be in the POSSESSIVE case. 



16 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

What Rule applies to the object of a verb ? 

Rule VIII. — A substantive used as the object of a tran- 
sitive verb in the active voice, must be in the objective case. 

What Rule applies to the object of a preposition ? 

Rule IX. — A substantive used as the object of a preposi- 
tion, must be in the objective case. 

What Rule applies to certain other objectives, which are used without a governing 
word ? 

Rule X. — A SUBSTANTIVE used icithout a governing word, 
and modifying like an adverb or adjunct some other word, 
must be in the objective case. 

What Rule applies to a substantive that must agree in case with some other one ? 

Rule XI. — A substantive that docs not bring another 
person or thing into the sentence, and is used merely for explana- 
tion, emphasis, or description, must be in the SAME case as the 
one denoting the person or thing. 

What Rule applies to the relative what and similar expressions ? 

Rule XII. — The relative what and similar expressions 
may have a twofold construction in regard to case* 

11. PARSING. 

General Formule. — The part of speech, and why; the 
kind, and why ; the properties, and why ; the relation to other 
words, and according to what Rule. 

Article. 

Formule. — An article, and why ; . % ~ \. i and why ; to what it 
belongs, and according to what Rule. 

"The river." 

"The" is an article,— a, word placed before a noun to limit its meaning ; definite, it 
shows that some particular river is meant, and belongs to " river" according to Rule I. 
" Articles belong to the nouns which they limit." 

" River " is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all objects of the same 
kind ; neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female ; third person, it denotes an 
object spoken of; singular number, it means but one. 

In like manner parse the following phrases : — 

The man. The men. A rose. An arrow. 

The horse. The horses. A melon. An island. 

The child. The children. A university. An uncle. 



* Since this Rule was written, I find that the latest views from Roston on this subject,- 
coincide with mine. 



PARSING. 17 

"A man's hat." 

" A" is an article, — a word placed before a noun to limit its meaning ; indefinite, it shows 
that no particular man is meant, and it belongs to " man's,'''' according to Rule I. (Re- 
peat it.) 

" .Maw's" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all objects of the 
same kind ; masculine gender, it denotes a male ; third person, it represents an object as 
spoken of; singular number, it means but one; and in the possessive case, it limits the 
meaning of " hat," according to Rule VII. (Repeat it.) 

" Hat " is parsed like " river." 

In Wee manner parse the following : — 

A neighbor's farm. The sun's splendor. 

An Indian's hatchet. The boy's book. 

A teamster's whip. The boys' books. 

A lady's fan. Women's fancies. 

Adjective. 

Formule. — An adjective, and why; whether compared or not, and 
how ; the degree, and why ; to what it belongs, and according to what 
Rule. 

"A beautiful morning." 

" Beautiful" is an adjective, it describes or qualifies the morning ; compared pos. beau- 
tiful, comp. more beautiful, superl. most beautiful ; in the positive degree, it ascribes the 
quality simply ; and it belongs to " morning," according to Rule II. (Repeat it.) 

"All men." 

Formule. — An adjective, and why; the kind, and why; to what it 
belongs, Rule. 

u All" is an adjective, — a word that qualifies or limits the meaning of a noun; pro- 
nomial, it is a specifying word modifying the meaning of "mew;" and it belongs to 
" men," according to Rule II. (Repeat it.) 

Parse the following phrases : — 1. 

*A a ripe melon. A hard nut. The black- winged redbird. 

A dark night. An early riser. The red- winged blackbird. 

A strong rope. An older man. The fairest lady. 

The dearest whistle. The whitest rose. The plainest method. 

2. 
Delightful scenery. A most b ingenious story. 

Flowery meadows. The most b eloquent preacher. 

Elegant furniture. The most b benevolent citizen. 

Unutterable woe. The less b objectionable place. 

Accidental injuries. The least b troublesome servant. 

3. 

The obedient, kind, cheerful, and b The best gift. 

industrious pupil. John's bay horse. 

A large, black, and b fiery The worst condition. 

cloud. The last interview. 

A man, bold, sensible, sensitive, A good boy's mother. 

proud, energetic, and b ambitious. Webster' s most b eloquent speech. 

2 



18 BOOK FIRST-— AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

4. 
Yonder house. These trees. Purling streams. Every fourth man. 
This tree. Each pupil. Whispering breezes. Those two benches. 

That barn. Such a person. Ground corn. The lawyer's own case. 

Twelve Spartan virgins, noble, young, and fair, 
With violet wreaths adorned their flowing hair. — Dry den. 
* (a.) " A " shows that no particular ripe melon is meant. (&.) To be omitted in parsing, 
(c.) Parse the adjectives and the nouns. 

Noun. 

Formule. — A noun, and why; * ^ ' > and why ; collective, and 
' J ' common, j J ' ' 

why; gender, and why; person, and why; number, and why; case, and 

Rule. 

" Snow is falling.'' 

" Snoio " is a noun, it is a name ; &c. * * * and in the nominative case — it is the subject 
of the verb is falling — according to Rule IY. (Repeat it.) 

Parse the articles, adjectives, and nouns in the following : — 

1. 

David slew Goliath 8 -.* Across the road b . James, the coachman , is sick. 
Cattle eat grass. Around the fire. The poet Milton was blind. 

Cats catch mice. In golden ringlets. Bancroft, the historian, was 

Mr. Holmes taught With Sarah's pen. made chairman 4 . 

Henry arithmetic. George is a gentleman and a scholar. 

2. 

The rich man's loss should be the poor man's gain. 

Alice e and Mary, bring your books. 

The boy e — ! where was he ? 

To be a scholar f requires mind and labor. 

My mother f being sick, I remained at home. 

The canal is 4 feets deep, and 36 feet wide. 

(a.) " Goliath' 1 '' is a noun, &c. * * # and in the objective case — it is the object of the verb 
slew — according to Rule VIII. 

(b.) " Boad " is a noun, &c. * * * and in the objective case — it is the object of the pre- 
position around — according to Rule IX. 

(c.) and in the nominative case to agree with " James,''' 1 according to Rule XI. 

\d.) and in the nominative case to agree with " Bancroft,'''' according to Rule XI. 

(e.) and in the nominative case, according to Rule V. 

(/.) and in the nominative case, according to Rule VI. 

(g.) and in the objective case — limiting " deep " — according to Rule X. 

Pronoun. 

relative, 1 

General Formule.— A pronoun, — definition; personal land why; 

interrogative, J 
gender, and why; person, and why ; number, and why ; case, and Rule. 

" I myself saw John and his brother." 

"J" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; personal, it is one of the 
pronouns that serve to distinguish the different persons ; of the common gender, it may 



PARSING, 19 

denote either a male or a female ; first person, it denotes the speaker ; singular number, 
it means but one ; and in the nominative case — it is the subject of the verb saw — according 
to Rule IV. 

" Myself'' is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; compound, it is 
compounded of my and self; personal, etc. * * * and in the nominative case to agree with 
"I" according to Rule XI. 

" His " is ^pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; personal, it is one of 
the pronouns that serve to distinguish the different persons ; of the masculine gender, third, 
person, and singular number, to agree with " John," according to Rule III ; (repeat it ;) 
and in the possessive case, it limits the meaning of " brother,'''' according to Rule VII. 
(Repeat it.) 

"Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade and die." 

"Which" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun; relative, it makes 
its clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, third person, and plural number, to 
agree with "flowers," according to Rule III ; (repeat it ;) and in the nominative case — it 
is the subject of the verbs fade and die — according to Rule IV. 



"Whom did you see?" 



"Whom" is a pronoun, — a word that takes the place of a noun ; interrogative, it in- 
quires for some object ; of the common gender, it may denote either a male or a female ; 
third person, it represents an object as spoken of ; singular number, it means but one ; and 
in the objective case — it is the object of the verb did see — according to Rule VIII. 

" James reads what pleases him." 

"What" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun; relative, it makes 
its clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a 
female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; singular number, it means but 
one ; and it is here used as the object of " reads " and the subject of "pleases,"— because 
it takes the place of that which or thing which, — according to Rule XII. (Repeat it.) 

" Nature deigns to bless whatever man will use her gifts 

aright." 

" Whatever" is an adjective, — a word that qualifies or limits the meaning of a substan- 
tive ; pronomial, it modifies in a certain way the meaning of "man," and it belongs to 
" man," according to Rule II. 

" Man" is a noun, it is a name ; common, it is a name common to all objects of the 
same kind, etc. * * * and it is used here as the object of "to bless" and the subject of 
" will use," — because the phrase whatever man takes the place of any or every man that, — 
according to Rule XII. 

" I do not know what he is doing." 

" What" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; relative, it makes its 
clause dependent on another ; of the neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor a female ; 
third person, it represents an object as spoken of ; singular number, it means but one ; and 
in the objective case — it is the object of the verb is doing — according to Rule VIII. 

" The G-aul offered his own head to whoever should bring him 
that of Nero." " The old bird feeds her young ones." 
" These horses I received for the others." 

" Whoever" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; compound, it is 
compounded of who and ever ; relative, it makes its clause dependent on another ; of the 
common gender, third person, singular number, to agree with "person," or " any person," 
understood before it,— according to Rule III ; and in the nominative case — it is the subject 
of the verb should give — according to Rule IV. 

" That" is a pronoun, — a word that supplies the place of a noun ; it is here used in the 
place of " the head," and is therefore of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; 
and in the objective case — being the object of the verb bring — according to Rule VIII. 

" Ones " and " others " are parsed in a similar way. 



20 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

Parse the articles, the adjectives, the nouns, and the pronouns : — 

1. We caught him. Alfred dressed himself a . Martha has recitedher h 
lesson. A dutiful son is the delight of his parents. And thou c majestic 
Ocean d ! Ye golden clouds ! With me e . ^othem. Among themselves. 
From it. From their abhorrence of each f other. I saw your brother, 
whos was sick. She whos studies her glass, neglects her heart. It was 
I d that h went. 

2. He was such a talker as 1 could delight us alP. What k costs noth- 
ing, is worth 2 nothing 10 . Re found what he sought. Take whatever you 
like. Whatever you like, take. I will leave what is useless. Who 1 was 
Blennerhasset ? Who m is my neighbor ? Do you know what democracy 
is? Others may be more intelligent; but none 11 are more amiable than 
she is. Your horse trots well, but mine paces. Whoever gives to the 
poor, lends to the Lord. 

Art thou m that" traitorJ angel d ? Art thou m he d 
That h first broke peace in Heaven ? — Milton. 

(a.) Rule VIII. (6.) Rules III and VII. (c.) Rule V. (d.) Rule XI. (e.) Rule IX. 

(/.) " Each other " is & pronoun, a word that supplies the place of a noun ; compound, 
it consists of two words ; of the common gender, etc. 

(g.) Rules III and IV. (h.) That •= who ; hence, a relative pronoun, (i.) was 

such a talker as = was a talker that or who . (j.) Adjective. (Jc.) Rule 

XII. (I.) Rule XI. Who was Blennerhasset ? == Blennerhasset was who ? (m.) Rule 
IV. To apply Rule XI to who, would give a different meaning to the sentence, (n.) 
Pronoun, (o.) Say, " Mine" is here used for " my horse." My is a pronoun, &c. (Parse 
the two words as usual.) 

12. VERB. 

If we look into the world, we shall find, that, to the many different 
beings and things, denoted by nouns and pronouns, belong not only many 
different qualities, denoted by adjectives; but also many different 
motions, actions, and states of existence, which are expressed by certain 
words called verbs. What, then, would you call such words as reads, writes, 
runs, in the following sentence : "John reads, writes, runs, and plays." 

Verbs. 

What is a verb ? 

A verl> is a word used to affirm something of a subject. 

Ex. — " The wind blows.'''' " The rose blooms." " There is an endless world." " The 
tree is dead." " If I should go." " Brutus hilled Caesar." " Caesar was hilled." 
Regardless of the reference to its subject, what must every verb express ? 

Being, a mode of being, an action, or a state. — See examples 
above. 

What do grammarians mean by affirmations ? 

Assertions of all kinds, also commands and questions. 

Ex. — " She is handsome." " She is not handsome." " If she were bandsome." " If 
she is handsome." " Should she be handsome." "Be honest." "Study." " Sit up." 
" Is she handsome ? " 

Yerbs that express affirmation are called finite verbs. But verbs are often used with- 
out expressing affirmation. — What is a verb usually called when it is not used to express 
affirmation ? 

A participle or an infinitive. 



VERB. — VOICE. 21 

What is a participle? 

A participle merely assumes an act or state, and usually 
resembles an adjective. 

Ex.— "A tree, bearing fruit." "A fox, caught in a trap." "The man was found 
murdered.''' 1 " We saw the moonrts%." " Having dined, I returned to the store." 

How do most participles end ? 

Most participles end in ing or in ed. 

What is an infinitive ? 

An infinitive expresses an act or state without person 
and number, and frequently resembles a noun. 

Ex. — "To be — or not to be." "An opportunity to study.' 1 '' M He seems to have bee » 
disappointed?' 

What little word usually forms a part of every infinitive ? 

The word to. 

May a verb consist of more words than one? 

It may. 

Of how many word3 may it consist ? 

Of as many as four. 

Ex. — "Eagles soar." "The house was built.' 1 '' "The mail may have arrived.'''' 
"These lessons should have been learned." " Having written." "To have been written.'' ' 

In the following sentences mention the verbs (finite), participles, and infinitives, 

and why :— 

Mary sings. Mother sews, spins, and cooks. Mothers love their children. The sky 
is blue. Columbus discovered America. The street should be paved. The sun is 
shining. Bring me some water. Have you seen Jane lately ? Him the Almighty 
hurled. Dark heaved the ocean. The cars came whizzing by. The tree fell rustling, 
crackling, crashing, thundering down. Many that had come to make fortunes, were* 
obliged to borrow money to get home again. You see, my son, those friends of ours seem 
to have forgotten us. 

13. PROPERTIES OF THE VERB. 



How may almost every verb be used and expressed ? 

In a great variety of ways or forms. 



Ex. — Write : — Writing, wrote, written, writes, writeth, writest, to write, to have writ- 
ten, to be written, to have been written, to be writing, to have been writing, having 
written, having been written, is written, was written, should be written, is writing, was 
writing, can write, must write, will write, shall write, would write, should write, could 
write, may write, might write, may be written, may be writing, may have been writing, 
might have been written, might have been writing, mightst have been writing, &c, &c. 

Verbs have so many different forms, in order to express what chief properties ? 

Voice, mood, tense, person, and number. 

14. CLASSES OF VERBS.— VOICE. 

Since objects either act or do not act upon others, into what two classes may all verbs 
be divided ? 

Into transitive and intransitive.. 



22 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

When is a verb transitive? 

When it has an object. 

Ex. — " John struck James." " I assisted him." "He knows his lesson." "Oats de- 
vour rats and mice." 

When is a verb intransitive f 

When it does not have an object. 

Ex. — " John wallcs." " Mary dances." " The child cries." "Webster was eloquent." 
14 Webster was an orator." " Alice reads and ivrites well." 
What is a passive verb ? 

A transitive verb that affirms or expresses the act, not of the 
doer, but of the object acted upon. 

Ex. — "The fire consumed several buildings." "Several buildings were consumed hy 
the fire." " The melon is eaten." " The lesson has been learned." 

Note. — When a verb is passive, it is said to be in the passive voice; when not passive, 
in the active voice. 

What is a neuter verb. 

An intransitive verb that does not imply action or exertion. 

Ex. — " The horse is dead." " The spurs lay on the shelf." " The baby sleeps." 
What do neuter verbs express ? 

Existence simply, or a mode of existence. 

Ex. — "Troytucts." "Far away in the South is a beautiful island." "The plant 
looks fresh and green." 

The verbs, participles, and infinitives, and why; whether transitive, intransitive, passive, or 
neuter, and why : — 

The sun melts the snow. The sun rises. The stars twinkle. Hope deceives us. The 
water tore away the dam. Saddle your horse. Give these books to John. Seeing me, 
he tried to hide himself. Bees collect honey. Honey is collected by bees. Hope deferred, 
sickens the heart. Fashion wears out more apparel than the man. Small curs are not 
regarded when they grin ; but great men tremble, when the lion roars. Portia said, 
" God made him a man, therefore let him pass." Gardeners rear vegetables and flowers. 
Corn and cotton were already planted. Be cautious in believing evil of others, but more 
cautious in reporting it. 

Change the following sentences so as to malce the active verbs passive, and the passive verbs 
active : — 

Indolence causes poverty. Vice produces misery. My neighbor has planted some 
apple-trees. The dog bit the stranger. The distance was measured by a surveyor. Morse 
invented the telegraph. This boat was built by Lucas. The lawyer should pay the debt. 
Can the river be forded at this place by a man on horseback ? 



What other classification of verbs have we ? or into what classes are verbs divided, 
according to the form of their principal parts ? 

Into two classes, regular verbs and irregular verbs. 

How may a regular verb be defined ? 

Its imperfect tense and perfect participle are formed by 
adding ed to the present imperative. 

More briefly : It takes the inflection ed, 

Ex. — Present play, imperfect played, perfect participle played ; move, moved, moved. 



VERB.— -MOOD. 23 

How may an irregular verb be defined ? 

Its imperfect tense and perfect participle are formed without 
adding ed to the present imperative. 

More briefly : It does not take the inflection ed. 

Ex. — Present see, imperf. saw, perf part, seen ; speak, spoke, spoken. 
What is the present imperative ? 

The simplest form of the verb denoting command. 

What is the imperfect tense, or preterit f 

The simplest form of the verb denoting past time. 

What is the perfect participle f 

That form, which, when placed after the word having or 
being, makes sense with it. 

What are these parts of the verb usually called ? 

The principal parts. 

I^" Note. — The teacher may now require his pupils to learn the principal parts* 
of the irregular verbs as given in Book Second. 

Give the principal parts of the folloiving verbs : 

Learn, laugh, read, talk, speak, shriek, glow, mow, write, act, do, go, see, hear, held, 
charm, cut, strut, meet, greet, be, was, sit, set, lie, lay, come, writes, beautify, was elected, 
has departed, may have become, will be rewarded. 

The verbs, and ivhy ; their principal parts ; whether regular or irregular, and why : — 

The morning dawns. The birds sing. The dew glistens. Bells are tinkling. They 
have departed. The problems have been solved. Music delights us. Fire burns. The 
water is frozen. Mary sews, knits, and spins. The bravest conquered. The maiden 
wept. 

15. MOOD. 

An act or state may be asserted of a subject, demanded of a subject, 
or not asserted of a subject; as, "Arther is studious.' 7 "Be thou 
studious." "To be studious;" " Being studious." Again: it maybe 
asserted in three different ways. 1. We may assert it as a matter of 
fact. 2. We may assert merely some relation of the subject to it. 3. 
We may assert it as a mere supposition, wish, conclusion, or contin- 
gency. Thus: " Arthur is studious." "Arthur may, can, must, might, 
should, or would be studious." "If Arthur had been studious — were 
studious — be studious;" — " 0, that he were studious." Hence the moods. 

How would you define the moods f 

The iEOOd§ are certain modes of expressing the verb in 
regard to its subject. 

* We need two different words to distinguish two different school-exercises; the 
joining of the verb to its various subjects or the combining of it with auxiliaries, and the 
mentioning of its principal parts. Would it not be well to restrict the word conjugation 
to the former ? 



24 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

How many moods have we, and what are they ? 

Five ; the indicative, the potential, the subjunc- 
tive, the imperative, and the infinitive. 

When is a verb in the indicative mood ? 

When it affirms something as an actual occurrence or fact. 

" Ex. — " God created this beautiful world." " The guilty are not happy." " Spring 
will soon return again." " Is there a union here of hearts, that finds not here an end? " 

What does a verb in the potential mood affirm ? 

It affirms merely the power, liberty, liability, necessity, will, 
duty, or 'some other relation, of the subject to the act or state. 

More briefly : It affirms merely some relation of the subject 
to the act or state. 

Ex. — " God can destroy this world." " Youth may he trifled away." " They who would 
be happy, must be virtuous." " Children should obey their teachers." 

How can this mood be known, or what words are used to express it ? 

May, can, must, might, could, would y and should. 

How does a verb in the subjunctive mood affirm the act or state ? 

As a mere supposition, conclusion, or contingency. 
More briefly : As something merely ideal or contingent. 

Ex. — " It were useless to resist." " It had been useless to resist." " He talked to me as 
if I were a widow." " If all men thought, acted, and wrote alike, some useful rules might be 
given." " Had he not fled, another blow had laid him in the dust." " If conscience had 
had as strong a hold on his mind as honor, he had still been innocent." " But I should 
wrong my friends, if I concealed it." " 'Tis as the general pulse of life stood still." " If 
I ashed your papa, he would only say you had better [to] stay at home." " If it rain 
to-night, our plants will live." "Beware lest he deceive you." " 0, had I the wings 
of a dove!" 

" Oh ! had your fate been joined with mine, 
As once this pledge appeared the token ; 
These follies had not then been mine, — 

My early vows hadnot been broken." — Byron. 

What does a verb in the subjunctive mood suggest, when it refers to present or 
past time? 

That the contrary of what is supposed, or something differ- 
ent, is the true state of the case. 

Ex. — " Had I your talents, I would study." " Were I a lawyer, I would not like to 
plead a rogue's case." " 0, that his heart were tender !" 

What other mood does the subjunctive resemble in its forms, and what one in 
meaning ? 

In its forms, the indicative ; but in meaning, the potential, 
with which it is also most frequently associated in sentences. 

In what kind of discourse is this mood most frequently found ? 

In reasoning. 

What words often precede this mood, or indicate it ? 

If, though, although, that, lest, except, unless, provided, &c. 

jjote. — The mood is termed subjunctive, because, unlike the other moods, it usually re- 
quires the proposition containing it to be joined to another, to complete the sense. 



VERB. — TENSE. 25 

What does a verb in the imperative mood express ? 

Command, exhortation, entreaty, or permission. 

Ex. — "John, study your lesson." " Go where glory waits thee." "Oh! then re- 
member me." " Return to your friends." 

Note. — We command inferiors ; exhort equals ; entreat superiors ; and permit in com- 
pliance with the will of others. 

What is the subject of every verb in the imperative mood ? 

Thou, you, or ye, usually understood. 

Ex. — "Know thyself" = Know thou thyself. "My young friends, be pure and 
cautious " = My young friends, be ye pure and cautious. 
When is a verb in the infinitive mood ? 

When it does not affirm the act or state. 

Ex. — " Corn to grind.' 1 '' " The clouds dispersing.'''' " Be careful to avoid the danger." 
What two forms of the verb does this mood comprise ? 

The infinitive and the participle. 

Which of the moods can be used interrogatively ? 

The indicative and the potential. 

Ex. — ' ' Shall we miss this decisive moment ? " " Who is the culprit ? " " How can I ? ' ' 
How are they made interrogative ? 

By placing the subject after the verb, or after some part 
of it. 

Ex. — " You can help us." " Can you help us ? " " Can you not help us ? " " Can 
not you help us ? " 

The verb, and ivhy ; the mood, and ivhy : — 

William studies his lesson. John caught some fish. It will rain this evening. The 
storm had ceased before we reached a shelter. I may command, but you must obey. 
William can study his lesson. He could and should have assisted us, but he would not. 
If William study, he will soon know his lesson. Touch not ; taste not ; handle not. Honor 
thy father and thy mother. Roll on, thou deep and dark-blue Ocean, — roll ! Strike ! for 
the green graves of your sires. Never equivocate nor prevaricate, but tell the plain truth. 
If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. Few take care to live well, but many to 
live long. Discovered and surprised, he started up. The violet soon will cease to smile, 
The whippoorwill to chant. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young a soldier 
lay, Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away. What can not 
be cured, must be endured. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. Whatever thy hands 
find to do, do it with all thy might. Do not value a gem by what it is set in. A clear 
conscience fears no accusation. Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he 
is old he will not depart from it. 

Express each of the following verbs in all the other moods, and in as many different form* 
as possible : — 

I am. He writes. For Mary to sing. They seeing us. Wash your face. 

16. TEjMSE. 

In the sentences, "I write,''' — "I wrote," — "I shall write," — you 
perceive that the act of writing is referred to different periods of time. 
It is very obvious that every act or state must take place at some time, 
or at least be referred by the mind to some time or other. Indeed, the 
time of any action or event is frequently of so much importance, that 
all tribes or nations vary the form of their verbs, in order to express, 
to some extent, this important element of thought. Hence we have 
tense, or the tenses. 

3 



26 BOOK FIRST AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

What is teme f 

Tense is the meaning of the verb in respect to time. 

How many grand divisions of time are there, and what are they ? 

Three; the present, the past, and the future. 

How may an act or state be considered in each of these divisions ? 

As simply taking place or going on, or else as completed or 
ended. 

Ex. — " I write {or am writing), I have written (or have been writing) ; I wrote, I had 
written ; I shall write, I shall have written." 
How many, then, and what are the tenses ? 

Six; the present, the perfect, the iinperfect, 
the pluperfect, the future, and the f titure-per- 
fect. 

When is a verb in the present tense ? 

When it expresses the act or state in present time. 

Ex. — "I write." "I am writing." " I am sick." " It snows." " Jane sings." "You 
may commence." " Let me see your new book." " St. Louis is situated on a plain bordering 
on the Mississippi." 

In what peculiar sense is this tense sometimes used ? 

To express something as always so from the very nature or 
condition of things. 

Ex. — "One flower mal-es no garland." "A fool and his money are soon parted." 
"Heat melts snow." "Moles burrow in the ground." "Traveling is expensive." 
* Cheat may grow from wheat." " People must die." " Man is made to mourn." 

When is a verb in the perfect tense ? 

When it represents something as past, but still connected 
with present time. 

Ex. — "He has practised law two years." "The city has been built." "He /msjust 
ceased to play the violin." " The mail may have arrived." " This house appears to have 
b«en a church." " Though severely wounded, he still lives." 

When is a verb in the imperfect tense ? 

When it refers the act or state simply to past time. 
Or: When it denotes what is fully and indefinitely past. 

Ex.— -" God created the world." " Troy ivas, but is no more." " Away went Gilpin." 
" Bonaparte was banished to St. Helena." " She died this morning." " I soon saw that 
he could not see." 

When is a verb in the pluperfect tense ? 

When it represents something as finished or ended by a 
certain past time. 

Ex. — " I had already sent my trunk to the river, when I received your letter." " A 
fish had been on the hook." " A fish might have been on the hook." 
When is a verb in the future tense ? 

When it refers the act or state simply to future time. 

Ex. — " The cars will come to-morrow." " Merit will be r ewarded." " The trees will 
shed their leaves." " There will be a final judgment day." 
Wlien is a verb in the future-perfect tense ? 

When it represents something as finished or ended by a 
certain future time. 



VERB. TENSE. 27 

Ex. — " The flowers will have withered, when winter returns." 

General Illustration. — I write (now). I have written (just now). I wrote (at 
some past time) . I had written (by or before a certain past time) . I shall write (at 
some time hereafter). I shall have written (by or before a certain future time). 



How is an action sometimes expressed by the present, the imperfect, or the future 
tense ? 

As something habitual or customary, in present, past, or 
future time. 

Ex. — "He chews tobacco." " People go to church on Sunday." " The dead are put 
into the ground." " There he would spend his earnings." " The wolf also shall dwell 
with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid." 

When the act or state is expressed as ideal rather than real, as in the subjunctive 
mood, and frequently in the potential, what may be observed of the tenses, in respect to 
the time of the event ? 

That they move forward, one tense or more, in time. 

Ex. — " I had been there " — before that time. " Had I been there " — at that time. " If 
I was " — at any past time. " If I were " — now. " If I am " — now. " If I be " — here- 
after. " I had paid you " — before a certain time. " I might have paid you " — al& certain 
time. <; I might or could pay you" — now. "I may pay you next Christmas." (Pos- 
sibility.) "I shall pay you next Christmas." (Certainty. In time — equivalent.) "I 
may \ave paid you next Christmas." (Possibility.) " I shall have paid you next 
Christmas." (Certainty. Time — equivalent.) " Such governments could not last, if 
they contained ever so much wisdom and virtue." (At any time. — See 2nd def. of pres. 
tense.) 

What more can you say of the tenses of these two moods ? 

That they sometimes seem to be merely certain forms of the 
verb expressing mood rather than time. 

How many tenses has the indicative mood ? 

All of them, — six. 

How many tenses has the potential mood ? 

Four; the present, the imperfect, the perfect, and the 
pluperfect. 

Note. — These tenses, however, may also represent events as future. — See examples 
above. 

How many tenses has the subjunctive mood ? 

Three; the present, the imperfect, and the pluperfect; 
equivalent, in time, to a future, a present, and a past tense, — 
tenses sufficient for all the uses of this mood. 

How many tenses has the imperative mood ? 

One ; the present. 

How many tenses has the infinitive mood ? 

Two ; the present and the perfect, called the present parti- 
ciple or in^nitive, and the perfect participle or infinitive. 

What distinction may be observed between the present participle and the present 
infinitive ? 

The present participle always represents the act or state as 
begun, the infinitive does not. 

Ex. — " They came shouting." " They came to shout.'" 



28 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

How does the present participle represent the act or state ? 

As present and continuing at the time referred to. 

Ex. — " She departed weeping." " He lives loved by all." " He will go away laughing.''' 
How does the perfect participle or infinitive represent the act or state ? 

As past, completed, or ended, at the time referred to. 

Ex. — " We found the floor swept." " Having written the letter, I sent it to the post- 
office." " This mound is said to have been made by the Indians." 
What does the present infinitive express ? 

Simply the act or state. 

Ex. — " He is not expected to live." " He is supposed to be dead." " I am sorry to 
hear it." 

In what sense is the English present infinitive sometimes used ? 

It sometimes supplies the place of a future participle. 

Ex. — "In time to come." "He fell to rise no more." "Man never is but always 
to be blessed." 

Are the participle and the infinitive absolute or relative in time ? 

Relative; they may be used in any of the three great divis- 
ions of time. 

What word must form a part of every perfect tense, except the imperfect ? 

Have, or some one of its variations. 

What must form another part ? 

The perfect participle of some verb. 

Ex. — " Have written ; having written ; to have written; may have written ; should 
have been writing; had written; shall have written." 



In most of the tenses, a verb may be expressed in several different 
ways: as, "He strikes;" "He is striking ;" "Us is struck;" " He does 
strike;' 7 "He stnketh." These, grammarians usually distinguish by- 
calling them, emphatically, the forms of the verb. 

How many and what are all the forms of the verb ? 

Five ; the common, the emphatic, the progress- 
ive, the passive, and the ancient form, or solemn 

style. 

When is a verb in the common form ? 

When it is expressed in the most simple and ordinary 
manner. 

Ex. — " He went home." " Time flies." " No man has ever been too honest." 
When is a verb in the emphatic form ? 

When do or did is made a part of it, to intensify the 
expression. 

Ex. — " I did say so." " Really, it does move." " Do come to see us." 
When is a verb in the progressive form ? 

When it denotes a continuance of the act or state. 
Perhaps better : When its chief word is a present par- 
ticiple. 

Ex. — "I wrote;" "I was writing." " She goes to church;" "She is going to 
church." 



VERB. — PERSON AND NUMBER. 29 

Of what is a verb in this form always composed ? 

Of be, or some variation of it, and a present participle end- 
ing in ing. 

When is a verb in the passive form ? 

When it is passive, or expressed like a passive verb. 

Ex. — " The prairies were robed in sunshine." " The melancholy days are come." 
Of what is every verb in this form composed ? 

Of he, or some variation of it, and a perfect participle. 

When is a verb in the ancient form, or in the solemn style ? 

When the ending th or eth is given to it, and generally 
when it is used with thou or ye. 

Ex. — " Adversity flattereth no man." " Thou barVdst the dart that wounds thee." 
What may be observed of the forms of the verb, in regard to their meaning. 

That some of them are allied to mood, and some to tense. 

J8®" Note. — For further illustrations of the Forms, see Conjugation of the Verb in 
Book Second. 



The verb {finite), and why ; the tense, and why ; the form, and why : — 

The participle or the infinitive, and why ; whether present or perfect, and why : — 

True praise takes root and spreads. Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. 
Hark ! they whisper ; angels say, " Sister spirit, come away." For us the Spring unfolds 
her flowers. Hushed now are the whirlwinds that ruffled the deep. Billows are mur- 
muring on the hollow shore. And the shriek of the panther is heard on the gale. Ah, 
whither now are fled those dreams of greatness ? Deep shadows veiled the little path. 
The bat shrill shrieking, wooed his dusky mate. As we were coming home, we saw a 
most beautiful rainbow. From shrub and flower arose a sweet perfume. Stupendous 
pile ! not reared by human hands. God has robed the world with beauty. 

The rose seemed to weep for the buds it had left. Gold can not purchase life, nor can 
diamonds bring back the moments we have lost. Life itself must go to him who gave it. 
But yonder comes the powerful king of day, rejoicing in the east. How dense and bright 
yon pearly clouds reposing lie. Men must be taught as if you taught them not. Then 
thou shalt.find that thou wilt loathe thy life. Thou stabb'dst him in the prime of youth. 
And children run to lisp their sire's return. Blasphemy uttered, is error hightened with 
impudence ; it is sin scorning a concealment, not only committed, but defended. 

Change to the other tenses: — 

I am. He makes. If I be. Had I sold. I can plow. It is done. It may be 
bought. To take. To have been taken. Taking. Being taken. 

Change to the other forms: — 

He sleeps. She repented. Buy. They are deceived. To march. Having planted. 
You should have punished. , 

17. PERSON AND NUMBER. 

The subject-nominative is frequently separated from its verb, or even 
omitted ; but then the verb indicates its person and number, and thereby 
the subject itself. When I say, " I am, thou art, he is; " " I write, thou 
writest, he writes] " you perceive that the verb varies with the person of 
its subject: and when I say, " I am, we are; " " He is, they are; " " He 
writes, they write; " you perceive that the verb varies with the number 
of its subject. Hence the verb is said to have person and number. 



30 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

What, then, is meant by the person and number of a verb ? 

Its form as suitable to the person and number of its 
subject. 

Note. — The term "a form of the verb" in its widest sense, signifies any mode of 
expressing it. 

When is a verb of the plural number ? 

When it is properly affirmed of two or more objects taken 
together. 

Ex. — " The boys are studious." " John, James, and Joseph, are studious." " The 
people are fickle." 

When is a verb of the singular number ? 

When it is properly affirmed of one object, or of more taken 
individually. 

Ex.—" The boy it studious." " Every tree is known by its fruit." " John, James, or 
Joseph, is studious." " Neither John, James, nor Joseph, is studious." 

In correct discourse, of what person and number is the verb always said to be ? 

Of the same as its subject, or nominative. 

In what person and number is each of the following verbs ? — 

I write. We write. They write. Ye are. We are. You are. Thou wast. If thou 
wert. Be ye. Be thou. Hope deludeth. Henry is sick. To write well is difficult. 
There is the man that saved my life. 

In what person and number, to agree with its subject f — 

He went. They went. Thou art in fault. The man and the horse were killed. The 
man or the horse was killed. Every man was killed. All the men were killed. The 
convention was large. The convention were not unanimous. It was you. You were 
he. Was he the man ? Who is his friend ? Good verse recess and solitude requires. 
Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. Depart. Remain. Indulge no useless wish, 
but be content. Bursts the wild cry of terror and dismay. 

18. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

No complete verb in our language can express all its properties, or be 
expressed in all its forms, without the aid of certain other little verbs. 
Thus, to express "strike " in future time, we say, " shall or will strike ; " 
in the potential mood, "may, can, must, might, could, would, or should 
strike;" in the passive voice, "is struck, was struck, being struck," &c. 
These little helping verbs are therefore called auxiliary verbs. 

How, then, would you define an auxiliary verb ? 

An auxiliary verb helps another verb to express its 
meaning in a certain manner or time. 

Verbs that are not auxiliaries, are sometimes termed what ? 

Principal verbs. 

Which are the auxiliary verbs ? 

Do, did; have, had; will, would; shall, should ; can, could; 
may, might ; must ; and be, with all its variations. 

In what mood is the verb, when do, (dost, does, doth,) makes the first part of it ? 

In the indicative, subjunctive, or imperative mood, and 
present tense. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 61 

When did makes a part of it ? 

Iii the indicative or subjunctive mood, and imperfect tense. 

"When have, {hast, has, hath, having,) makes the first part of it? 

In the indicative or infinitive mood, and present tense. 

"When had makes a part of it ? 

In the indicative or subjunctive mood, and pluperfect tense- 

When shall or will makes a part of it ? 

In the indicative mood, and future tense. 

When shall have or will have makes a part of it ? 

In the indicative mood, and future -perfect tense. 

When may, can, or must, makes a part of it ? 

In the potential mood, present tense. 

When may have, can have, or must have, makes a part of it ? 

In the potential mood, perfect tense. 

When might, could, would, or should, makes a part of it ? 

In the potential mood, imperfect tense. 

When might have, could have, would have, or should have, makes a part of it ? 

In the potential mood, pluperfect tense. 

What meaning is conveyed by may and might? 

Permission, possibility, or probability; sometimes reasona- 
bleness. 

Ex. — " Yon may go to play." "But remember the horse may die." "It may rain 
this evening." "But the question might be ashed, whether " &c. 
What do can and could imply ? 

Power or ability. 

Ex. — " I can lift the stone." " I can learn the lesson." " He could not pay the 
debt." 

What do must, shall, and should, denote ? 

Duty or injunction ; but shaU, more frequently compul- 
sion ; and must, generally necessity. 

Ex. — " We should care for others' feelings." " ThovTshalt not swear." " You must 
not looJc for me before next week." " Pupils must obey." " Villain, you shall be hanged ! " 

What do ivill and ivould denote ? 

Willingness, adaptation, or tendency. 

Ex. — " He would pay if he could." " This will do." " Weeds will grow where there 
is no cultivation." " Roses will fade." 

Note. — When shall and will express futurity and certainty only, they of course make 
the verb indicative; but whan shall implies compulsion, or is equivalent to must, and when 
will affirms merely the willingness of the subject, or is equivalent to would, they rather 
make the verb potential, though most grammarians, to avoid difficult distinctions, refer 
them always to the indicative mood. 

Mention the verb, and its mood and tense : — 

I do not believe the story. He does improve rapidly. Do you know him ? Do you 
go immediately. If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke. He diistudy. Did 
you ride or walk ? I did not see him. Many might attain to true wisdom, if they did 
not already think themselves wise. We have just returned. The sun has risen. The 
thief had left the tavern, when his pursuers came. I shall see you to-morrow. The fame 



32 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

of Washington will live forever. John can read. Mary may write. Die I must. You 
shall obey me. He would not learn himself, nor could he teach others. He may have 
fallen into the creek. Most of the army should have fought more bravely. Ye will not 
come, that ye may have life. It would have grieved your heart, to see the sight. 

19. CONJUGATION AND SYNOPSIS. 

What is it, to conjugate a verb ? 

To conjugate a verb is to show in a regular way, how 
some or all of its parts are correctly expressed. 

What is it, to give the synopsis of a verb ? 

To give the synopsis of a verb is to express it correctly, 
in some single person and number or in a particular form, 
through all its moods and tenses. 

H®"Note. — The teacher should now require his pupils to learn the Conjugation of 
the Verb as given in Book Second. 

What may be substituted for the personal pronouns used in the Conjugation, without 
requiring a change in the form of the verb ? 

Any other subject having the same person and number, 
and hence any subject that the verb can have. 

20. EXERCISES. 

Conjugate throughout the tense, beginning with the first person singular : — 
I imagine. He suffered. We have gained. I will visit. Were I. Had I been. If 
he be. Were I invited. Had I been invited. If I be invited. They shall have finished. 
I lay. We read. It may pass. You should have come. He may have been robbed. I 
was speaking. It is rising. She had been singing. You might be reforming. Had you 
been studying. Do you hope? Did she smile? If I do tail. If you rely. Thou art. 
Art thou ? He forgiveth. Dost thou forgive ? It must have happened. They are gone. 
Thou art going. Had I been plowing. It pleaseth. We were proceeding. 
^ Affirm each of the following verbs correctly of thou, — then of he, and of they : — 

Am, Avas, have been, would have been, are deceived, had been, do say, did maintain, 
gave, touched, cast, amass, recommend, be discouraged, shall have been, will pardon, 
may have been rejoicing, was elected, should have been elected, wrapped, consider, con- 
sidered, have been loitering. 

Give the synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative I ; — you ; — thou ; — he ; — we ; — 
they ; — the man ; — the men. 

In like manner give the synopsis of each of the folloiving verbs : — 

Bind, stand, arrest, be discussing, be deprived, have, be known, do, be interrogated, 
be interrogating. 

Conjugate each of the following verbs, beginning with the first person singular and stop- 
ping with the subject : — 

,^ The boy learns. (Thus : Singular. 1st pers. I learn, 2nd pers. you learn, 3rd 
pers. he or the boy learns.) The leaves are falling. Flowers must fade. Jane reads. 
Jane and Eliza read. The war should have ended. The lands may have been sold. 
Jane or Eliza reads. The horse has been eating. The horses have been fed. 

Mention the verb ; then its mood, tense, person, and number : — 

He pretends. We have slept. She died. Were we surpassed ? Were we surpassed. 
You had seen. Had you seen ? Had you seen. He will conquer. They will have been 
delivered. He should be impeached. Rely on yourself. Shun vice. Go not to sleep in 
malice. Take care lest thou lose. My time might have been improved better. Hope 
gilds the future. The sheep should be shorn. The harvest had been reaped. He did 
not know me. The strawberries are ripening. Thou didst deny me. I wish I were a 
careless child. Hurrying away. To be sure. Having heard him. 



EXERCISES. — VERBAL NOUN. 33 

Mention the verbs, and why ; whether transitive, passive, intransitive, or neuter, and ivhy ; 
principal parts ; whether regular or irregular, and why ; the mood, and why; the tense, and 
why, — and the form, {progressive or emphatic,) and why; the person and number, to agree 
with its subject : — 

The participles and infinitives, and why ; whether transitive, passive, intransitive, or neuter, 
and why ; whether present or perfect, and ivhy ; and to what substantive they refer the act or 
state : — 

The sun rises. The stars twinkle. The dark storm approaches. The great ocean 
roars. The clear waters ripple. These pines are tall. He became rich. Albert is 
industrious. The rose is beautiful. Pearls lie deep. Bonaparte was a great general. 
Oaks produce acorns. The farmer plows his field. William broke his slate. The 
mowers cut grass. Honey-suckles overspread our portico. Mary is studying her lesson. 
Do well, but boast not. Brutus stabbed Caesar. Csesar was stabbed by Brutus. Snow 
had covered the grass. The grass was covered with snow. Laura brought a fresh rose. 
Emma Avas gathering roses. A dark cloud hides the sun. The sun is hidden by a dark 
cloud. She will entertain them. They will be entertained. His wound bleeds. The 
doctor bled him. The tree bends. The boys bend the sapling. The sapling is bent by 
the boys. You have done wrong. I did not say so. The servant has brought the horse. 
Depend not on the stores of others. Love and fidelity are inseparable. Winter will soon 
be here. Your character will have been formed at the age of twenty. You must study. 
You shall suffer the punishment. We may expect a calm after a storm. He might have 
been more careful. He could have assisted us, but he would not. We should always do 
our duty. The groves were God's first temples. He sank exhausted on the bloody field. 
Thou hast all seasons for thine own, Death ! Me Glory summons to the martial scene. 
The Passions oft, to hear her shell, Thronged around her magic cell. Were I thus 
slighted, I would not seek revenge. He is supposed to have written the book. There 
stood a grove in youthful verdure clad, and dripping with morning dew. How needless, 
if you knew us, were your fears. 

Shall I be left, forgotten in the dust, 
When Fate, relenting, lets the flower revive ? 

Shall Nature's voice, to Man alone unjust, 
Bid him, though doomed to perish, hope to live ? — Beattie. 



What Rule may be applied to all verbs that affirm ? 

Rule XIII. — Every finite verb must agree with its subject, 
in person and number. 

W T hat Rule may be applied to verbs that do not affirm ? 

Rule. XIY. — A participle or an infinitive relates to the 
substantive denoting the object to which the act or state belongs ; 
and it may besides modify the meaning, or complete the construc- 
tion, of some other word or part of the sentence. 

Note XIV. — A participle or an infinitive is sometimes 
used independently. 

Ex. — " Generally spealcing, young men are better for business than old men." " But 
to proceed. It has been frequently remarked &c." " Every man has, so to speaJc, several 
strings by which he may be pulled." 

But suitable words can generally be supplied to avoid the necessity of using this Note. 

SI. VERBAL NOUN. 

What forms of the verb are sometimes used as other parts of speech ? 

The participle and the infinitive. 

How are participles frequently used ? 

As adjectives. — See Participial Adjective, p. 14. 

" The rustling leaves ; " "A siveeping torrent ; " " Written laws." 



34 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

How are infinitives and also particijiles frequently used ? 

As nouns. 

When should an infinitive or a participle be considered a noun ? 

When it evidently takes the place, and is used in the 
sense, of a noun. 

Ex. — " To live without being annoyed, is pleasant." What is pleasant? without 
what ? — Life without annoyance is pleasant. " To study successfully, requires exertion." 
" Successful studying requires exertion." ( " Successful study requires exertion." ) " To 
study gives strength to the mind." " To be acquainted with such a man, is an honor." 
" My Jcnoiving him was of great advantage to me." " His having been seen there, was the 
ground of suspicion." " To be — or not to be, — that is the question ! "== Life — or death, — 
that is the question ! "To live temperately, to avoid excitement, and to take alternate 
exercise and rest, are essential to health" = Temperance, tranquillity, and alternate 
exercise and rest, are essential to health. " Boys like to play" (Boys like apples.) " He 
began to work " =He began his work. " To love is to ob*y." " My expectation was to be 
elected." " To be elected was my expectation." " The house is to be searched.'" (The 
house is a cabin. — " To be searched " is construed in place as a noun, but not in sense. 
" Cabin " is but another name for the " house," but " to be searched " is not ; it is, there- 
fore, merely a verb, and not a " predicate-nominative," as taught by Mr. Greene, Dr. 
Bullions, and some others. " He knew to build the lofty rhyme." "It teaches them 
to looJc for that bread which they are too proud to stoop and earn." " To die; — to sleep ; — 
To sleep ! perchance to dream ! ay, there's the rub." (Rule V.) (" Man, — what is he ! ") 

What may be observed of participles and infinitives in regard to time, when they 
assume the character of some other part of speech ? 

That they lose more or less the idea of time, and denote 
simply the act or state, or the act or state as completed. 

Ex. — " A loafering fellow is a sort of robber in regard to the rest of the community." 
" To venture in was to die." " To have learned so beautiful an art, will be ever a pleas- 
ure to me." 

22. ANALYSIS.— SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

What is it, to analyze a sentence ? 

To analyze a sentence is to separate it into its clauses, 
phrases, and words, and show the relation of these parts to one 
another. 

What is it, to parse a sentence ? 

To parse a sentence is to classify its words, tell their 
properties, and show their relation to one another. 



What is a proposition ? 

A proposition consists of a subject and a predicate 
combined. 

What is the subject of a proposition ? 

The subject denotes that of which something is affirmed. 

Ex. — " The cannons were fired." " The leaves and the flowers in the garden 

have been killed by the frost." 

How may the subject be analyzed, when it contains more terms than a simple nomin- 
ative, or several united ? 

Into subject-nominative or subject-nominatives, and modi- 
fications. 



ANALYSIS. SIMPLE SENTENCES. 35 

What is the predicate of a proposition ? 

The predicate affirms something of the subject. — See 
the last examples. 

How may the predicate be usually analyzed ? 

Into predicate-verb or predicate-verbs, and modifications. 

Ex. — " A large, black, thundering cloud from the north began to spread itself 

over us." 

In what other way may the predicate be usually analyzed, when the verb be, or some 
variation of it, affirms in the predicate ? 

Into copula and attribute, or into copula, attribute, and 
modifications. 

Ex. — " The sky is serene." "David was king.'''' "Grain, meat, 

and vegetables, are brought daily down the river." 

What may modifications be ? 

Words, phrases, or clauses. 

What is usually the design of modifications, or modifying words, phrases, and clauses ? 

To add something to the meaning, or to take something 
from the meaning, of that which is modified. 

What can you say of the principal word or words of a modifying phrase or clause ? 

They may themselves be modified. 

Ex. — " I have brought some very large red apples from a young tree in our old 

orchard." (The teacher should explain the example fully.) 

What else that we have not yet noticed, does a sentence sometimes contain ? 

An independent word or phrase. 

Ex. — " Joseph, you may go." " The lesson being learned/-' we went to play." " Grief, 
scorn, and sickness, — alas ! I have borne them all." 

How may an independent phrase be usually analyzed ? 

Into its principal word and the modifications. 

What will sometimes enable us to see more readily the meaning and construction of 
a sentence ? 

To make some of its parts change places. 

Ex. — "Tyrants no more their savage nature kept " == Tyrants kept their savage 
nature no more. 

What must sometimes be done to enable us to analyze and parse a sentence ? 

To supply words that have been omitted. 

Ex. — " Sweet the pleasure, rich the treasure " = Sweet is the pleasure, and rich is the 
treasure. " Far-fetched and clear-bought is for the ladies " == What is far-fetched &c. 

How are propositions or sentences usually divided in regard to the person uttering 
them ? 

Into declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, and exclamatory. 

Define these classes. 

* " The lesson being learned,"' may, however, be treated simply as an abridged propo- 
sition, performing the office of an adverb — showing when or why "we went;" and to 
the last example, Rule XI may be applied. 



36 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

A declarative sentence expresses a declaration ; an interroga- 
tive sentence, a question ; an imperative sentence, a command ; 
and an exclamatory sentence, an exclamation. 

Ex. — " John rides that wild horse." " John does not ride that wild horse." " Does 
John ride that wild horse?" "Does not John ride that wild horse ? " "John, ride 
that wild horse." " John, do not ride that wild horse.' ' " John rides that wild horse ! " 
" Does John ride that wild horse ! " " Seize that horse ! " " What would he not do ! " 
" Stop ! " 

Note. — Sentences belonging to any of these classes, may be either positive or neg- 
ative. — An exclamatory sentence is merely a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative 
sentence, uttered to express chiefly the emotions of the speaker. 

" Sin degrades." 

This is a simple declarative sentence ; declarative, it expresses a declaration ; simple, 
it contains but one proposition. A proposition consists of a subject and a predicate 
combined. " Sin " is the subject, because it denotes that of which something is affirmed. 
" Degrades'" is the predicate, because it affirms something of " sin." 

" Sin " is the subject-nominative ; and " degrades,'''' the predicate-verb. 

" My friend, were these houses and lands purchased and 
improved by our distinguished senator, David Barton?" 

This is a simple interrogative sentence. "My friend'' is an independent phrase, 
because it has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. " Friend " is the 
principal word, and it is modified or limited by the possessive " my." 

The fentence is interrogative, because it asks a question ; and simple, because it con- 
tains but one proposition. A proposition consists of a subject and a predicate com- 
bined. 

The phrase " these houses and lands," is the subject, because it denotes that of which 
something is affirmed. 

The phrase " were purchased and improved by our distinguished senator, David Barton," 
is the predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of the subject. 

"Houses" and "lands" are the subject-nominatives, modified by the adjective 
" these," and connected by the word "and." 

" Were purchased" and "[were] improved" are the predicate-verbs, connected by 
" and" and modified by the phrase " by our distinguished senator, David. Barton." " Our 
distinguished senator"' is modified by "David Barton;" "distinguished senator" is 
modified or limited by the possessive "our;" and " senator " is modified by " distin- 



Or thus : " Was " is the copula ; "purchased" and " improved" are the attributes, 
modified by (as before). 

Note. — The pupil should now be required to analyze, in a similar manner, simple 
sentences in any of the foregoing or the following Exercises, until he can promptly 
analyze sentences of this class. 

23. PARSING.— VERB. 
Finite Verb. 

transitive, "1 

Formule. — A verb, and why; \ . '. V and why ; principal parts ; 
J ' intransitive, J / *. 

newer, J 

regu a , i an( j ^y . th e moo ^ an d w hy ; the tense, and why ; 

form (emphatic or progressive), and why; the person and number, 
to agree with its subject , according to Rule XIII. 



VERB. — PARSING. 37 

Participle and Infinitive. 

transitive ', "] 

Formule.- \ PorticipUA andwh passive I andwh 

An infinitive, J ^ ' intransitive, J ' 

neuter, J 

/• / f an ^ why; /orw, and why; to what it relates, and according 

to what Rule. (XIV.) 

Note. — Id parsing a present participle, omit form; and in general omit of the 
Formules whatever is not applicable. 



" My father is plowing the field which was bought last 
year." 

" Is plowing " is a verb, — a word used to affirm something of a subject ; transitive, it 
has an object (field) ; principal parts, — pres. plow, imperf. plowed, perf. part, plowed ; 
regular, it takes the inflection ed ; indicative mood, it affirms something as an actual 
occurrence or fact ; present tense, it expresses the act in present time, — and progressive 
form, it represents it as continuing ; third person and singular number, — to agree with 
its subject father, — according to Rule XIII. (Repeat it.) 

" Was bought' 1 '' is a verb, — a word used to affirm something of a subject ; passive, it 
affirms the act of the object acted upon ; principal parts, — pres. buy, imperf. bought, 
perf. part, bought; irregular, it does not take the inflection ed ; indicative mood, it asserts 
something as an actual occurrence or fact ; imperfect tense, it refers the act simply to 
past time ; third person and singular number, — to agree with its subject which, — according 
to Rule XIII. 

" The traveler having been robbed, was obliged to sell his 
horse." 

" Having been robbed " is a participle, — it merely assumes an act or state, and also 
resembles an adjective ; passive, it expresses the act or state of the object acted upon ; 
perfect, it expresses the act or state as past and iinished at the time referred to ; and it 
relates to " traveler,'''' according to Rule XIV. (Repeat it.) 

" To selV is an infinitive, — a form of the verb that expresses the act or state without 
person and number, and frequently resembles a noun ; transitive, it has an object ; pre- 
sent, it denotes the act simply ; and it relates to " traveler,'''' and completes the sense of 
" was obliged," according to Rule XIV. 

" To betray is base." " I insist on writing the letter." 

" To betray " is an intransitive present infinitive, from the verb betray, betrayed, betrayed. 
It is here used as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the 
nominative case — being the subject of the verb is —according to Rule IV. 

" Writing " is a transitive present participle, from the verb write, wrote, written. It is 
here used as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and in the ob- 
jective case — being the object of the preposition on — according to Rule IX. 

24. EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, finite verbs, participles, and infinitives, in 
the following sentences : — 

John speaks the truth. The storm roars. 

We love our friends. Birds fly. It was I a . 

Susan spilt the ink. The corn grows. 

Indolence produces misery. The leaves quiver. 

Fortune favors him. Rivers flow, and stars twinkle. 

They struck me. The sunny stream glitters. 

He killed a hawk. A heavy rain fell. 

We approve your conduct. The tall pines rustle. 



38 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

2. 

My dog is faithful. The lady may have been handsome. 

The rose is beautiful. Washington was patriotic. 

The night was dark. Be sincere. ( Be thou sincere.) 

The woods are green. T' e soldiers will be attacked. 

Fierce was the conflict. The apples may have been eaten. 

John will become rich. The horses might have been fed. 

Have you been sick ? The tall pines are rustling. [set d . 

He was the leader. The summer day is closed — the sun is 

Horace struts a dandy 3 . The highest branch is not the safest 

She was named Mary a . The old boat has sunk. [roost a . 

I was asked some questions* 5 . God will punish sinners. 

They made him captain a . Joseph had lost his hat. 

He was made captain a . The tailor will have finished your coat. 

He is said to be c the captain a . Move your desk. [to the sun. 

Man is made to mourn . The young twig has spread its flowerets 

Greatness is admired. Hope and persevere. [one e . 

Pompey was stabbed. Venture a small fish to catch a great 

Ponds may be deep, [fortunate. Columbus discovered America. 
You might have been more un- The distant hills look blue. 

3, 
You must write a composition. William can read Latin. Can you 
spell u phthisic 1 '' ? James would go. Mary could have learned her les- 
sons. We should love our neighbors. Did you go? Has the in- 
structor left the room ? Time and thinking tame the strongest grief. 
To err f is human; to forgive, divine. Of making many books, there is 
no end. Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee. Had Homer and 
Virgil changed k subjects, they had certainly been worse poets at Greece 
and Rome, whatever they had been esteemed by the rest of mankind. — 
Pope. While he went trudging on foot, wearying himself and wast- 
ing his time, people came, grew weary, and would not wait. Here was 
an opportunity*? to grow rich. I ordered him h to be brought. It is the 
duty of every one, to cultivate the heart and mind. Little meddling 
makes fair parting. How are the mightyj fallen ! Let Love h have eyes, 
and Beauty will have ears. silvery streamlet 1 of the fields, That 
flowest full and free. The summer morn is bright and fresb, The birds 
are darting by. Now May, with life and music, The blooming valley 
fills. To die 1 , — it is an awful thing ! 

Vainly but well that chief had fought, 

He was a captive now; 
Yet pride that fortune humbles not, 
Was written on his brow.— Bryant. 

(a.) Rule XL (6.) Rule X. (c.) Rule XIV. (d.) " is set "=has set. (e.) 

" one' 1 '' is used in tho place of "jfafe." (/.) Rule IV. (g.) That is, an opportunity for 

him or any one to grow rich, (h.) Rule VIII. (£.) Rule V. (j.) " the mighty "— 

the mighty men. {]:.) " Had changed,' 1 '' " had been," and " had been esteemed,"' 1 are in the 
subjunctive mocd. 

25. ADVERB. 

As adjectives serve to describe or specify objects, so adverbs serve to 
describe or specify their actions, states, or qualities. They generally 



ADVERB. 39 

tell how, when, where, or to what degree, a thing is done ; also, how or in 
what degree a quality or property exists. 

What then would you call the following words in Italics ? — 
; ' He reasons correctly, speaks fluently, and persuades earnestly." 
"Walkwp." u Walk down. 1 ' "Walkw." " W alk out." "Vtalknow." 
" Walk slowly." " Walk not." " Fiery tall: " " horribly ugly ; ; ' u sternly 
inquisitive; " "surprisingly abrupt ; " "deadly pale; " "more ingenious;" 
" most eloquent ; " " very powerfully ; " " gmfe Jast." 

Adverbs. 

And what does an adverb seem to be ? 

An aclverto is a word used to modify the meaning of a 

verb, an adjective, or another adverb. See the examples 

above. 

What else may some adverbs occasionally modify ? 

Substantives, phrases, or entire sentences. 

Ex. — " Can not you assist me ? " "He sailed nearly round the world" " The mur- 
dered traveler's bones were found far downanarroiv glen." " Do you know him? — No. - " 

" John only borrowed the book." Here only confines the subject to a particular act. 
" Only the horse was killed." " John borrowed the book only." " John soiled the book 
only on the outside." In these sentences, only confines the verb, or act, to a particular 
subject, a particular object, a particular place. The first only limits the subject in regard 
to the verb ; the others limit the verb in regard to the subject, the object, the adjunct. 

What do most adverbs express ? 

Maimer, place, time, or degree. 

Ex. — " Elegantly, well, merrily, gayly ; here, there ; now, then ; very, more, most." 
If adverbs describe or limit as well as adjectives, can they also be compared ? 

Yes. 

How do they differ from adjectives in comparison ? 

A smaller portion of them can be compared ; and they are 
more frequently compared by more and most. 

Thus, we can say, " Slow, slower, slowest;" "Lively, livelier, liveliest:" but we 
must say " So, more so, most so ; " " Wisely, more wisely, most wisely." 

Compare soon, justly, fast, richly, ingeniously, sorrowfully, ojten, long, well, (ccmp. better 
superl. best,) badly or ill, (ivorse, worst,) little, (less, least,) much, {more, most,) far, (farther, 
farthest,) forth, (further, furthest,) now, how, then, there. 

When two or more words taken together, convey the idea of an adverb, — as, long ago, 
in vain, by and by, to and fro, the more, the less, — what is the entire expression usually 
called ? 

An adverb, or an adverbial phrase. 

526. List of Adverbs. 

Since it is not unfrequently difficult to determine whether a given word is an adverb 
or not, or to what class of adverbs it should be referred, a full catalogue is given below, 
which must be carefully and thoroughly studied. The classification, too, is more minute 
than it usually is ; because it is supposed that the nature and various powers of the 
adverbs, may be better learned by this means. 

MANNER, MODE, Or QUALITY. How f 

So, thus, well, ill, how, wisely, foolishly, justly, slowly, somehow, anyhow, however, 
howsoever, otherwise, else, likewise, like, alike, as, extempore, headlong, lengthwise, 
crosswise, across, aslant, astride, astraddle, adrift, amain, afloat, apace, apart, asunder, 



40 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

amiss, anew, fast, together, separately, aloud, accordingly, agreeably, necessarily, in vain. 
in brief, at once, in short, foot by foot, so so, so and so, helter-skelter, hurry-skurry, 
namely, suddenly, silently, feelingly, surprisingly, touchingly, trippingly, lovingly, hur- 
riedly, mournfully, sweetly, proportionally, exactly, heavily, lightly, and many others 
ending in ly and formed from adjectives or present participles. 

Place. Where t Whence f W hither ? 

Of place absolute : Here, there, yonder, where, everywhere, somewhere, universally, 
nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, anywhere, herein, therein, wherein, hereabouts, there- 
abouts, whereabouts, hereabout, thereabout, abed, aground, on high, all over, here and 
there. 

Of place reckoned from some point: Whence, hence, thence, elsewhere, otherwhere, 
away, far, afar, far off, out, remotely, abroad, above, forth, below, ahead, aloof, outwards, 
about, around, beneath, before, behind, over, under, within, without, from within, from 
without. 

Of place reclconed to some point: Whither, thither, hither, in, up, down, upwards, 
downwards, inwards, backwards, forwards, hitherward, thitherward, homeward, aside, 
ashore, afield, aloft, aboard, aground, nigh. — The forms upward, downward, backward, &c, 
are also used as adverbs. 

Of order : First, secondly, thirdly, &c, next, lastly, at last, in fine. 

Time. When? How long? How often? How soon? 
How long ago ? 

Of time absolute: Ever, never, always, eternally, perpetually, continually, con- 
stantly, endlessly, forever, incessantly, everlastingly, evermore, aye. 

Of time relative ; i. e., reckoned with, to. o> from some other time: When, whenever, 
then, meanwhile, meantime, as, while, whilst,* till, until, otberwhile, after, afterward, 
afterwards, subsequently, before, late, early, betimes, seasonably. 

Of time repeated: Again, often, oft, oftentimes, sometimes, occasionally, seldom, rare- 
ly, frequently, now and then, ever and anon, daily, weekly, hourly, monthly, yearly, 
annually, anew, once, twice, thrice, four times, &c. 

Of time present: Now, to-day, nowadays, at present, yet (=" heretofore and now, 1 ') as 
yet. 

Of time past : Yesterday, heretofore, recently, lately, of late, already, formerly, just 
now, just, anciently, since, hitherto, long since, long ago, erewhile, till now. 

Of time future : Hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, soon, to-morrow, shortly, ere- 
long, by and by, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, straightways, directly, 
forthwith, not yet, anon. 

Adverbs showing how much, to what extent, or in what degree: Much, more, most, great- 
ly, far, further, very, too, little, less, least, extra, mostly, entirely, chiefly, principally, 
mainly, generally, commonly, usually, in general, fully, full, completely, totally, wholly, 
perfectly, all, altogether, quite, exceedingly, extravagantly, immeasurely, immensely, 
excessively, boundlessly, infinitely, inconceivably, clear, stark, nearly, well-nigh, partly, 
partially, intensely, scarcely, scantily, precisely, enough, exactly, even, everso, just, equal- 
ly, sufficiently, adequately, proportionately, competently, as, so, how, however, howsoever, 
somewhat, at all. 

Of exclusion or emphasis : Merely, only, but, alone, simply, barely, just, particularly; 
especially, in particular. 

Adverbs implying something additional to what has been mentioned , or beyond what might 
be expected : Also, besides, else, still, yet, too, likewise, withal, moreover, furthermore, 
however, extra, eke, even, nevertheless, anyhow. 

Adverbs implying cause or means : Why, wherefore, therefore, hence, thence, conse- 
quently, accordingly, whereby, hereby, thereby. 

Of negation : Not, nay, no, nowise, noway, noways, by no means. 

Of admittance or affirmation : Truly, doubtless, undoubtedly, unquestionably, forsooth, 
indeed, well, very well, well then, yes, yea, ay, verily, surely, certainly, really, assuredly, 
certes, amen, of course, to be sure. 

Of doubt or uncertainty : Perhaps, probably, possibly, perchance, peradventure, haply, 
mayhap, may-be. 



ADVERB. — PARSING. 41 

Note. — The adverbs of the last three classes are sometimes termed modal adverbs. 
They are said to show " the manner of the assertion." They have a more direct reference 
to the mind of the speaker than the others have. We may deny or refuse, hesitate, con- 
sent ; disbelieve, doubt, believe ; pass from strong negation through doubt into strong 
positive assertion, and vice versa. 

Expletive Adverbs. These serve merely to begin sentences, in order to render them 
less blunt or more sprightly ; as, There, well, why. 

Conjunctive Adverbs. These connect as well as modify. They are usually adverbs 
of time, place, or m-anner ; as, When, where, while, till, as, &c. 

Adverbs that ask questions, are sometimes called interrogative adverbs. 

From the foregoing list, it may be seen that the same word may sometimes be referred 
to one class of adverbs, and sometimes to another, according to its meaning. 

Ex. — "I hare just come." (Time.) "It is just fall; " i. e., neither more nor less. 
{Extent or degree.) 

It is supposed that the student, after having carefully studied the foregoing catalogue, 
will be able to refer any adverb not in it, to its proper class. In parsing, when an adverb 
can not be easily referred to some special class, it may be more convenient to refer it to 
the general class to which it belongs. 

27. PARSING. 

What Rule may be applied to every adverb ? 

Rule XV. — Adverbs belong to the words, phrases, or sen- 
tences, which they modify. 

In parsing conjunctive adverbs, what Note is perhaps frequently preferable to the 
Rule. 

Note XV. — A conjunctive adverb joins on something 
that usually expresses the time, place, or manner. 

The adverb, and why; whether it may be compared, and how; of what hind, and to 
what it belongs : — 

Act wisely. Study diligently. Stay here now. The dogs bark fiercely. The bird 
sings sweetly. Our roses bloom beautifully. I was there once. Perhaps the mail has 
arrived. Waste not, want not. The boat moves easily but powerfully. John is yet at 
home. He reads uncommonly well. She is less handsome, but more amiable. I never 
saw him before. Make hay while the sun shines. You must study more diligently 
henceforth. The man who drinks habitually, will soon be a drunkard. You may not do 
as you please. 

u The trees are waving beautifully." 

FomiULE. — An adverb, and why; if it may be compared, say so, and 
how; of what kind, to what it belongs, and according to what Rule or 
Note. 

"■Beautifully'''' is an adverb, it modifies the meaning of a verb (are waving) ; it may 
be compared, — pos. beautifully, comp. more beautifully, superl. most beautifully ; it is an 
adverb of manner or quality, and belongs to the verb are waving, according to Rule 
XV. (Repeat it.; 

" Gather roses while they bloom." 

" While " is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb ; it is a conjunctive adverb of time, and belongs to both the verb gather 
and the verb bloom, according to Rule XV. 

Or:— 

" Wliile " is an adverb, — a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb ; conjunctive, it connects its own clause to another to express the time, 
according to Note XV. 

4 



42 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES FOB ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 

1. Adverbs Modifying Verbs. 

The horse galloped gracefully. My father has just come. 

The birds sung sweetly. The leaves must soon fall. 

The water flows rapidly. God rules everywhere. 

Mary sews and a knits well. Here will I stand. 

2. Adverbs Modifying Adjectives. 

Her child was very young. He is perfectly honest. 

The music rose softly sweet. My hat is almost new. 
John is most studious. The wound was intensely painful. 

3. Adverbs Modifying Adverbs. 

Some horses can run very fast. Thomas is not very industrious. 

He stutters nearly always. The field is not entirely planted. 

You must come very soon. She had been writing very carefully. 

4. 

Never forsake your friend. Be always sincere. Smack went the 
whip, Round went the wheels. Flowers come forth early. As you 
sow, sos you shall reap. In vain we seek for a perfect happiness b . Sadly 
and slowly we laid him down. We carved not c a line, we raised not a 
stone. But a he lay like a warrior b taking his rest. The soldier died 
where he fell. 

You have advanced not far enough yet. Even d from the tomb 
the voice of nature cries. These scenes, once so h delightful, no longer 
please him. The dew glitters when the sun rises. Joseph behaved as 
I requested him to behave. 

On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All e bloodless lay the untrodden snow, 
And dark as winter f was the flow 

Of Iser, rolling rapidly. — Campbell. 

(a.) "Words belonging to the parts of speech not yet learned by the pupil, may be 
omitted, (b.) Rule IX. (c.) " Not " limits the meaning of " carved" in respect to — 
"aline." (d.) "Even" modifies the phrase " from the tomb." Adjuncts = adverbs or 
adjectives ; hence, of course, adverbs can modify them, and not, as some grammarians 
teach, the preposition only, (e.) " All" as here used, is generally considered an adverb. 
It is perhaps really an adjective ; the meaning being, " All the untrodden snow lay blood- 
less." (/.) "dark as winter " = dark as winter is dark, (g.) Manner. 

(h.) Degree. 



28. PREPOSITION. 

When I say, " The horses are in the ferry-boat ; the ferry-boat is on the river ; and 
the river is between the hills ; " you perceive that the words in, on, and between, show 
how different objects are to one another. What are these and all such words called ? 

Prepositions. 

What is a preposition f 

A preposli ioii is a word used to show some relation 
between different things. 



PREPOSITION. — PARSING. 



43 



Ex. — " In, on, under, above, over, around, at, from, to, through." 

Note. — Preposition signifies placing before : it is usually placed before the word which 
it is said to govern. 

What does a preposition usually join to seme other word or part of the sentence ? 

A substantive denoting the place, time, doer, possessor, 
cause, source, means, manner, or some other circumstance. 

Ex. — " The apples hang on the free." " We have snow in winter." " He was stabbed 
BY a volunteer, with the sword of a Texan." "Calm in sickness, brave in war, and 
wise in counsel." 

What is the preposition with its object, or with the words required after it to com- 
plete the sense, usually called ? 

An adjunct. 

Is the preposition always expressed ? 

It is sometimes understood. 

Ex. — " Give him his book " = Give his book to him. " I stood near him " — I stood 
near to him. " He is like his father " = He is like to or unto his father. 



JList of Prepositions. 



A 


Bating 


about 


before 


above 


behind 


aboard 


below 


across 


beneath 


after 


beside ) 
besides \ 


against 


along 


between 


amid ]_ 


betwixt 


amidst j 


beyond 


among |_ 


but 


amongst j 


by 


around 


Concerning 


at 


Daring 


aslant 


down 


athwart 


despite 



Ere 


round 


upon 


cross 


except 


Since 


Versus 


dehor? 


excepting 


save 


With 


inside 


For 


saving 


within 


outside 


from 


Through 


without. 


withinside 


In 


throughout 




withal 


into [ing 


till 


Not Common. 


maugre 


Notwithstand- 


to 


atween 


minus 


Of 


touching 


aneath 


plus 


Off 


toward { 


adown 


thorough 


on 


towards ) 


afore 


than 


over 


Under 


abaft 


sans 


Past 


underneath 


alongside 


via. 


pending 


until 


aloft 




per 


unto 


aloof 




Respecting 


up 


atwixt 





When two or more consecutive words are used in the sense of a pre- 
position, or when two or more consecutive prepositions express one com- 
plex relation, the whole phrase may be termed a complex preposition, 
a 'prepositional phrase, or simply a preposition. 



As for 
as to 

according to 
aboard of 



along with 
because of 
from among 
from betwixt 



from off 
from out 
from beyond 
out of 



from out of 
from before 
from under 
round about. 



PARSING. 



What "Rule is applicable, to prepositions ? 

Rule XVL — A preposition shores the relation of a sub- 
stantive or an attributive word, to an objective. 

Note.*— An attributive wcid may be a verb, en adjective, or an adverb. 



44 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

The prepositions, and why ; and between what words they shoic the relation : — 

There are fishes in the sea. My dinner is in nry basket under the bench. Beneath 
the oak lie acorns in abundance. He tied a handkerchief round his head. He walked 
round his field in search of his horse. The deer ran through the bushes into the river. 
In affairs of state he was prompt and prudent, By assisting me, you will confer a great 
favor on me. There was a sound of revelry by night, A tear stood in his bright blue 
eye. With dying hand, above his head He shook the fragment of his blade. 'Midst 
those green wilds how many a fount lies gleaming, Fringed with the violet, colored with 
the skies ! 

" The water flows over the dam." 

Formule. — A preposition, — definition; between what it shows the 
relation : Rule. 

" Over " is a preposition, — a word used to show some relation between different things ; 
it here shows the relation of "flows" to " dam,"'' according to Rule XVI. (Repeat it.) 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

1. 
I found a dollar in the road. In spring, the leaves come forth. 
The statesman toils for fame. We should not live beyond our means. 
I stuck a thorn into my thumb. A boat went up the river yesterday, 
on her way to St. Louis. He struggled manfully against the evils of 
fortune. An eagle rose near a the city, and flew over it far away be- 
yond the distant hills. We traveled from New York to Washington 
City, by railroad, in eight hours. As to the policy of the measure, I 
shall say nothing. The river is washing the soil from under the tree. 
I caught a turtle instead b of a fish. 

2. 
A line of woody hills stretched into the vast level prairie, like a 
promontory into the bosom of the ocean. — Irving. 

Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, 

In rayless majesty now stretches forth 

Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. — Young. 

There stood a forest on the mountain's brow, 

Which overlooked the shaded plains below; 

No sounding axe presumed those trees to bite, 

Coeval with the world, a venerable sight . — Dry den! s Virgil. 

(a.) Kule II. (b.) " Instead of" is better written and parsed as three words, 
(c.) Kule XI. 

30. CONJUNCTION. 

When I say, "John and James write; " " John writes and ciphers ;" 
" John writes fast and well;" " John spilt his ink on his desk and on 
the floor;" " John writes twice every day, and I generally look at his 
writing ; " you perceive that the word and brings on something more to 
what has been said, or joins together two words, two phrases, or two 
sentences. What, then, may all such connecting words be called? 

Conjunctions. 

Note. — Conjunction signifies joining together, union. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 45 

Do not most conjunctions serve for something more than merely to connect the parts 
of discourse? 

Yes : they also intimate how the speaker means what he is 
about to say, to be regarded in respect to what is already said. 

Ex. — " Grain will be cheap and perhaps unsalable." " Grain will be cheap, for the 
harvest is abundant." "Grain will be cheap, if the winter continue mild." "Grain 
will be cheap, but now it is dear." " He rides, if he is sick." " He rides, though he is 
sick." " He rides, because he is sick." 

What definition then may be given of conjunctions ? 

A conjunction is a word that joins something to another 
part of the discourse, and shows how the parts so connected 
are viewed with respect to each other. 

Can you mention some of the principal ideas usually suggested by conjunctions in 
reference to the parts connected ? 

Addition, alternativeness, cause, consequence, motive, con- 
dition, concession, contrariety, and comparison. 

When two or more consecutive conjunctions are blended in meaning, or when two or 
more consecutive words are used in the sense of a conjunction, what may the entire ex • 
pression be called ? 

A complex conjunction, or a conjunctive phrase, or simply 
a conjunction. 

Ex. — " The rider, as well as the horse, was killed." "And yet he still persists in his 
course." 

What is said of a conjunction that answers to some other word or conjunction, or 
naturally suggests it ? 

It is said to correspond to the other word or conjunction. 

Ex. — " I will neither buy nor sell." " Though he reproves me, yet I esteem him." 
Note. — A corresponding conjunction may frequently be omitted without injuring 
the sense. 

Where are conjunctions mostly used ? • 

In connecting the parts of compound sentences. 

Are conjunctions ever understood ? 

Sometimes they are ; and other words are generally under- 
stood after them. 

Ex. — " Rout, a ruin, a panic, seized them all." " I knewx he had lost it." " You 
may first read this sentence, and thenA parse it." 

By examining the beginning of this section, what words would yon infer may be 

connected by conjunctions ? 

Words of almost any part of speech. 

How may adjectives and adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, be distinguished 
from one another ; or what is the main characteristic of each class ? 

Of the adjective and adverb, to modify or limit ; of the 
preposition, to govern a substantive in the objective case ; and 
of the conjunction, to connect. 

liist of Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions implying continuance simply or emphatically : And, as well as, again, also, 
besides, both, moreover, furthermore, even, nay, so (*«also). 



46 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

Alternativeness : Or, nor, either, neither, or else. 

Comparison: Than, as. 

Concession: Although, though, even if, even though, notwithstanding, albeit. 

Condition or doubt: If, unless, (=if not), whether, provided, provided that, so, except, 
lest. 

Contrariety or reservation : But, yet, still, however, howsoever, nevertheless, notwith- 
standing, unless (=but not — if), except, except that, save. 

Cause or reason : Because, for, since, as, seeing, inasmuch as, forasmuch as, whereas. 

Consequence or inference : Then, so, therefore, wherefore. 

Purpose or motive : That, so that, in order that, lest, so as. 

Note. — That is often used to show, that all the rest of the words in the clause are to 
be considered together as denoting but one thing, which is used either as a principal or 
as a modifying element in the sentence. 

Corresponding conjunctions: Either — or; neither — nor; whether — or; if — then; 
though, or although— yet : both — and; as — so; as— as. 

Note. — Conjunctions are sometimes accumulated, or take adverbial particles, merely 
to strengthen or to modify slightly the connection between the parts. Sometimes, 
phrases even, or adverbial particles, may be treated simply as conjunctions, unless great 
accuracy is required ; or else they may be analyzed more rigidly otherwise, especially by 
supplying such words as may be reasonably supposed to have been omitted. 

31. PARSING. 

What Rule is applicable to conjunctions ? 

Rule XVII. — Conjunctions connect sentences ; or parts of 
a sentence, that are usually in the same construction. 

Tell wh'ch ore the conjunctions; what they imply ; what they connect ; and what ic or da 
are understood : — 

John and James study. Sin may give momentary pleasure, but repentance is sure to 
follow. You must study, if you would be wise. Wisdom is better than gold. It is sown 
a natural body ; it is raised a spiritual body. Indolence brings poverty ; poverty, misery. 
He knows that you are his friend. Either John or James may go. Neither time nor 
distance can separate us. 

Though he is young, yet he is expert in business. Strange, indeed ! he should have 
known me. Will you go there ? — I go there ! Never. 

" The meadow produces grass and flowers." 
"You must either buy mine or sell yours." 

Formule. — A conjunction, and why; its peculiar nature; what it 

innPPtQ- "Rnlp XVIT 



connects; Rule XVII. 



" And *' is a conjunction, — a word that joins something to another part of the dis- 
course, and shows how the parts so connected are viewed with respect to each other ; it 
implies simply continuance, or that something more is added, and connects the words 
grass and flowers, according to Rule XVII. 

"Either" is a conjunction, a word &c. * * * it corresponds* to or, and assists it in 
connecting two phrases according to Rule XVII. 

" Or " is a conjunction, etc. * * * it is alternative, or allows but one of the things 
offered, to the exclusion of the rest ; it here corresponds to either, and connects two ph rates 
according to Rule XVII. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Learning refines and elevates the mind. Eagles generally go alone, 
but little birds go in flocks. I know this peach is good, because it is 
ripe. I know a this peach is good, because I have tasted it. The silk was 



& 



ANALYSIS. — COMPOUND SENTENCES. 47 

light-blue, or sky-colored, though it should have been white or black. 
Unless you live virtuously, you can not be happy. You must write im- 
mediately, unless you have already written. Again, every man is enti- 
tled to compensation for his services. If it rain to-morrow, we shall 
have to remain at home. He was always courteous to wise and gifted 
men ; for he knew that talents, though in poverty, are more glorious 
than riches or birth [are]. I go, but I return. Whether my brother 
come or not, I will either buy or rent the farm. Neither precept nor 
discipline is so forcible as example [is]. Though he is poor, yet he is 
honest. If you can not resist sin, then avoid temptation. The mother 
as well as the father should be intelligent. 1 will pardon you, inasmuch 
as you repent. He has labored long and diligently, and yet he is still 
poor. 

I have no mother, for she died 
When I was very young ; 

But her memory still around my heart, 
Like morning mists, has hung. 

(a.) Transitive. " This peach is good," or — that this peach is good, is here used as a 
noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular number, and in the objective case, — 
being the object of know — according to Bule VIII. Now parse " this " &c. as before. 

32. ANALYSIS.— COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Of what does a compound sentence consist ? 

Of more propositions than one : its propositions are termed 
clauses. 

Ex. — " The last load of grain is brought home, and the tables are spread for the har- 
vest feast." 

When two or more clauses are taken together as a distinct part of the sentence, what 
may they be termed ? 

A member. 

Ex. — " As the flowers fade, and the waters flow to the ocean ; so youth and beauty 
pass away, and our years hasten to eternity." 

What words are applied to clauses in order to describe or distinguish them ? 

Principal, independent, coordinate, dependent, subordinate. 

When a clause is modified by another, or embosoms a modifying clause, when it 
makes sense standing alone, or when it does not in any way modify another clause, what 
is it termed. 

A principal, an independent, or a coordinate clause. 

When a clause modifies some part of another, when it can not stand alone and make 
sense, or when it can make complete sense only in connection with another clause, what 
is said of it ? 

It is said to be subordinate or dependent. 

When may a clause be appropriately termed subordinate ? 

When it performs the office of an adjective, an adverb, or 
a noun. 

Ex. — " The boy who- studies, will learn " == The studious boy will learn. " He begins 
to work before the sun rises " = He begins to work early. "It is well known that he is 
incompetent " «=» That he is incompetent, is well known <= Mis incowipetence is well known. 



48 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

How are such clauses usually joined to their principal clause ? 

By a relative pronoun, a conjunctive adverb, the word that, 
or some interrogative word. 

How are the clauses of a sentence connected ? 

By conjunctions, adverbs, or relative pronouns ; sometimes 
a clause is very intimately or very slightly connected to 
another by simple succession. 

How should clauses be analyzed ? 

Like simple sentences. 

What is sometimes necessary to be done, in analyzing compound sentences ? 

To bring transposed parts together, and to make imperfect 
parts full. 

Ex. — " Of this affair, since it is your wish, I will speak hereafter. " " She looked, as 
ever, very handsome," i. e., as she ever looks. 

What may a nominative absolute with its modifying words be called ? 

An abridged subordinate clause, expressing usually time or 
cause. 

Ex. — "The sun having risen, we set sail" = When the sun had risen, we set sail. 
"My mother being sick, I remained at home " = Because my mother was sick, I 
remained &c. 

models. 

" A man that saves the fragments of time, will accomplish 
much in the course of his life." 

This is a compound declarative sentence : declarative, it expresses a declaration ; 
compound, it consists of more propositions than one. " A man that saves the fragments of 
time," is the entire subject of the principal clause, because it denotes that of which some- 
thing is affirmed; and "will accomplish much in the course of his life," is the entire 
predicate, because it denotes what is affirmed of the subject. l 'Man " is the subject -nomina- 
tive ; and it is modified by the article "A," and the clause " that saves the fragments of 
time : " " will accomplish " is the predicate- verb, and is modified by the objective " much " 
and the adjunct " in the course of his life." 

"That saves the fragments of time,' 1 '' is a proposition connected to "man" by the 
relative " that" as a subordinate clause, performing the office of an adjective. 

" That" is the entire subject, and the subject-nominative : "saves the fragments of 
time" is the entire predicate; "saves" is the predicate-verb, and is modified by its 
objective "fragment*," which is itself modified by the article "the" and the adjunct 
" of time." 

" My son, if thou wouldst receive my words, and hide my 
commandments with thee, so that thou mayst gain wisdom ; 
yea, if thou wouldst seek it as silver, and search for it as 
hidden treasure, — then live in the fear of the Lord, and find 
the knowledge of God." 

This is a compound imperative sentence : compound, it is composed of several simple 
sentences ; imperative^ its chief aim is to express a command or exhortation. 

" My so/?," — • 

This is an independent phrase, because it has no grammatical connection with the 
rest of the sentence. Etc. (Proceed as before.) 

" If thou wouldst receive my words, and hide my commandments with 
thee,"— 

This is a simple sentence, connected, as a dependent clause, by the conjunction "1/," 
to the last clause of the sentence. Etc. (Proceed as before.) 



INTERJECTION. 49 

11 So that thou mayst gain wisdom; v — 

This is a clause dependent on the clause preceding it, to which it is connected by 
"so that." Etc. 

" Yea, if thou wouldst seek it as silver, and search for it as hidden 
treasure; 11 — 

Thi3 is a clause coordinate with the member preceding it, to which it is connected by 
the emphatic " yea," and dependent on the last clause of the sentence, to which it ia 
connected by " if." 

" As silver 11 — " As for hidden treasure ; " — 

" As siloer " is put for " as you would seek for silver ," and is therefore a clause, con- 
nected to the preceding predicate by " as " as a subordinate clause, performing the office 
of an adverb of manner. Etc. 

11 Then live in the fear of the Lord, and find the knowledge of God. 1 ' 

This is the principal or independent clause, connected by " then" to the rest of the 
sentence. Etc. 

Note. — Long sentences are most easily analyzed by commencing at the beginning of 
the sentence, and taking not more than one clause, independent word or phrase, at a 
time, and proceeding thus until the entire sentence is exhausted. 

J3^~ Note. — For sentences to be analyzed, turn to the preceding page, and to th8 
last pages of this Outline. 

33. INTERJECTION. 

In every language, there are certain words used when the mind i3 suddenly or greatly 
excited, in order to give vent to some strong feeling or sudden emotion. 

As these words are generally disconnected from the rest of the sentence, and may be- 
omitted without injuring the sense, they have been called interjections. 

What is an interjection ? 

An interjection is a word that expresses an emotion 
only, and is not connected in construction with any other word. 

Ex. — "Alas! fie! 0! oh! ah! hurrah! hail! adieu!" "0 Grave! where is thy 
victory?" "Those were happy days, but, alas! they are no more." "Pshaw! nevei 
mind it." 

Where are interjections most frequently found, and what may aid U3 in discovering 
thera ? 

In poetry and in oratory : they are generally followed by^ 
the exclamation point. 

As the heart is susceptible of many different emotions or feelings, the interjections 
may be divided into various classes. 

last of" Interjections. 

Of sorrow, grief or pity : Oh! alas! ah! alack! hoo ! welladay f 

Of earnestness or joy : ! eigh ! hey I eh ! ha ! 

Of surprise, wonder, or horror : Hah ! ha ! what ! h'm ! heigh ! strange ! indeed I 
hey-dey ! la ! whew ! zounds ! eh ! ah ! oh ! 

Of contempt or aversion : Pshaw ! pish ! tut ! tush ! poh ! foh ! bah ! humph I faugh I 
whew! off! begone! avaunt! 

Of exultation or approbation : Aha I ah ! hey ! huzzah ! hurrah ! good ! bravo ! 

Of attention or calling: Ho! lo ! behold! look! see! hark! la! heigh-ho! soho 
hollo! halloa! hoy! hold! whoh! halt! 'st ! 

Of silence : Hush ! hist ! whist ! 'st ! aw ! mum ! 

Of interrogating : Eh ? hem, or h'm ? (The opposite of the preceding clai«). 

3 



50 BOOK FIRST — -AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

Of detection: Aha! oho! ay-ay! 
Of laughter : Ha, ha, ha ! he, he, he ! 

Of saluting or parting : Welcome! hail! all-hail! adieu! good-by ! and perhaps good- 
day ! good-night ! good-morning ! good-evening ! ,. : ,, v ,^ 

Note. — It is difficult to make a satisfactory classification of interjections. Most of 
them are used with great latitude of meaning; that is, in various senses. When the 
learner meets with an interjection, it is perhaps best that he should determine its mean- 
ing from the spirit of the sentence or discourse. 

34. PARSING. 

What Rule may be applied to interjections ? 

Rule XVIII. — An Interjection has no grammatical connec- 
tion with other words. 

" Alas ! no hope for me remains." 
Formule. — An interjection, and why ; its peculiar nature or meaning ; 
Rule. 

"Alas " is an Interjection, it expresses an emotion only, and is not connected in con- 
struction with any other word ; it here implies grief or dejection, and stands independent, 
according to Rule XVIII. 



If a man cultivates the earth, he may be styled a farmer ; if the same 
man should engage in the business of buying and selling goods, a mer- 
chant ; if in preaching the gospel, a preacher ; even so the same word, 
according to its use, is sometimes of one part of speech, and sometimes 
of another. 

Ex. — " A blade horse ; " " To blade boots ; " " Blade is a color." 

The first black is an adjective ; the second, a verb ; and the third, a noun. 



EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

0, young Lochinvar is come out of the West. Ah! few a A shall part 
where many a A meet ! Oh Desdemona b ! Desdemona ! dead ? Dead ! Oh ! 
oh ! oh ! The tree blossoms sweetly. Sweet blossoms adorn the tree. 
Give what d you can spare. Wh'at e is that yonder? I know not what e 
it is. What* a simpleton he is ! What* is a pronoun. Is is is e . What ! 
shall we never have any rest? The train from out the castle drew ; But 
Marmion stopped to bid adieu. 

(a.) Rule II. (6.) Eule V. (c.) Art thou dead ? {d.) Rule XII. (e.) Rule XI. 
(/.) Rule IV. 

35. REVIEW AND EXERCISES. 

The part of speech, and why : — 

House, book, John, Mary, village, tree, magnolia, Mississippi, dewy, fearful, beauti- 
ful, I, we, completely, fiercely, sick, sickly, wisest, in, on, to, by, under, aha ! because, 
slow, better, than, our, us, what, to cry, govern, thinks, pinks, roses, garden, here, there, 
then, now, if, she, George Washington, sun-tipped, dew-spangled, foh ! hush ! welcome ! 
a neat dress ; a lovely countenance ; auburn hair ; a tree bending ; palaces magnificent. 
The children sleep. Heavy winds sometimes prostrate trees. Study diligently and zeal- 
ously. Do not treat the humblest animal with wanton cruelty. We might have dons 
better. I had a dream, — a strange, wild dream. The earth was green with spring, fresh 



EXERCISES. 51 

with dew, and bright with morning light. A rolling stone gathers no moss. Idleness is 
the greatest prodigality. Kissing goes by favor. Eat what you like, but pocket nothing 
To criticise is easier than to be correct. He who knows himself best, esteems himself 
least. 

Whether proper or common, and why : — 

Bonaparte, Europe, country, basket, stone, Rome, Britain, George, field, poetry, 
chain, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Montauk Point, river, Ohio, mountain, Andes' 
senator, president, Winthrop, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, sword, knife, city, New 
Orleans, bud, soil, hope, peace, army, collection, angel, throne, confusion, tree, soul, 
mind, Sunday, February, 1854. 

Gender, and why : — 

Father, brother, mother, Kufus, seamstress, lily, cousin, knife, neighbor, sister, son, 
dog, iron, violin, violet, temptation, he, it, she, they, we, you, its, her, hers, his, itself, 
himself, herself, my, I, you, thee, whatever, which, who, others, corn, weasel, sheep, cow^ 
salt, him, hymn, thistle, sycamore, gnat, fly, lizard, fish, perch, goose, man, woman, 
thing, master, mistress, miss, sir, governor, heroine, administratrix, benefactress, mar- 
quis, paper, ink, hand, mouth, member, community, nation. John is a noun. 

Person, and why : — 

I, he, she, you, thou, us, our, we, my, me, ye, your, it, its, they, her, she, mine, yours, 
thy, thine, hers, his ; John's hat ; William's horse ; the drooping willow ; the cedars ; 
a turtle-dove ; my dictionary ; your grammar ; his knife ; her needle and thread ; Wash- 
ington's birthday. Depend not on foitune, but on conduct. I am the captain, sir. I 
am captain, sir. 

JNumber, and why : — 

Book, books, rose, roses, apple, apples, razor, partridge, geese, friends, neighbors, 
key, letters, we, him, this, these, that, those, they, them, one, ones, my, our, ours, you, 
she, it, its, I, me, who, what, swarm, army, flock, imagination, anger, love, inkstand, 
pens, reads, is, has, was demolished, glove, gloves, ashes, annals, honey, molasses, fever, 
measles, a, an, each, every, either. 

Case, and ivhy : — 

John found Mary's book. Lucy's lamb nips the grass. The sun illuminates the 
world. Softly blows the breeze. The lilies are blooming. No man can learn every thing. 
He wrote his name in his book. Our books belong to us. Corals grow in the ocean. 
Ripe cherries hang on the tree. The flags in the pond are blooming. Great barkers are 
not biters. The price of liberty is eternal vigilance. The rain ceasing, we renewed our 
journey. The Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they? My banks they are furnished with 
bees. Wo is me, Alhama ! Can you tell which is which ? 

Gender, person, number, and case: — 

My, he, she, it, they, us, our, yours, your, them, me, we, you, hers, its, yourself, our- 
selves, themselves, who, whose, whom, what, which, whoever, others, one's, that, none, 
as ; John's coat ; my neighbor's field. To love is to obey. Promising and performing 
are different things. Why he did not go, is obvious. I believe that the people of a republic 
may abuse their liberty, as well as a despot his power. (Believe what ?) 

Compare : — 

Wise, great, peaceful, studious, near, high, melodious, tuneful, saucy, eloquent, ex- 
pressive, modest, lively, friendly, slowly, richly, wisely, sickly, fairly, sprightly, feeble, 
nimble, ample, sedate, remote, distant, profound, soon, long, late, often, little, well, good, 
many, much, narrow, nice, grave, shallow-brained, glowing, admired, knowing, accom- 
plished, interesting, expert, half-finished. 

Of what degree, and why : — 

Blue, hard, harder, hardest, little, less, best, least, stronger, deepest, politer, freeborn, 
happier, loveliest, more forlorn, most dutiful, less intelligent, more, greater, smaller, 
downtrodden, blood-red, icy, sunny, sharp, sharper, sharpest, topmost, foremost, utmost, 
nut-brown, uniform, level, farthest, worse, faster, most assuredly, less elegantly, precisely, 
least desirous, American, Asiatic, French ; the rosy-fingered Morn ; the star-powdered 
galaxy. Let me alone ; — I am not in the best humor ; — I feel somewhat tigerish. How 
can you love such a sallow, sour, sulky, snappish, catfaced, glass-eyed, flax -haired spin- 
ster ? 



52 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

The verbs, and why ; whether transitive, passive, intransitive, or neuter, and why : — 
John swims. The bird nutters. The trees wave. James was wounded. The apples 
are cut. The boots are mended. The workmen have built the house. The Indians 
bound their prisoners. The prisoners were bound. The tree leans. Here fought the 
brave. The rose is fragrant. The lightnings flash. The thunder roars. The snow is 
melting. The sun is melting the snow. Lips however rosy must be fed. The mill can 
not grind with the water that has passed. Think of ease, but work on. Riches are got 
with pain, kept with care, and lost with grief. 

The participles and the infinitives, and why ; whether transitive, passive, intransitive, or 
neuter, andiohy; whether present or perfect, and why: 

Planting, planted, being planted, having planted, having been planted, having been 
planting, to plant, to be planted, to be planting, to have planted, to have been planted, 
to have1t)een planting; being, been, having been, to be, to have been. We ought not, 
when injured, to injure in return. The dog, having seen the child fall into the river, 
swam in to save it. He was ordered to leave the neighborhood, as he was supposed to 
have stolen the horse. When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last time, the 
sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored fragments of a 
once glorious Union ; on States severed, discordant, belligerent ; on a land rent with civil 
feuds, or drenched, it may be, with fraternal blood ! 

Give the principal parts ; and tell us whether the verb is regular or irregular^ and ivhy : — 

Attack, distract, proved, forming, heal, feel, hear, clear, perusing, having advised, to 
amuse to 'be enticed, to have been tracing, permit, regret, pervert, authorize, cry, try, 
Wing/surveyed, to have been measured, withered, adhered, was, to have been, requested, 
was "found, stripped, signify, concur, appear, lay, say, sit, lie, lain, laid, were insured, 
travel arise, comprise, hold, scold, bleed, heed, awake, forsake, find, blind, drink, think, 
wink 'bring', cling, wing, tail, call, see, flee, fee, fly, try, get, set, whet, hit, spit, twit, tell, 
swell', spell, quell. 

Mood, and why; tense, and why:— 

We study. They write. He wrote. She has written. I had written. The coat 
will be finished. The garden looks fresh. The work will have been accomplished. We 
must study. Young folks may die, but old folks must die. You should love your 
Creator. He might learn faster. They may go with us. He can speak. It may have 
been. Strike for liberty. Love your country. Read, write, and study, daily. Bring the 
horse. Make a fire. Improve your time. Never betray. To write, to plow, to ride, to 
have rode to polish, to have polished, to have been polished, to bloom, to have been 
blooming,' flying, flown, fleeing, fled, flowing, flowed. The winter has departed. Spring 
is delightful. The plow-boys are whistling and singing. He would rob others, if there 
were no law to curb his avarice. If the mail has come, bring my letters. If the day be 
fair I shall accompany you. Were I in his situation. Had I studied more diligently. 
that he were wiser. If you be disappointed, blame not me. May you be happy. lie 
is'as merry as if nothing were troubling him . He is as merry as if nothing troubled him . 
If the line is drawn bisecting the angle, the segments are equal. If the line be drawn 
bisecting the angle, the segments will be equal. Our government will fall, if it lose the 
confidence of the people. This government would fall, if it lost the confidence of the 
neople. This government would have fallen, had it lost the confidence of the people. 

The person and number of the verb : — 

I study. We write. He stutters. Grass grows. She hopes. They believe. They 
were You might improve. Thou art the man. It is. Ye are. Thou hast been. The 
wind has risen. The rain falls. Cows are lowing. The cricket chirps. Desires are 
nourished by deiays. Sing, heavenly Muse. Wave your tops, ye pines! Beware! Think 
of thy chains. Bright angels ! strike your loudest strings. Seek we the shade. Ac- 
cursed be he. ' It is I. It is they. I myself saw him. You yourselves must do it. The 
general himself was slain. Down went the ship and her gallant crew. Down went the 
shin with her gallant crew. The public are invited. The colony was injured by civil 
dissensions A barrel of whisky, and an old horse, were given for this lot. A barrel of 
whisky, or* an old horse, was given for this lot. Many a man has been ruined by 
speculation. 

The adverbs; of what kind, and what they modify:— 

Now wisely, melodiously, moderately, tolerably, elegantly, here, there, hither, down- 
wards forwards, always, sometimes, very, sweetly, hereafter, thrice, long ago, by and by, 
never 'too how, why, where ; wonderfully made ; elegantly carved ; beautifully colored ; 
very rich • exceedingly wretched ; too fast ; rather slender. A true friend unbosoms 



EXERCISES. 53 

freely, advises justly, assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently, defends 
courageously, and continues a friend unchangeably. He has marched not quite far 
enough as yet perhaps. Perhaps there never was a time when I needed your assistance 
more than now. He is poor enough, that is not loved. Play is good while it is play. 
Never speak ill of them whor>e bread you eat. We must eat a peck of salt with a man, 
before we know him. When friends meet, hearts warm. 

The prepositions, and between what they show the relation : — 

Flowers are growing along the rivulet. The water rushes through the dam. There 
is no water in the bucket. Above, around, and beneath him were clouds. 

He was rowing up the stream ; but I, down the stream. We found apples on the 
trees. There was a bridge across the river. It happened in the morning, on a summer's 
day. A boy in the woods — in trouble — in danger — in a fright, — eager in studying. To 
go round the Are — round the field — round the world. To stand round the fire. To bind 
round the waist — round the head. He came from home — sprung from illustrious ances- 
tors — died from intoxication. He was stabbed through the body. It happened through 
carelessness. I saw him through the window. Among the leaves the blossoms hang. 
Sweet songs were heard the leafy dells along. 

The conjunctions ; what they imply, and what they connect: — 

And, also, because, since, yet, but, however, if, though, that, unless, inasmuch as, 
notwithstanding, or, nor. If John and William come, you must go. I did not, because 
I could not. John is industrious, but James is indolent. He is neither learned, nor 
naturally sagacious. I will either come or send. Unless you are economical, you will 
never become rich. 'Tis true, but still I love him not. 

The interjections, and of what hind : 

! oh ! alas ! welcome ! hail ! ho ! ah ! tush ! hurrah ! Deluded hopes ! — oh, worse 
than death. Tut ! such aristocracy. La you ! if you speak ill of the devil, how he takes 
it to heart. Aha ! caught at last. Welcome ! mighty chief once more. Welcome ! to 
Columbia's shore. Adieu ! adieu ! dear native land. 

Point out the clauses : — 

Show what parts in the structure of these sentences are compound or serial : — 

Tell of what part of speech each word is, and dispose of it — giving the Rule that applies 
to it : — 

" Because I eat and drink without luxury, banishing all foreign superfluity ; because 
I dress myself in a way at once comfortable, and pleasing to the eye ; because I reinstate 
the manly beard in its lost honor ; because I withstand privileges and prejudices, and 
would pass for no more than I am worth ; because I will not establish my character by 
a duel, or bear about the insignia of real or feigned services ; because I forswear deceit, 
and assert, the truth without fear, — am I therefore to be treated, in the nineteenth cen- 
tury, as a fool ? " 

" If thou art a child, and hast ever added a sorrow to the soul or a furrow to the sil- 
vered brow of an affectionate parent ; if thou art a husband, and hast ever caused the fond 
bosom that ventured its whole happiness in thy arms, to doubt one moment of thy kind- 
ness or thy truth ; if thou art a friend, and hast ever wronged in thought, or word, or deed, 
the spirit that generously confided in thee, — then be sure that every unkind look, every 
ungracious word, every ungentle action, will come thronging back upon thy memory, and 
knocking dolefully at thy soul ; then be sure that tnou wilt lie down sorrowing and re- 
pentant on the grave, and utter the unheard groan, and pour the unavailing tear, more 
deep, more bitter, because unavailing." — Irving. 

36. EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

l. 
" I have found violets, fresh young violets 11 ."* — Willis. 
11 Our life is one long lesson." — Bolter. 

" Self-love is not so great a sin as 17 self-neglecting 4 ." — Shahspeare. 
" He should consider often, who 3 can choose but 15 once." 



* In these and all future Exercises, a number placed over a word, indicates the Rul .* 
to be applied to it ; and a caret shows ellipsis. 



54 BOOK FIRST — AN OUTLINE OF GRAMMAR. 

" It is knowledge enough for some people, to know 11 how far they can 
proceed in mischief with impunity." — British Essayists. 

" The question of what are to be the powers of the crown, is superior 
to that 9 of who is to wear it." — Fox. 

" It was very prettily said, ' That we may learn the little value of 
fortune by the persons on whom Heaven is pleased to 1 bestow it.' " 

Steele. 

u Talent is full of thoughts; but Genius A , full of thought." 

" Sweet clime 5 of my kindred, blest land of my birth ! 
The fairest A , the dearest A , the brightest^ on earth ! " 

"Accordingly, a company assembled 13 , armed 14 and accoutred, and 
having procured 14 a fieldpiece, appointedi 3 Major Harrison commander**, 
and proceeded to accomplish* 4 their design." — History of Ohio. 

u Like the leaves 9 of the forest when summer is green, 
That host with their banners al sunset were seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown." — Byron. 

2. 

"My warriors fell around me; it began to look dismal. I saw my 
evil day at hand. The sun rose dim on us in the morning, and at 
night it sank in a dark cloud, and looked like a ball of fire. That 2 
was the last sun that 4 shone on Black Hawk. His heart is dead, and 
noi 5 longer beats quick 2 in his bosom. He is now a prisoner to the 
white men; they will do with him as they wish. But he can stand 
torture, and is not afraid 2 of death. He is no 2 coward. Black Hawk is 
an Indian." — Black Hawk. 

3. 
" Though the world smile on you blandly, 
Let your friends be choice and few ; 
Choose your course, pursue it grandly, 
And achieve what you pursue." — T. B. Read. 

4- 

" Sweet is the breath of Morn, her rising 4 A sweet 
With charm of earliest birds; pleasant the Sun, 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams — on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, 
Glistening with dew; fragrant the fertile Earth 
After soft showers ; and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful Evening mild ; then silent Night, 
With this her solemn bird, and this fair Moon, 
And these the gems of Heaven, her starry train." — Milton. 



BOOK SECOND. 

THE GRAMMATICAL PRINCIPLES OF STANDARD ENGLISH. 

This Booh aims to unfold and exhibit the language AS it is in its correct 
state, — to teach all those properties in respect to which we are liable to 
errors, and those facts or principles which essentially comprise the nature 
and power of the language. 

Note. — Some errors for correction will be given now and then, chiefly to show the student 
the use and value of the principles taught. 



1. INTRODUCTORY YIEWS. 

Grammar treats of language. 

Taken in its widest application, the Grammar of a language 
shows how, according to the best usage, its words are formed, 
modified, and arranged, to express ideas and thoughts. 

Note. — Language, so far as Grammar is concerned with it, pertains to words, and is 
either spoken or written. Objects, actions, and sounds not articulate; may also he occa- 
sionally used as language, which is sometimes termed natural language, hut in many 
instances more appropriately symbolic language. Thus, the Indians give the calumet 
to denote peace and friendship ; for smoking naturally indicates a satisfied, composed, and 
tranquil mind. 

Language is doubtless the spontaneous result of Reason brought in contact with the 
World, — spontaneous somewhat like the music of an iEolian harp when brought in con- 
tact with the wind. Vivid thoughts naturally pass into some kind of language. And if 
Adam was as far superior to Shakspeare as Shakspeare to common men ; if Eve was a 
corresponding paragon of her sex ; and if Shakspeare described the entire world in 
twenty-five years, — surely Adam and Eve, experiencing every extreme of bliss and of 
woe, were capable of producing, in several hundred years, a language adequate to all the 
common necessities of the race. 

Not only Grammar, but also Logic and Rhetoric treat of language. 
How, then, shall we distinguish them ? 

Were I to write such a treatise about language as would show how it 
is adapted, and how it should be used, to express thoughts rightly ac- 
cording to truth and reason, it would be termed a logic. 

Were I to write such a one as would show how sentiments are ex- 
pressed to make the most vivid and effectual impression, it would be 
termed a rhetoric. 

Were I to write one treating of the body or living form of some lan- 
guage, — of its letters, syllables, and words with their modifications and 
structure, — it would be termed a grammar. 



Of what does Grammar treat ? What docs it show ? 



56 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

The following paragraph displays most logic : — 

st On the contrary, the antagonistic interest, — that which supports the government, has 
the opposite tendency ; — a tendency to be represented by many, because a large assembly 
can better judge, than one individual or a few, what burdens tlie community can bear, 
and how they can be most easily distributed, and most easily collected. 1 '— Calhoun. 
See also Loomis's Geometry, Book VII, Proposition^XIX. 
The following paragraphs display most rhetoric: — 

'^Driven from their homes into the gloomy and almost impenetrable swamps, even 
there the spirit of liberty survived ; and South Carolina, sustained by the example of 
her Sumpters and her Marions, proved, by her conduct, that, though her soil might be 
Overrun, the spirit of her people was invincible." — Hayne. 

" The eulogium pronoimced on the character of the State of South Carolina, by the 
honorable gentleman, for her Revolutionary and other merits, meets my hearty concur- 
rence. * * * I shall enter on no encomium upon* Massachusetts ; — she needs iione. There 
she is, — behold her, and judge for yourselves. There is her history, — the world knows 
it by heart. The past, at least, is secure. There is Concord, and Lexington, and Bunk- 
er's Hill, — and there they will remain forever." — Webster. 

" She never told her love, 
But let concealment, like a worm in the bud, 
Feed on her damask cheek : she pined in thought, 
And with a green and yellow melancholy, 
She sat, like Patience on a monument, 
Smiling .at Grief." — Shakspeare. 

All the paragraphs are grammatical ; that is, the words are rightly 
formed and arranged to express the meaning, in the English language. 
Strictly speaking, a sentence may be grammatical, and yet absurd. 

Ex. — " She was gathering cabbage-leaves to make some ice-cream for the moon'a 
spectacles in silver threads." 

Logic and Rhetoric relate more directly to Reason, Sensibility, and 
Nature; Grammar relates to speech only: the former, learned in one 
language, may suffice for any other; but it is not so with the latter. — 
We have dwelt tin longer on the foregoing distinctions, because inattention 
to them is the great source of nonsense, and has produced hundreds of 
unmeaning paragraphs in our literature. People often imagine that they 
are uttering sense and sentiment — speaking logically and rhetorically, 
when, in fact, they are only stringing together words grammatically, 
and with not more sense than is sufficient to avoid absurdity. 



English Grammar teaches how to speak and write the 
English language correctly. This is the practical view. 

It is a thorough analysis, or anatomy, of the language, com- 
pletely laying open its nature in general principles, and espe- 
cially teaching those properties in respect to which we are 
liable to misuse it. This is the philosophical view. 

Note. — A good grammar, a good dictionary, and good standard authors, furnish the 
means of acquiring a language. The student should bear in mind that Grammar has 
but little to do with isolated facts : it confines itself chiefly to generalities, general truths, 
or principles. Thus, in thousands of instances, we use words to denote objects ; Grammar 
accordingly takes notice of these words, and calls them Nouns. We continually speak of 
objects Tiewed either singly or aggregately ; hence, Number. Whenever we assert an 
action, the verb must be expressed in a certain form to suit its nominative ; hence, Rale 
XIII. Very often, in spelling, we change y into i ; very often we double a consonant ; — 
and how often, for instance, do we assert, not the reality, but only the possibility, neces- 
sity, or duty of something ; and, for this purpose, use may, must, or should. All these 

What does English Grammar teach ? What is it, philosophically considered ? 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 57 

things being general, or true of innumerable particulars, are therefore noticed in gram- 
mars ; and on the same principle are noticed most things taught by them. It is the 
sphere, then, of the grammars of a language, to teach all its principles, — the truths appli- 
cable to more particulars than one, — the truths by which we quickly gain a knowledge of 
many things, and which arc daily strengthened and extended by our acquisitions in 
knowledge and experience. Grammars also notice, more or less, according to their scope, 
the exceptions, where there are any, to the general truths, or principles. 



Grammar is divided into four parts ; Orthography, Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography begins with the letters, passes to syllables, then to words, 
and there stops. Then Etymology comes in and separates the words, ac- 
cording to what they denote, into certain classes, called parts of speech; 
it also shows how words are formed from others, what variations and 
special combinations they undergo, and the meaning thereby expressed: 
Syntax next teaches how the words are properly combined and ar- 
ranged into sentences; and Prosody, in conclusion, treats of punctua- 
tion, utterance, figures, and versification. I shall not, in the course of 
this work, keep these four parts strictly distinct. 

2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of letters, and teaches how to combine 
them into syllables and words. 

Note. — Authors usually include in Orthography what they have to say of elementary 
founds. 

The parts of the throat and mouth, by means of which the letters are 
formed, are called the organs of speech. These are the glottis, palate, 
tongue, teeth, and lips. 

AVhen a sound is formed by bringing some of the organs of speech 
together, it is said to be articulate ; when it is formed by keeping them 
more or less apart or open, it is said to be inarticulate. 

The elementary sounds are either articulate or inarticulate. 

Note. — Articulate means "jointed;" inarticulate, " not jointed." These words are 
applied to speech, from a fancied resemblance of the syllables in a word to the parts of a 
jointed plant ; thus, in-im-ic-al, en-ter-tain-ment. Here the sound, like the pith, is broken 
or stopped at certain points ; and n, m, c, I, and t, serve as partitions in the sound, like 
the joints in a reed or stalk. 

? Our language has about 42 elementary sounds, which 
are represented by 26 letters.* 

* The interrogation points near the margin, are used instead of questions at the bottom of 
the page. They are designed to show, to some extent, on what parts the student should 
be interrogated. — The numbers point out the parts for exercises to be written. Tho 
student should write one good original sentence, or more, if it is deemed necessary, on 
every sentence or paragraph so marked, to exemplify it, and thus to test how accurately 
and fully he comprehends its meaning. For this purpose, it may be best for him to pro- 
cure a suitable blank copy-book, to be used from day to day, and preserved. 

How is Grammar divided ? What can you say of Orthography ? Which are the organs 
of speech ? What is an articulate sound ? W T hat is an inarticulate sound ? 



58 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Note. — The Phoneticians make 43 elementary sounds. Long vowels : eel, ale, arm, 
«11, ope, food. Short vowels : in, ell, an, add, wp, foot. Shade vowels : earth, air, 
ask. Diphthongs : isle, oil, owl, male. Coalescents : yea, way. Aspirate : feay> 
Explodents : rope, robe, fate, fade, etc/*, edge, lock, log. Continuants : sa/e, sare, 
wreath, wreathe, buss, bnzz, vicious, vision. Liquids: fall, for. Nasal Liquids: seem, 
seeu, sing. 

? 1, A letter, then, represents one or more elementary sounds ; 
or it is the least constituent part of a written word. 

? 2. Sometimes two or more letters represent but one ele- 
mentary sound. 

Ex. — Ph=f, as in phleme; eau*=*o, as in beau; eft, in church; Ih, in thou. 

? The letters are divided into vowels and consonants; the 
consonants, into mutes and semivowels ; and some of the semi- 
vowels are called liquids. 

This division of the letters not only distinguishes them according to 
their nature, but is the basis of many valuable rules. 

? IIS, The vowels are a, e, i, o, u ; also w and y when not fol- 
lowed by a vowel sound in the same syllable. 

? They can be sounded alone, and represent each several 
inarticulate elementary sounds. (Except w.) 

Ex. — "Fate, fat, far, fare, fall; me, met; no, not, dove, prove, book: wse, us, full, 
brow, dew, city, cry, bo#." 

? 4. The consonants are all the letters except the vowels. 

? They are so called because they can not be sounded 
alone ; or rather, when they are uttered alone, the sound of a 
vowel is always heard with them. 

Ex. — B, c, d, /, m, Jc, are pronounced as if written be, se, de, ef, em, Tea. 

? 5, TP and y are consonants when a vowel sound follows them 
in the same syllable ; as in water, young, year, Iowa, Bunyan. 

? 6. £7 and i are consonants when equivalent to the consonants w and 
y ; as in persuade, poniard. — X=ks, gz, or z; as, tax, exalt, Xerxes. 

? 7. The mutes have no sound whatever without the aid of 
a vowel, and at the end of a word stop the voice entirely. 

? They are, b, p, d, t, Jc, qw. (jzukw) ; also c and g when hard, 
as in lac, gig. 

? 8. The semivowels are all the consonants except the mutes. 
They are so called, because they are, in their nature, between 
vowels and mutes ; having some sound by themselves. 

? 9. The liquids are I, m, n, r, and perhaps s ; so called from 
their soft sound, which easily flows into and unites with that 
of other letters. 

Ex. — " Lily, million, Albion, brilliant, Columbia, mammon, Alps, pearl, stamp, 
bring, volleying;.'" 

" Lull with Amelia's liquid name the nine." — Po$>e. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. — LETTERS. 59 

? 10. A diphthong is two vowels joined and blended in one 
sound. 

Ex. — " Blood, doom, hoy, round, earn, crow, now?, vain, pla#." 

? 11, It is called a proper diphthong, when the two vowels 
are heard, or blended into a sound different from that of 
either. 

Ex. — " Oil, grotmd, room, joy, plow, fraud, assault." 

? 12, It is called an improper diphthong, or digraph, when 
only one vowel is heard. 

Ex. — " i£agle, mourn, fair, sleight, deceit, heart, victuals." 

? H A triphthong is three vowels joined and blended in one 
sound. 

Ex. — " Beauty, bureau, view, dmov." 

? 14. Triphthongs are also divided like diphthongs into 
proper and improper. 

? 15. A letter is said to be silent, when it is suppressed in 
pronunciation. 

Ex. — " WaZk, kiln, nio7it, foreign, victuals, Tiour." 

Note. — The pronunciation of discourse by means of letters, may be compared to music 
from a flute or other similar instrument. The vowels are analogous to the different notes 
or tones : they afford the sound. The consonants resemble the stoppages by means of the 
fingers. Not any or every arrangement of letters, makes language ; nor will any or every 
mode of playing, produce music. — In singing, vowel sounds are made most prominent.* 

31ention the vowels, consonants, mutes, semivowels, liquids, silent letters; also the diph- 
thongs and triphthongs, and what land : — 

0, b, d, e, i, f, a, m, u, r, s, f, 1, q, y, g, z, announcement, analytical, history, czar, revo- 
lution, youthful, years, gorgeous, colorings, clang, oyster, weight, sleight, streak, steak, 
phthisic ; sparkling fountains ; necessary tyranny. — Rome was an ocean of flame. Hight 
and depth were covered with red surges, that rolled before the blast like an endless tide . 



The letters, according to their nature, or according to the organs of 
speech by which they are formed, are sometimes divided into various 
classes. 

? Labials ; formed by the lips. 

Ex. — B, f, v, p, m, ph. 
? Dentals or Unguals ; formed by the tongue against the teeth. 

Ex.— D, t, I, s, th. 
? Palatals ; formed against the roof of the mouth. 

Ex. — K, q, g as in gig, c as in arc. 

? Nasals ; affected by the nose ; as, m, n. 



* Languages indigenous to cold climates, abound in consonants ; to warm climates, 
in vowels. Query : Does not the cold, by keeping the organs of speech habitually close 
or compressed, produce the one result ; and the heat, by keeping them habitually open or 
loose, produce the other? — Hence, should uofc every man, to be finely educated, impro v 
nis "northern guttural," like Milton, by studying some southern language, — Ita 7 ' 
Latin, Greek, or Spanish ? 



60 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



? Aspirates; having a whispering sound. 

Ex.— If, th, wh, v, f, ph. 
? Equivalents ; being similar or the same in sound. 

Ex. — "Gem, jet, isle, tyrant; mi, nymph ; fro^e, rose." 

? Correlatives or cognates; formed in the same way, — born from the 

same organs of speech. 

Ex. — "D, t; p> b; vine, /ine; sink, sine ; c7iine, sMne; much, mush; azure, 
passion. 1 ' 

? Flats are d, and other consonants that blend with a d sound after 
them. 

Ex. — " Culled, armed, bar&ed, imposed, wreaked." 
? Sharps are t, and other consonants that blend with a t sound after 
them. 

Ex. — Nipped, mio;ed, lius/ted, fleeced, crossed, betro^ed. 



? The letters are used either as capitals or as small letters, 
and in various styles ; as, — 

Koman, Italic, & t fa ©fo (fnglisl), (kMBkdnt&L 

? The letters are also printed in types of various sizes; 
as, — 

English, Small Pica, B^ier, 

Pi>n Long Primer, Nonpareil, 

' Bourgeois, *»ri. 

3. CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Capital letters are used for distinction. They show beginnings ; they 
show what words are not of the common, significant, or definable words 
in the language ; they make common significant words, or the meaning 
they carry with them, sufficiently prominent; or show that they are 
titular, unusually emphatic, or applied in a rather technical or peculiar 
sense. They often show that the sense of a word is unusually restricted, 
and so guard the reader against understanding the word in its most 
ordinary sense, against giving too much latitude to its meaning, or 
against thinking of the wrong object. They frequently show that the 
general or vague sense of a word or phrase is " unified " or spiritualized ; 
in other words, they tend to individualize or spiritualize common terms, 
making them denote more specifically or forcibly a particular object, or 
a kind universally considered. 

A capital letter should begin — 
? 15. The first word of any piece of writing whether long or 
short. 

Ex. — " For Rent or Sale." " Know all men by these presents," &c. " Of man's 
first disobedience," &c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS. til 

? 16. The first word of every complete sentence; and the 
first word after a (.), (?), or (!), denoting a full pause. 

? 16. Note. — A line is sometimes broken, (as above,) and the latter part recommenced 
below with a capital, and sometimes a capital is used to begin the first word even after an 
inferior point, — to show more definitely the beginning of something to which the writer 
means to draw particular attention. " Capital letters should be used in the following 
instances: At the beginning" &c. — E.Sargent. " One truth is clear : Whatever is, is 
right." — Pope. 

? 17. The first word of every separate, distinct, or independ- 
ent phrase, especially in enumerations. 

Ex. — " The friendship of Holland ! The independence of Spain ! " " Indeed ! What 
then ? " " Total, $25." " Balance, $9.25." 

" To schools, - - - - - $5,785.50 " 

" To bridges, ------ 2,120.25." 

" Strata and laminas may be distinguished from joints : 1. By the alternations of differ- 
ent material in the former, [or* ] 2. By a difference of organic remains in the latter. 3. 
By ripple marks and tortuosities. 4. By a difference in color of successive portions of 
rock." — Hitchcock' 1 e Geology. (Generally, the phrase must be an elliptical or abridged 
expression for a complete sentence.) 

? 18. The first word of every line of poetry not written in 
the form of prose ; and even when so written, if the writer 
still wishes to show the beginning of each line. 

? 19. Every word, phrase, or sentence, comprising an entire 
saying of another, when quoted and introduced at once, or 
without a connecting word, as it was said by him. 

Ex. — " Solomon said, ' Pride goeth before destruction.' " " Remember this ancient 
maxim: 'Know thyself.'" "He shouted, 'Victory.'" "They sent back the reply, 
'Independence or death. 1 " "And, ' This to me,' he said." " Caesar cried, 'Help me, 
Cassius, or I sink.' " " Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law, — I said, Ye 
are gods?" 

"Resolved, That we indorse " &c. (Perhaps " That " should be considered as the true 
beginning of the sentence, and "Resolved''' 1 as put first in stead of last on account of great 
emphasis. 

? 20. Every term or appellation denoting the Deity. 

Ex.—" The Supreme ; God ; the Savior ; the Holy Spirit ; the Most High ; Providence.' * 
" I turn to Thee." 

? 21. Proper names, or each noun thereof ; also the title, if 
any, preceding or following, when this stands as a part of the 
name. 

Ex. — " John Henry Bolton ; George Washington ; Gen. George Washington ; Judge 
Wells ; Mrs. Johnson ;' Dr. Samuel Johnson ; R. G. Woodson, Esq. ; Jefferson City."' 

? 22. Words derived from proper names. 

Ex. — "American, Columbian, British, French, Christians, Campbellites, Genoese, 
Latinize, Grecian, Italicise, Christianize, Christian, Americanisms." 

Note. — But when such a word has lost its reference to the proper name, and has taken 
its place and a meaning among the common words of the language, it is not written with 
a capital ; as, " In academic halls ; " " laconic, laconicism ; " " prussic acid." 

? 2$. The principal words in the titles of books, and gen- 
erally in the titles of persons or other objects. 

Ex. — "Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained;" "Campbell's Battle of 
Hohenlinden ; " "Scott's Lady of the Lake;" "the Auditor of Public Accounts;" 
"the Webster Literary Debatin Society;" "the White Sulphur Springs;" "the 
War Department ; " " the Sisters of Charity." 



62 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 24. The names of personified objects, common terms used 
as proper names, and sometimes words of special emphasis or 
importance, or words peculiarly or technically applied, and 
not sufficiently definite if written otherwise. 

Ex. — "Hail, Liberty!" "0 Happiness!" "the General Assembly;" "the 
excellency of our Constitution ;" "in our State;" "to array the North against the 
South;" " the Know Nothings;" "on Main Street." "His musical talent is great ; 
for Time, Order, Calculation, and Tune, are largely developed." — Fowler. 

? Note. — Writers often take greater liberty in designating by capitals the chief objects 
of their own science, art, or profession, than is allowed to other persons treating of such 
things only incidentally; as, "The Blue Bird of America," &c, &c. — Audubon. (Per- 
haps better : Blue-bird.) 

? 2§. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should always 
be capitals. 

Finally, the following rule may aid in deciding doubtful cases generally : — 

? 26. W henever any term or terms of a certain import in the 
language, are employed AS a title, or merely to designate 
a particular person or thing, rather than to CHARACTERIZE 
the same by their meaning, capitals are used ; otherwise, not. 

Hence we write — 

"The Coast Survey Company of the United States; the Hudson Bay 
Company; the Secretary of the Interior; New Bedford; New England; 
Mount Vernon; Fort Kiley; Elm Street: Cape May; Cape Charles; 
Long Island Sound; Little Egg Harbor ; Hell Gate; Lake Erie ; Lake 
Ontario; but lakes Erie, Ontario, and Superior; a house in Laurel 
Grove — at Harper's Ferry {towns) ; The bill passed the House of Lords; 
In spring the grass is green; Come, gentle Spring; earth to earth; 
Earth's ample lap; a heaven of bliss ; the vault of heaven; protected by 
Heaven — by Providence; tortured in hell; a hell of trouble; Hail! hor- 
rors, hail! and thou profoundest Hell ; according to nature; scenes of 
nature; And Nature sighed that all was lost; The sun and moon give 
us light; robed in Luna's silver mantle; on Sundays; I like Sunday ;** 
I have hope; Eternal Hope ! thy joyous youth began; We had much 
pleasure ; My name is Pleasure ; I reside at a French village — at a 
place called French Village; See Rule 8th and the Notes under it." 

Callaway county is usually called Callaway, but Kansas City is not 
usually called Kansas. The Ohio river is usually called the Ohio, but 
the Red River is not usually called the Red. The Blue Ridge is never 
called the Blue. Missouri is a part of the South, though it is west. 
Such is the union of the States, that they are often called the Union, or 
the United States. Van Diemen's Land is not the land belonging to Van 
Diemen. " I saw his Excellency, the Governor,' 7 is the same as to say, 

" I saw Mr." . The phrase Old Dominion is put for the proper 

name Virginia. When I speak of the First and the Second Sandstone, 
I refer to technical or peculiar classifications of sandstone in Geology. 
W T hen I say, " some new England scenery," I refer to Europe; when I 
say, " some New England scenery," I refer to America. [Better: "New- 
England scenery.") Sutter's Mill is now a little town, and the mill is 
washed away. Bolton's Ferry is a place on the Osage, at which there is 
now no ferry. The London Times is a newspaper; Ijondon times are 



ORTHOGRAPHY. — LETTERS. 63 

something else. The Planter's House is a hotel ; the planter's house is 
noted for ]$ospitality. Monthly Meetings are more definite, precise, and 
formal, than monthly meetings. When I speak of the Company or the 
Convention, I mean to guard you against thinking of the wrong one, or 
to make you think of a particular one. "To the honorable legislature," 
is a less definite and complimentary phrase than "To the Honorable 
Legislature." "An Act of Congress" is not like "an act of a rope- 
dancer," and of greater importance. "Our Constitution" does not 
refer to our health, nor does "our State" refer to our condition. So, 
Book I, Part Second, Etymology, Rule 1, Obs. 5, Remark, Adjective, Punc- 
tuation, are terms referring to particular parts or headings of the book. 
Our Club, President, Secretary, and Treasurer, are such in title as well 
as in fact. I would say, "on the return of New Year's Day;" "a 
present on every new year's day;" "on Christmas day;" "on the 
Lord's Day." I should not call the Lunatic Asylum the lunatic asylum, 
lest I might be supposed to speak of an asylum out of its senses, or not 
be understood as referring to the asylum of our own city or State ; but 
I might speak of lunatic asylums as being benevolent institutions. " Phil- 
adelphia has a mint and several colleges." " I visited the Mint this 
morning, and also the College " [Girard's]. The expression " the Mis- 
souri railroad," is not the same in sense as " the Missouri Railroad ; " 
" the Green Mountains," as " the green mountains;" "He was gover- 
nor of the State," as "He was Governor of the State;" " a supreme 
court," as "a Supreme Court; " " the father of waters." as " the Father of 
Waters; " "on the fifth street," as "on Fifth Street." The superinten- 
dent of public schools may not be the Superintendent of Public Schools. 
The new Lucy is not so old a boat as the old Lucy, but the New Lucy 
may be an old boat. 

? Names, titles, or appellations of any kind, also mottoes, 
and words very emphatic, or designed to catch the eye from a 
distance, are frequently printed or painted wholly in capitals. 

! Capital letters should not be used when small letters 
will express the sense as well or better. 

Kemark. — The pages of some of our periodical literature, are so disfigured with cap- 
itals, as to have almost a hieroglyphic appearance ; and I have frequently observed, that 
uneducated people very absurdly use capitals wherever they imagine that they will look 
well. — For more on this subject, see Book Third. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

it is difficult to smile with an aching heart, o, i understand you now. i care not 
whether his name be pickwick, or nokes, or stokes, or brown, or thompson. I now 
take my Pen in hand to Let you know We are all Well, &c. farming is a very Pleasant 
Business, alas, the times ! alas, the Public Morals ! the senate understands all this, 
the consul sees it. yet the traitor ! lives ! ay, truly, and confronts us here in council. 
The Principal rivers are the mississippi, missouri, ohio, arkansas, tennessee, cumber- 
land, and red river. Julius caesar conquered pompey ; and augustus defeated antony. 

how sleep the brave who sink to rest, 

by all their country's wishes blest ! 

when spring, with dewy fingers cold, 

returns to deck their hallowed mould, 

she there shall dress a sweeter sod 

than fancy's feet have ever trod. 



G 1 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

i have read homer, virgil, chancer, spenser. shakspeare ; milton's paradise lost, and 
goldsmith's deserted village, there came gen. scott and col. harney. Joseph Brown, esq. 
the board of curators of the inissouri university, the president of the medical college 
lives on fourth street st. louis. Blake channel and Delaware bay. the gulf of mexico. 
Daniel Webster, secretary of state. At council bluffs. At fort black hawk, he knew 
general la fayette and captain Phipps. He was lirst a Captain and then a General. 
There was no Church to-day at middle grove. This Chief had the sounding appellation 
of white thunder. Washington city, the capital of the united states, is in the district 
of Columbia. 

11 advurtysement 

Thos woo wish To be informed heareof, is heareof notifyed that edwd. Prator will give a 
gander pullin, jis this side of harisburg, on Satterday of these presents munth to all woo 
mout wish to purtake tharof. 

e. Prator those wishin to purtak will come yearly, as the pullin will begin soon. 

e. p." — Georgia Scenes. 

4. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

? 27. A syllable is one letter or more pronounced as one 
sound. 

Ex. — " An, 0, art, whelp, mem-ber, of-fi-cer, a-e-ri-al, shat-tered." 

? M. Every syllable must consist of one or more vowels, or of 
one or more vowels inclosed on one or both sides by one or 
more consonants. 

Ex. — " /-die, em-ger, taker, braio-ny : an, ant, aunts ; dot, shrill, breasts ." 

? A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable. 

Ex. — " I, am, boy, hat, mouse, switched, bright, James." 

? A word of two syllables, a dissyllable. 

Ex. — " Ar-bor, an-ger, grand-ear, bou-quet, corn-press, Ma-ry, John-son." 

? A word of three syllables, a trisyllable. 

Ex. — " Con-tent-mont, ea-ger-ly, paradise, indorsement, appertain, Josephine." 

? A word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable. 

Ex. — " Mil-li-ner-y, E-liz-a-beth, incomprehensibility." 

? 29. A word not formed from another, is a primitive or 
radical word. 

Ex. — " Rose, violet, pink, act, man, rich, poor, here, there." 

? $0. A word formed from another, is a derivative word. 

Ex. — " Rosy, actor, active, action, actually, enact, react, manly, manliness, enrich." 

? oil. A word composed of two or more others, is a com- 
pound word. 

Ex. — " Rosebud, violet-colored, daybook, starlight, spy-glass, window-curtain, jack- 
with-a-lantern." 

? oS2. What is put to the first part of a word to modify its 
meaning, is a prefix ; to the end, an affix, or suffix. 

Ex.- — " A'eplant, transplant, implant, wphold, overflow ; actor, activity, greatest, friend- 
s7t(p." 



? In dividing words into their syllables, we are guided 
chiefly by the ear. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. — SYLLABLES. 65 

? 31. We should give to every syllable precisely those let- 
ters which the correct pronunciation of the word gives to it. 

Ex. — " Su-preni-a-cy, il-lit-er-ate, pro-cras-tin-ate." 

? 34. Compound words should be separated into their sim- 
ple ones. 

? 3§. Words should generally be divided according to their 
prefixes, affixes, or grammatical endings, if they have any. 

Ex. — " Mill-wheel, boat-swain, fore-most, sin-ful, re-new, ring-let, great-er, wis-est, 
re-spect-ed." 

? 36. A word having more syllables than one, may be divi- 
ded at the end of a line, but only at the close of a syllable. 



? 37. When a compound word is first formed or but little 
used, a hyphen is generally placed between its parts. 

Ex. — " Night-robber, soul-animating, dew-besprinkled ; the world-admired Wash- 
ington." 

? 38. By long and general use, compound words commonly 
lose the hyphen. 

Ex. — "Statesman, steamboat, railroad, beehive, washpan, inkstand." 

39. Note. — In some very common words, the hyphen is always retained, because the 
component parts do not well unite to form a single word with but one chief accent. 

Ex. — "Knitting-needle, linsey-woolsey, sheet-iron, spelling-book, short-tailed." 

? 40. Two or more words used to express one conception, 
must be joined by a hyphen, or by being written together. 

Note. — In other words : When they are habitually used together as the term for one 
object or idea. 

? But strict regard must be paid to the sense. 

Ex. — " Many-colored birds," is not the same as "Many colored birds;" "a light 
armed soldier," as " a light -armed soldier ; " "a horse racing," as "a horse-racing; " 
' a dark eyed maiden," as " a dark-eyed maiden ; " "a long standing house," as " a long- 
standing house ; " " the footman," as " the foot man ; " " lady't slipper," as " lady's-slip- 
per " (a plant) ; "a public school-boy," as " a public-school boy ; " "a live oak," as " a 
live-oak ; " " sixteen and seventeen," as " sixteen and seventeen ; " " from land and sea- 
shells," as "from land and sea shells;" "with fresh water and land shells," as "with 
fresh-water and land shells ; " " Time tutored age and love exalted youth," as "Time- 
tutored age and love-exalted youth." 



Tell whether primitive, derivative, or compound ; also whether a monosyllable, a dissylla- 
ble, a trisyllable, or a polysyllable : — 

Man, manhood, man-eater, management, confidential, uninformed, uninflammable, 
penitentiary, nevertheless, horseman, Mussulman, nightingale, whereabout. 
From what derived : — 

Lilies, knives, greater, authorize, farthest, speaks, speaking, applied, written, frosty, 
inequality, unprepared, happiest, personification, insensibleness. 

Mention the prefixes and the affixes : — 

Unbought, unworthy, imperfect, artist, artful, reconstruct, fortify, fortification, over- 
flew, bespattering, fascination, disproportionately, unpremeditated. 



66 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

Divide info syllables : — 

Another, luscious, varnish, tickle, musket, extraordinary, possession, monkey, west- 
ern, paternal, reformation, recollect, recreate, impetus, impotence. 

Correct the following : — 

A white washed house. There are four footed animals. Watch makers and glass 
cutters. Double entry book keeping. He is a free mason. Non-slave holding states. 
I saw a humming bird and heard a mocking bird. A red headed high tempered woman. 
The corn fields and the walnut trees. A tin peddler is not made of tin ; nor a glass 
house, of glass. A paper mill, a singing master, and a rock built city. A white oak, a 
black oak, a sugar tree, a slippery elm, and a go cart. Twenty five-cents and twenty-six 
pence. Five gallon kegs and three foot measures. The twenty-third and fourth trees 
are the last in the row. (The twenty-third and twenty-fourth trees &c.) Steamships 
and boats are propelled by steam. " Crops have been much injured by the cut worm." 

Newspaper. 

Plan-ting, un-loa-ding, ma-keth, sto-ring, or-ga-ni-zing, e-squire, syst-em, mig- 
ht, swif-test, go-vern, cons-ti-tu-tion, va-le-tu-di-na-ri-an, mark-et, stor-my. 

5. SPELLING. 

? Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper 
letters. 

This art must be learned chiefly from spell ing-boo"ks, dictionaries, 
and observation in reading. As our language lias been formed from 
several others, it is very irregular in this respect; and perhaps no rules 
are of much service, except a few for spelling derivative words. 

RULE I.— Final Y. 

? 41. Y final, preceded by a consonant and followed by any 
letter except i, is changed into i in the derivative word. 

Ex. — "Fly, flies; glory, glories, glorify, glorified, glorifying ; happy, happier, hap- 
piest, happiness; curiosity, curiosities ; try, trial ; beauty, beautiful; merry, merriment ; 
holy, holiness; deny, denial ; hearty, heartily." 

Note. — The final letter of a word is the last letter. 

Correct the following : — 

Readyly, readyness, occupyer, complyer, complyant, drowsyness, lovelyer, lovelyest, 
relyance, defyance, dryly, dryness, slyly, dutyes, tarryes, fancyful, varyance, hardyhood, 
gloryous, furyous, cryed, storyes, territoryal, lazyly, wearyly, wearyness, ivyed, pityable, 
contraryness, buryal, merry ly, navys. 

? 42. Y final, preceded by a vowel or followed by i 9 remains 
unchanged in the derivative word. 

Ex. — " Boy, boys, boyhood ; gay, gayer, gayest, gayety, gayly ; cry, crying ; hurried, 
hurrying; allayed, allaying ; prayer; buoyant; destroyer ; joyful." 

? 43. Exceptions: Pay, paid; say, said; lay, laid; day, daily; stay, 
staid (remained), stayed (checked). 

Correct the folloiving : — 

Monkies, chinnries, monies, wording, gaiest, graiish, tarriing, joiant, triing, arraied, 
annoiance, kidnies, volleing, surveior, emploiment, dayly, gaily, payd, layd. 

RULE II.— Doubling. 

? 41. Words of one syllable, ending in a single consonant 
preceded by a single vowel ; and words of more syllables, 
ending in the same way, with the accent fixed on the last syl- 



ORTHOGRAPHY. — SPELLING. 67 

lable, — double the consonant, before a vowel in the derivative 
word. 

Ex. — " Sad, sadder, saddest ; rebel, rebelled, rebeller, rebelling, rebellion ; quit, quit- 
ting; in, inner; up, upper." Exception: gas, gases or gasses. 

Correct the following : — 

Freted, f re ting ; (plan,)_ planed, planing, planer; (hot,) hoter, hotest; remited, re- 
miting, remitance; geting, goten; stnned; weding; rober ; begar ; buding ; pened ; im- 
peding ; vvhigery, whigish, whigism ; crained ; rimer; begining, beginer ; infering; drag- 
ing ; abhored, abhoring, abhorent ; concnrent ; sotish ; wity ; acquited, acquitance ; bet- 
ing ; frized, frizing; whized. 

? 45. In other cases, no doubling takes place. 

Ex. — " Seal, sealed ; call, called ; gild, gilding; hook, hooked ; plow, plowed; hard, 
harder, hardest; infer, inference; chisel, chiseled; worship, worshiping ; traveler." 

? 46. X final=two consonants, — ksorgz] therefore it is never doubled. 

Correct the following : — 

Barbbed, hardden, hardenned, defeatted, toilling, differrent, inferrence, conferrence, 
niorallize, relaxxed, spiritted, rentting, benefitted. 

W hat is the difference between — 

Bnhrd and n.bbed ; striped and stripped ; hoping and hopping ; bared and barred ; doting 
and dotting ; sparing and sparring ; fated and fatted ; pining and pinning ; puling and pull- 
ing ; raged and ragged; waging and wagging ; planing and planning; hater and hatter; 
spiting and spitting ; spited and spitted; scared and scarred; biding and bidding. 

Note. — A few words from the Latin are derived according to the Latin primitive, and 
not the English. 

Ex. — Metal (Lat. metallum), metallic, metallurgy; appeal, appellant ; excel, excellent. 
rri " X, and sometimes jp, may be doubled to prevent the liability of mistaking the word 
for some other : as, gravelly from gravel ; gravely from grave ; — duellist from duel; due-list 
from due. 

? L is sometimes doubled by good writers, contrary to the Rule above; 
as, " traveller," "carolled " 



RULE III.— Final E. 

? 47. Final e, when silent, is rejected before a vowel, in the 
derivative. 

Ex. — "Bite, biting; force, forcing, forced, forcible ; bluish; rattling; roguish; be, 
being." 

? 48. But when necessary to preserve the pronunciation or 
identity of the word, it is retained. 

Ex. — Flee, fleeing ; agree, agreeable ; singe, singeing ; trace, traceable ; swinge, swinge- 
ing ; courage, courageous ; mile, mileage ; sue, " sueing." Better : '* suing ; " (construing). 

Correct the following : — 

Noticeing, enconrageing, favoritism, rateing, allegoing, noteable, fieeceing, pledgeing, 
saleable, blanieable, riseing, authorizeing, tameable, grieveance, grieveous, moveables, 
irreconcileably, proveing, moveing, changable, peacably, outragous, supervisees, hedge- 
ing, dodgeing, trueism, massacreing, sueing, hoing, shoing, faceing, freing, firarms, eye- 
ing, slaveish, agreably, senseative, falseity, houseage, serveile, seizeure. 

W hat is the difference between — 

Dying and dyeing ; singing and singeing ; syringing and swingeing. 
? 49 Note. — Words ending in ie, change i into y, before », to prevent the doubling of ». 
Ex. — " Die, dying ; vie, vying ; tie, tying ; lie, lying." 



68 BOOK SECOND. — THE STANDARD. 

? SO. Final e is retained before a consonant , in the derivative 
word. 

Ex. — " Base, baseless, basement, doleful, wasteful, guileful, wholesomely, savageness, 
infringement." 

? SI. But when not necessary to preserve the pronunciation 
or identity of the word, it is sometimes rejected. 

Ex. — Duly, truly, wholly, awful : also judgment, lodgment, &c. ; because the d always 
softens the g, and renders the e unnecessary. 

Correct the following : — 

Ealsly, falsness, enlargment, arrangment, releasment, advertisment, hoarsness, wher- 
with, sedatness, sedatly, chastly, hastning, eylet, bluness, sholess, ruful, aggrievment, 
chastisment, aggrandizment, enfranchisment, acknowledgement, politly, appositly, defi- 
nitly, perversly, tirsome, wholesome. 

RULE IV. — Whether Ize or Ise. 

? §2. If the word has a kindred meaning without the ending 
or with a different ending, add ize; if not, ise. 

Ex. — "Author, authorize; civil, civilize; theory, theorize; dramatist, dramatize; 
revise; compromise; enterprise; surprise." 

Note. — This rule has some exceptions ; as, criticise, exercise, assize : yet I think it 
may well be applied to all words of this class still unsettled in orthography, and to such 
as may be formed hereafter. 

Correct the folloiving : — 

Organise, moralise, scandalise, cauterise, scandallize, theorise, alcoholise, recognise, 
detonise, circumcizc, cnterprize, surmize, revolutionise, advize, canonise, realise, natural- 
ise, harmonise, brutalise, prise, comprize, arize, despize, sensualise, agonise, analyse. 

RULE V.— No Trebling. 

? 53. The final letter may remain or be doubled, but not 
trebled, in the derivative. 

Ex. — Harmless, harmlessly; odd, oddly; possess, possession, not possesssion ; stiff, 
stiifness ; full, fully, not fullly. 

Note. — We find treeen and gallless : but these words should have a hyphen ; as, tree- 
en, gall-less. 

Correct the following : — 

Hillly, skillless, dullly, mispell, mispend, instalment, fearlesly, blisful. 

RULE VI. — Compounds. 

? S4. When simple words form compounds, they usually re- 
tain their own letters, especially if a hyphen still separates 
them. 

Ex, — Barefoot, housewife, lady-like, well-grounded, hasty-pudding, thereabout, there- 
unto, therein, wherewith, whereon ; but wherever, whosever, shepherd, fetlock , new-born, 
foolscap (=folio-shape ?). 

? SS. One I from 11 is frequently dropped ; and the apostrophe 
in possessives always, when there is no hyphen. 

Ex. — "Always, welcome, handful, fulfill; hartshorn, boatsman." 

Correct the following : — 

Spoonfull, cupfull, wellcome, wellfare, allso, • allways, farewel, wherby, wherfore, 
therfore, ladilove, hart'stongue, foman, mil-stone, gravestone, freman, behive, bees'wax, 
wilful, skilful, fullfil, juriman. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. — PRONUNCIATION. 69 

? 56. The sign of possession ('$) does not affect the spelling 
of the word to which it is annexed. 

? §7. F is sometimes changed into v, in derivatives : as, 
knife, knives; grief, grievous. 

? 58. Some words may be spelled in two or more different 
ways, with good authority for each. 

Ex. — " Keg, cag ; plow, plough ; inquire, enquire ; flection, flexion ; connection ; con- 
nexion ; moccasin, moccason ; hominy, homony, hommony ; musquito, mosquito, 
muscheto, &c. ; centre, center; metre, meter." 

Note. — Notwithstanding the authority of Dr. Webster, I think the forms centre, 
metre, &c, preferable to the others; not only because they show the nativity of the 
words, but because they accord better with the derivatives : thus, centre, central — not 
centered — centralize, centralization, centripetal, centrifugal, concentrate, centrific, &c. 

? Generally speaking, spelling and pronunciation are the 
better, the better they agree, and serve to distinguish words 
that differ in meaning. 

6. ORTHOEPY, OR PRONUNCIATION. 

A person wishing to learn the accurate enunciation or pronunciation 
of the English language, should keep in mind the following direc- 
tions: — 

? 1. Learn all its elementary sounds and their combinations. 
(Given below.) 

? 2. Divide words accurately into syllables, and remember 
which syllable has the chief accent. 

Note. — To know where to place the chief accent is sufficient, for nature then always 
regulates the others. 

? 3. Remember that the syllables of derivative words are not 
always sounded or accented like those of their primitives. 

Ex. — " Re-fute 1 , ref-utation* ; de-pose 1 , dep-osition* ; re-voke 1 , irrev-ocable 1 ; ob-j^ct 1 , 
ob-ject 1 . 

? 4. Keep your words separate and distinct in sound. 

Ex. — " They came to a nocean of vice," for " They came to an ocean of ice." 

? We have vowels and vowel combinations, consonants and 
consonant combinations. 

A, e, i, o, u, w, y;— b, c, d, f, g, j, k, 1, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, 
x; u, w, i, y. 

VOWELS. 

1. Fate, strain, straight, sway, prey, weight, veil, persuade, gauge, 
aye, Aaron, bouquet. 2. Men, any, said, says, again, friend, sweat, 
quest, quench, heifer, vengeance, endeavor, diaeresis, leopard, Britain, 
villain, bury, victuals, saloon, ability, michaelmas, Isaac. 3. Care, 
bear, fair, there, e'er, ne'er, square, pair, where. 4. Her, sir, stir, bird 



70 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

myrrh, earl, heard, earth, mirth, were, prefer, conquer, connoisson* 
(lengihened). 5. Ask, bask, grass, fast, aunt, gaunt, quaff, half, calm, 
balm, wrath, bath, piquant. 6. Fat, sat, am, add, plaid, shall, raillery, 
giant, bias, liar, dollar Balaam, Cnnaan. 7. All, fall, squaw, squash, 
hawk, walk, aught, salt, groat. (Not quite so orotund as the vowels in 
the next line.) 8. Or, for, nor, scorn, horse, war, ward, lord, broad, 
soft, thought, loft, memoir, devoir, extraordinary, George. 9. Spot, 
not, what, alter, falter, quarter, almost, want, wont, wad, loll, vacht, 
was. 10. Bar, far, are, smart, ah, ha, aha, parse, heart, hard, guard, 
hark. 11. Me, mete, meet, meat, deep, reap, tweak, squeal, shire, 
shriek, seize, quay, people, trustee, garnishee, chamois, extempore, 
machine, antique, valise, pelisse. 12. In, been, lyric, city, ability, 
biscuit, foreign, minute, tortoise, sieve, quilt, valley, busy, busily. 13. 
I, ay, eye, tie, buy, rye, high, sky, why, might, isle, aisle, diamond, 
sleight, dine, resign, lyre, quire, choir. 14. Oil, soil, coy, toy, employ, 
enjoy, buoy, quoit, foist, hoist, voice. 15. 0, oh, no, so, roll, own, soak, 
load, though, foe, beau, sew, more, door, pour, yeoman, bureau, hautbo} r . 
16. Sun, son, none, one, glove, null, lull, us, does, dost, doth, spur, 
slur, touch, rough, front, blood, flood, undone, region, legion, lesson, 
liquor, flourish gorgeous. 17. Too, two, true, rule, suit, brute, shoe, 
glue, blue, tour, rouge, through, flew, do, who, tomb', rheum, rhubarb, 
sewer, Shrewsbury. 18. To, book, cook, wolf, full, pull, put, could, 
would, should, good, worsted, Worcester. 19. Piow, how, cloud, 
shroud, ounce, flounce, grouse, browse. 20. Tune, new, view, adieu, 
jew, ewe, hue, feud, you, your, juice, muse, news, beauty, nature, 
capture, future, feature, Europe. 

CONSONANTS. 

? All the possible consonant combinations may be readily obtained, 
by beginning with i he first consonant, and combining each one so jar as pos- 
sible with all the others that follow ii in the alphabet, by placing them 
be/ore it and after it, 

B, b'd, b'dst, lb, lbs, lbst, lb'd Ib'dst, bl, bis, blst, bl'd, bl'dst, mb, 
mbs, mbst, mbd, mb'dst, rb. rbs, rbst, rb'd, rbdst, br, brs, brst, bYd, 
br'dst, bs, bst, bz. B. — Bib, bub, bob, nob, rob. sob, robber, rubber, 
blubber, hubbub; rubbed, scrubbed, knobbed, sobbed, sobb'dst; bulb, 
bulbs, bulbed; blank, blink, blind, blend, trouble, double, squabble, 
troubles, troubl st, troubldst, tremble, tumble, trembles, tumbles, trem- 
bled, tumbled, trembl dst ; rhomb, succumb, rhombs, succumbs, suc- 
cumb'd, succumbdst; garb, herb, verb, orbs, curbs, cm bst, curb'd, 
curb' dst; brown, brine, brief, brought, sombre, number, slumber, mem- 
bers, timbers, remeniberst, slumber d, slumher'dst; sobs, rubs, fibs, sobtt, 
robst, globes, robes, lob'st, probst, prob d, rob dst. C and K — Cap, 
call, keep, kick, corn, lac, track, stick, walk, stuceo. siroceo, saccharine, 
chyle, roeket, pique, lough ; tracked, cracked, smacked, ached, rock dst 
stiokdst; hanker, {ngk,) think, thinks, thinkst; cling, clung, clear, 
class, Sclavonic, sclerotic, freckle, tickle, crackle, cackled, cackles, 
chuckldst: ink. link, spank, trunk, thanks, planks, thanked, flank'd, 
lhankst, thank dst, precinct, precincts ; tinkle, wrinkle, wrankle, tin- 
kles, wrinkles, rankles, tingled, wrinkled, rankled, wrinkl'dst ; quicken, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. — PRONUNCIATION. 71 

thicken, tok'n, quickens, thickens, tokens, quicken'd, thickened, quick- 
en'dst; bark, dark, clerk, smirk, corks, clerks, works, workst, work'dst, 
circle, circles, circled, circl'st, circlest; darken, hearken, darkens, 
hearkens, dark'n'd, hearkened, dark'nst, hearkenst, dark'n'dst; minx, 
lynx, sphinx; crime, cry, chronic, Christ, scribe, scrub, scrap, screen, 
pucker, puckers, puckered, pucker'dst, conquer, conquers, conquered, 
hankered, liquored, conquer'dst, whisker, whiskers, whiskered; ask, 
task, brisk, dusk, casque, tasks, disks, ask'st, tasked, ask'dst; sky, 
scholar, schedule; tricks, sacs, tax, sex, taxed, tax'dst, betwixt, 
pluck'dst; strict, elect, restricts, conductst; quite, quick, quell, square, 
squander, squirt, squash. D. — Dime, dull, dare, did, mud, rod, sod, 
odd, adder, rudder, bidder, diddle; stuffed, whiffed, coughed, laugh'dst, 
engulfed, muffled, trifled, purpled, muffledst, wharfed, scarfed, stiffened, 
softened, soften'dst, differed, offer'dst, triumphed, triumpb'dst ; snagged, 
ringed, jogged, begg'dst, twanged, wrongdst, straggled, ogled, strug- 
gled, struggTdst, mangled, jingled, mingledst ; judge, badge, pledge, 
pledged, wedged, lodged, pledg'st, ranged, cringed, cring'dst, urged, 
enlarged, gorged, disgorged, gorg'dst ; gemmed, crammed, stemmed, 
plumbed, doom'st, embalmed, thumb'dst, filmed, helmed, overwhelmed, 
overwhelm'dst, warmed, stormed, alarm'dst, prismed, chasms ; old, 
held, gild, holds, holdst, idled, saddled, saddledst, meddTdst, gulled, 
lull'dst, curled, world, hurled, hurl'dst, spindle, addle, middle, saddler, 
riddles, peddlest; and, bend, wind, bands, kinds, grounds, listen'd, 
listen'dst, crimson'd, crimson'dst, warned, concerned, suborned, warm'dst, 
learned, return'dst, sadden, redden, saddens, reddens, saddened, red- 
dened, sadden'dst, fatten' d, sharpened, glistened, glisten'dst, leavened; 
bird, word, third, backward, birds, thirds, words, prefer'dst, centred, 
maneuvered, gizzard, buzzard, drum, drive, drink, droll, Alexander, 
Sanders; graced, noticed, practised, praetis'dst, based, faced, chased, 
parsed, versed, rehearsed, repulsed, convulsed, entranced, enhanced, 
entrancedst, reposed, gazed, grazed, guzzled, puzzl'dst; dwell, dwarf, 
Dwight; involved, revolved, resolv'dst, swerved, nerved, serv'dst, adz. 
"F. — Fine, fin, fun, phleme, bluff, staff, caliph, cough, enough, sapphire; 
elf, shelf, sylph, elfs, sylphs, gulfs; flow, flee, fly, flare, phlogistic, trifle, 
ruffle, ruflies, rufflest; nymph, lymph, lymphs, nymphs; stiffen, often, 
soften, softens, softenst; pry, friend, frisk, frill; wharf, scarf, surf, 
wharfs, scarfs, turfs; sphere, sphynx ; whiffs, life's, waft, draught 
wafts, draughts, gifts, waft'st, lift' si. G. — Gang, gig, ghost, guilt, hog, 
rug, sprig, jagg; giow, gleam, glide, glare, eagle, boggle, goggle', 
straggler, eagles, goggles, strugglest; bring, fang, sung, twang, brings, 
fangs, singst, wrongst: iceberg, icebergs, Lynchburg; grove, grind, 
griddle, grand, meagre, daggers; bogs, bugs, flags, sprigs; Gwinn 
guano, guaiacum; exalt, exact, exhale, examine. H. — Hand, heart, 
hymn, hither, who, oh, ah, pooh, when, what, where, while, whiz. 
J and G — Judge, join, gem, gin, gyre, region, gorgeous, pigeon, priv- 
ilege, exaggerate; bulge, bilge, divulge, soldier, change, tinge, lounge 
grandeur, surge. L. — Loll, lily, Lloyd, billion, brilliant, loyal, kiln; 
elm, helm, films, overwhelmst, trammel, trammels, tram m' 1st, help, pulp 
pulps, whelps, Alps, helpst, plum, plan, plain, pluck, spleen, splice, 
splint, splendor, splash; earl, pearl, curl, pearls, curls, churls, whirlst ; 
rustle, bustle, whistle, rustles, bustles, whistles, whistlest; slim, sling, 



72 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

slender, slime, else, pulse, whilst, rul'st; whittle, rattle, settle, whittles, 
rattles, battles, throttl'dst; gilt, hilt, melt, bolt, hilts, bolts, boltst; valve, 
revolve, absolve, absolves, resolves, resolv'st; puzzle, puzzles, puzzlest, 
waltz. M. — Moon, man, mum, him, sum, dimmer, summer, hymn, 
calm, psalm, diaphragm, apothegm; damp, clump, hemp, swamp, clumps, 
swamps, imps, exempt, exempts, exemptst, prompt, prompts, promptst, 
arm, harm, firm, warms, swarms, harmst, hammer, hammers; small, 
smash, smite, smut, alms, dooms, tombs, doomst; chasm, chrism, spasm, 
prism, prisms, spasm, sophisms. IQ*. — Nun, nine, ninny, thin, inner, 
dinner, knight, know, gnat, gnaw, demesne, sign, condign, pneumatic, 
mnemonics, comptroller; corn, morn, scorn, learn, urn, government, 
burns, turns, turnst, discern, discerns, discernst, sinner; snarl, snip, 
sneeze, snob, snub, snicker; glisten, glistens, glistenst, listenst, whence, 
thence, sense, canst; ant, meant, plant, plants, wince, mints, haunts, 
plantst, hauntst; vixen, Saxon; lens, sans; giv'n, heav'n, heav'ns. P. — 
Put, pin, pipe, pane, rap, nip, cup, pup, pepper, poppy, puppy; warp, 
harp, sharp, harps, chirp, chirpst; prime, prince, priest, spray, sprite, 
sprawl, spruce; clasp, wisp, wasp, wasps, clasps, claspst chips, lips, cor- 
rupts, corruptst, wept, swept, weptst. R. — Run, rob, rural, whir, corps, 
bar, far, near, wrong, wring, wreck, rhetoric, rhapsody ; verse, parse, 
terse, first, burst, thirst, bursts, thirsts, burstst, thirstst, rest, rests, restst, 
hers, yours, ours, burrs; try, truth, tread, strive, strove, stroll, streak, 
stream, strut, art, pert, hurt, tart, arts, parts, curve, serve, swerve, curves, 
serves, swerves, swerv'st. S. — Sauce, cross, moss, hiss, Swiss, lessee, cedar, 
cent, scent, science, isthmus, set, gusset, vaccine, psalm, schism, psychol- 
ogy, answer; hats, dots, wits, huts, hitst, stand, style, stick, cast, last, past, 
asthma, 'st, nests, crests, frosts, boasts, boastst, twists, twistst, waves, 
slaves, drives, groves, moves, surviv'st, arriv'st; sweet, swing, persuade, 
dissuade. (I think I have sometimes heard fine articulators make soft c 
a more slender sibilant than s sharp, as in rinse, mince ; sieve, citron. ) 
T. — Tub, tag, till, hit, rot, butt, bitter, fetter, flutter, dotted, witty, ditty, 
Thomas, ptyalism, phthisic, receipt, debt, twine, twig, twitch, twirl, 
twang; text, texts; Gratz. V- — Vivid, livid, vine, voice, vice, love, 
move, gave, Stephen, even, rendezvous. W. — Wife, wet, well, Iowa, 
runaway, quell, which, switch. Y- — Young, yet, yonder, brilliant, 
poniard, filial, collier, union, eulogy, civilian, hallelujah, seraglio, 
intaglio, bagnio, reveille, mignonette. Z. — Zone, zebra, Xerxes, Xen- 
ophon, buzzing, blazoned, reasoned, blazonst, discern, sacrifice, Czar. 
Ch. — Chide, chin, chicken, question, fustian, Christian, mixture, fixture, 
nature, nurture; filch, belch, filched; bench, trench, pinch, winch, 
munch, pinched, munclrdst; march, starch, perched, scorch'dst; switch, 
ditch, hatch, snatched, snatch'dst. Sh — Shine, shed, shod, bush, gush, 
pshaw, schistose, schorl, chaise, machine, marchioness, caution, motion, 
passion, ocean, special, nuptial, partial, ambitious, cetaceous, anxious, 
luscious, transient, ancient, patient, conscience, sure, sugar; Welsh, 
marsh, harsh, wish, wished, wish'dst; shred, shriek, shrill, shrove, 
shrewd, shrive. Zh. — Azure, glazier, hosier, fusion, vision, ambrosia, 
pleasure, treasure, seizure, leisure, usual, rouge. Th. — Thin, thick, 
theme, bath, lath, wrath, breath, moth, wreath, writhe; depth, depths; 
width, breadth, widths, breadths ; fifth, fifths ; length, strength, lengths, 
strengthen, lengthen, lengthens, strengthens, strengthened, lengthened, 



ETYMOLOGY. — ARTICLES. 73 

strengthen'dst, lengthen'dst; health, wealth, filth, healths; twelfth, 
twelfths; earth, dearth, mirth, north, fourths, hearths, berths, mirth's, 
earthed; warmth;' tenth, eleventh, thirteenth, tenths, months; thrill, 
thrush, thrust, thrive, thread, thrum; six, sixth, sixths, sthenic; 
eighth, eighths; thwack, thwart. Th. — Thou, thee, wither, with, 
bathe, breathe, mouth, mouthed, mouths, breathed, neither, heather, 
further, baths, laths, wreaths, breath'st, bequeath'dst, rhythm, log- 
arithms. 

7. ETYMOLOGY. 

? Etymology treats of words. It divides them into cer- 
tain classes called parts of speech, explains the properties of 
each class, and shows how the words are changed or modified 
to express them. 

? 59 The parts of speech are nine; the Article, the Adjective, 
the Noun, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposition, 
the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

The Parts of Speech. — I might present to your mind all I have ever seen or expe- 
rienced, by words alone. To do this, I would have to use nouns and pronouns to denote 
objects ; adjectives, to express their qualities ; verbs, to express their actions, or states of 
existence ; adverbs, to describe their actions, or states of existence ; .prepositions, to ex- 
press their position or relation to one another ; conjunctions, to connect or continue the 
discourse ; and interjections, to give vent to any feeling or emotion suddenly springing up 
within me. 

Ex. — (All the parts of speech.) " I saw her in all the bloom of youth and beauty, 
floating lightly through the gay dance : but, alas ! Death has now laid her low like a 
withered flower ; and she is doomed to moulder beneath the green sod, in the dark and 
lonesome grave." 

Suggestion to the Teacher. — Take a walk with your class, and 
teach them the parts of speech from the surrounding scenery. 

8. ARTICLES. 

? 60. An cu-ticle is placed before a noun to limit its meaning. 

Ex. — " Horses, the horses, the horse, a horse ; early flowers, the early flowers, the early 
flower, an early flower." 

? Only two words in our language are called articles: the, 
the definite article ; and a or an, the indefinite. 

? 61. The points out some particular object or objects of a 
sort. 

Ex. — " The man, the men ; the boy, the boys ; the woman ; the bird : the plums ; the 
large wagon." 

? 62. It points out a particular sort of a still larger class. 
Or: It points out a particular kind of objects; (that is, — 
of persons, animals, or things). 

Ex.—" The poor and the rich, the learned and the ignorant." " The Choctaws and 
the Delawares are Indians almost civilized." " The statesman should be honored as well 
as the soldier." " The lion is nobler than the hyena." " The plow, the sword, the pen , 
and the needle, — how mighty ! " 

4 



74 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 63. Note. — It sometimes shows that the speaker means all the objects of the kind ; or 
that, in his range of thought, he knows of no others. m 

Ex. — " The fowls of the air and the fishes of the sea." " The stars, the winds, the 
sun, and the earth." " Go to the river." 

? 64. It sometimes precedes a proper name to render it suffi- 
ciently definite ; or else it points out a certain object as already 
known or heard of, or as preeminently distinguished. 

Ex. — "Missouri" and "Ohio'''' mean States, but " the Missouri" and " the Ohio" mean 
rivers. " The Eulton went up the river this morning." " The Andes are loftier than the 
Alps." " The Turk was dreaming of the hour." " The generous Lafayette and the im- 
mortal Washington." Perhaps also, " The sun, the moon;" " Jesus, the Son of God." 

An object may become particular or special, in many dif- 
ferent ways. 

Ex. — " Bring me the horse" may mean — the horse I wish to ride — the horse you have 
fed — the horse to be harnessed — the young horse — the old horse — the horse that is sick — 
the horse with a sore back — the horse belonging to you, or to some other person — the 
horse named Roebuck — the horse I bought, or sold, or borrowed — the only horse w* 
have — &c. 

? 65. The may be used before a noun of the singular num- 
ber, or of the plural. 

Ex. — " The river, the rivers; the four men, the fourth man ; the men of capital." 



? 66. A or an* shows that no particular one of a sort is 
meant. 

Ex. — " A man, a woman, an army, a wagon, a bird, an owl, a plum, an inkstand." 

? 67. Notb. — It usually suggests that there are or may be others. There is also generally 

a reference, not only to other individuals of the same kind, but also to other kinds than 

the one spoken of. " He was a representative," means not — " any representative," 

nor — " one representative," but — " a representative, and not something eLe." 

? 68. Sometimes the predominant idea is any, sometimes one. 

Ex. — "A man may lose all his property in a year; " that is, " Any man may lose all 
lais properly in owe year." 

? 69. When a noun is limited by other words, the indefinite article 
affects not the noun alone, but the noun thus limited. 

Ex. — "A young man," " A man of fine sense." do not mean, " no particular man ; " 
but, " no particular young man" " no particular man of fine sense." 

? 70. A or an can be used to point out one only, or one ag- 
gregate. 

Ex. — "A pen, not a pens; an idler ; a large orange ; a dozen apples, wealthy people ; 
* few dimes. ' 

? 71. Sometimes, however, more are spoken of, but they are 
still considered one by one. 

Ex.—" I gave for the marbles a dime a dozen." "We paid for the mules a hundred 
dollars a head." 



* An is probably the older form of the indefinite article, as it corresponds with the 
German " ein" one. In some European language?, the numeral one serves both to ex- 
press unity and to perform the office of our indefinite article ; hence it is, that foreigners 
sometimes say, " von man," " one woman," &c, for " a man," " a woman." But a or an, 
and one, differ in our language: thus, "Will you take a horse?" — or something eteef 
* Will you take one horse ? " — or tw< f 



ARTICLES. T5 

? A and an are both called the indefinite article, because their meaning 
is the same. They differ in use. 

? 72. Before words beginning with a vowel sound, an should 
be used. 

? (Before a, e, i, o, u not equal to yu : y immediately followed by a con- 
sonant, silent h.) 

Ex. — " An arm ; an ear of corn ; an idle boy ; an orange ; an ulcer ; an hour." 

? 71 Before words beginning with a consonant sound, a 
should be used. 

? ( U long, euj w, o in one, and y immediately followed by a vowel, have 
each a consonant sound. ) 

Ex. — " A brother ; a cup ; a union ; a eulogy ; a yearling ; a word ; a one-horse car- 
riage." 

Note. — An is usually preferable to a, before words beginning with h sounded, and ac- 
cented on the second syllable ; as, " An heroic action." — See Book Third : Articles. 



No article is used, — 
? 74. When the mind considers an object in reference to its 
nature, rather than as an individual to be distinguished from 
others or from something else. 

Ex. — " Meat is dearer than bread." " Gold is heavier than silver." " He took water, 
and changed it into wine.'''' " Barley and wheat look beautiful in harvest-time." " Peaches 
are better than apples.'''' " Virtue and vice are opposiles." "There is more impudence 
than elegance in his assertions." "Beauty and youth pass away." "There are many 
difficulties in grammar." " Working is better than stealing or starving." 

? 75. When the whole species is referred to generally, or 
only a part indefinitely. (This principle is perhaps comprised 
in the preceding one.) 

f ^ Ex. — " Man was made to mourn." "There are fishes with wings." "There are 
men not strictly honest." 

? 76. When the substantive is sufficiently definite by itself, 
or is rendered so by other words. 

Ex. — "John, George, '76; that tree; this tree; every tree; some trees ; all trees; 
Post Office." " Words that breathe." " They were the means by which " &c, not the which. 



The articles are used to assist the nouns* in designating objects. Hence, — 

? Rule I. — Articles belong to the nouns which they limit. 

? 77. When the article stands only before the first of two or more connected nouns, it 
belongs to them jointly, if they denote but one person or thing, or more viewed as one ; 
if not, it belongs to the first noun, and is understood before the others. 

Ex. — "I saw Webster, the great statesman and orator." " Of books I am a borrower 
and lender." " A man and horse passed by the house and lot." " A man, a woman, and 
Achild, were drowned." 

*Note. — Articles sometimes limit pronouns : as, " A good one." "The new ones." 
"The others." 

" Northumberland, thou ladder, by the which 
My cousin Bolingbroke ascends my throne." — ShaJcspeare. 
Sueh use of the before which is now obsolete. 



76 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Place the proper indefinite article before the following nouns and phrases : — 

Arrow, inch, yard, university, hundred acres, hostler, harpoon, heroic poem, hex- 
ameter, habitual indulgence, harrow, apple, mule, ox, calf, hunter, house, Ewing. 

A article, a adjective, a end, a order, a orange, an holy life, an hope, a Indian ; an 
hundred, an humorous story, an heathen, an eulogy, an ewe, a old ewe, an unit, an one, 
an union, an united j>eople, an ubiquitous quack. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 

The a cat caught a b mouse. A crow flew over the valley. The oxen 
are grazing on the meadow. The lion roams in Africa. The lion killed 
his keeper. The d Gasconade is exceedingly clear and beautiful. The 
Highland Mary leaves St. Louis to-day. The ancients did not know the 
use of the compass. The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay. A e 
beautiful white house gleamed from the summit of the adjacent hill. A 
free people should be jealous of their liberties. I have bought a f dozen 
chickens. The lambs were sold for a dollar a head. Thes bright stars 
without number adorn the sky. We send exports to the Sandwich Is- 
lands. Public men should have integrity, sense, learning, valor, and 
patriotism. 

Honor and shame from no condition rise : 

Act well your part; there all the honor lies. — Pope. 

(a.) " The' 1 '' is an article, it is placed before a noun to limit its meaning; definite, it 
shows that a particular c.it is meant, and belongs to " cat" according to Rule I. 

(I).) "A " is an article, — a word placed before a noun to limit its moaning ; indefinite, it 
shows that no particular mouse is meant, and it belongs to " mouse," 1 according to Rule I. 

(c.) definite, it refers to " lion" as denoting a particular kind of animals, and be- 
longs to it, etc. 

( ( j a ) definite, it refers to " Gasconade " as denoting a particular river, and be- 
longs to it, etc. 

(e.) indefinite, it does not refer to " beautiful white house " as a particular one of 

the kind, and belong.-; to "home" according to Rule I. 

(/.) indefinite, no particular " dozen chickens" are meant ; etc. 

Qjr.) definite, the reference is to " stars " as a particular class of things. 

? 78. The is sometimes an adverb ; a, a preposition ; and an, a conjunction. 

Ex. — " The stronger the better.' 1 (Germ. — JTow stronger how better. Lat. — Eo. 
-:-- * * quo — ). " To go a [at] hunting.!" " An [If] you touch me, I will strike you." 

KQi'XoTE. — At the close of each part of speech in this Book, the teacher may, if he 
deems it best, require his class, before proceeding farther, to finish the subject by learn- 
ing the corresponding section in Book Third. 

9. ADJECTIVES. 

? 70. An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the mean- 
ing of a substantive. 

•Ex. — " A sour apple ; a modest .woman ; a bay horse ; a brilliant star ; five carriages ; 
that raging stoi m ; trass buttons; hoary -headed men." " He is industrious and frugal." 

" To slight the poor, is mean." 1 

Note. — Substantive is a general term for any word, phrase, or clause, performing the 
ofnee of a noun. 

The number of adjectives in our language, amounts to six or seven 
thousand. They give to it much ol' its beauty, energy, and precision; 
and are found most frequently in poetry and descriptive discourse. 



ADJECTIVES. 77 

As nouns denote objects, so adjectives denote their qualities or cir- 
cumstances. They qualify, specify, or distinguish, what substantives 
denote. 

? 80. 1. Objects suggest qualities without reference to other objects. 
2. Objects suggest qualities from their relation to other objects. 3. The 
mind ascribes to objects qualities of its own fancying. 

Ex. — A flower may be beautiful, red, Under, or young, considered by itself; or it may 
"he. vernal, autumnal, Alpine, American, cosily, or suitable, when considered with reference 
to something else ; or the mind may fancy it modest, smiling, proud, &c. 

?.81. Different qualities may exist in the same object; the same qual- 
ity may exist in different objects; the same quality may exist in differ- 
ent degrees in different objects, or in different degrees in the same object 
at different times or under different circumstances. 

Ex. — " A large, red, juicy apple." "Eyes bright, blue, and affectionate." " More beau- 
tiful than goody " Red cheeks, red roses, red flannel, red oxen ; redder cheeks ; the reddest 
cherries." " I was more prudent to-day than yesterday." " A man is happier out of debt 
than in debt." 

? 82. When a noun, a pronoun, or a word of any other part 
of speech, is used to qualify a noun, it becomes an adjective. 

Ex. — " A gold ring ; a mahogany table ; banJ: officers ; state revenue ; California gold ; 
she politicians ; a would-be scholar ; the above remarks." 

? Of adjectives, three kinds are especially worthy of being 
distinguished in parsing ; the numeral, the participial, and 
the pronomial. 

? 8§. The numeral adjectives are the adjectives used for 
counting or numbering. 

Ex. — " One, two, three, four, etc. ; first, second, third, fourth," etc. 
? The former show how many, and are called cardinal ; the latter show 
which one, and are called ordinal. 

? 84. A participial adjective is a participle ascribing the act 
or state to its subject as a quality. 

Ex. — "The twinkling stars; the whitewashed wall." "The book is interesting and 
amusing." 

Note. — Participial adjectives most frequently express a permanent or habitual act ; 
and they are commonly placed immediately before the nouns which they qualify. — When 
a paiticiple is transferred from the doer to describe something pertaining to him, or 
when it does not imply that the act or state of the verb proceeds from the object de- 
scribed, it should be parsed as a mere adjective : as, " His dying day ; parsing exercises ; 
rolling prairies." 

Note. — The pronomial adjectives will be treated of after the pronouns. 

? 8§. An adjective derived from a proper noun, is sometimes 
called a proper adjective. 

Ex. — American from America; — Italian, English, Alpine, Newtonian, Copernican. 

? 86. An adjective that is a compound word, is sometimes 
called a compound adjective. 

Ex. — " Ked-hot, sunburnt, soul-animating, star-spangled ; thick -warbled songs." 
Note. — Most compound adjectives are but abridged forms of clauses, of adjuncts, or 

of participles with their objectives, adjuncts, or adverbs. 
Ex. — Time-saving= u saving time," or, " that saves time." Clear-headed-^" of a clear 

head," or, " that has a clear head." Care-worn=" worn by care." 



78 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 87. Since the same quality may exist in different degrees, 
adjectives undergo certain modifications to express a higher 
or a lower degree, or the highest or the lowest degree, of the 
quality. 

Ex. — " Lime is ivliite ; milk is whiter ; but snow is the whitest of all." 

This property of adjectives is termed comparison. 
? Adjectives have three degrees of comparison; {the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

An adjective is in the positive degree, — 
? 88. 1. When it ascribes the quality simply. 

Ex. — " A young orchard ; a large farm." " The fields look green and fresh." 

? 89. 2. When it ascribes an equal degree of the quality. 

Ex. — " She is as good as he." " A ghost as large as a giant." " A woman as modest 
as she is beautiful." 

An adjective is in the comparative degree, — 

? 90. 1. When it ascribes the quality in a higher or a lower 
degree to one object, or set of objects, than to another. 

Ex. — " A younger brother ; more important affairs ; a boy less studious." 

? 91. 2. When it ascribes the quality in a higher or a lower 
degree, as reckoned from some other condition or quality of 
the same object or of a different object. 

Ex. — " A nation is happier in peace than in war." " I am better than I was." " She 
is wittier than good, and more accomplished than wise." " My horse is whiter than yours 
is black." 

? The comparative degree always implies two considered distinct from 
each other; and it refers either to the same quality in two different ob- 
jects or in two different conditions of the same object, or to one quality 
as contrasted with a different one. 

? 92. That from wkich it is reckoned, is sometimes understood, or ex- 
ists only in the mind. 

Ex. — " A more eligible situation " [than some other one]. " What is better is always 
preferred." " The more talented foreigners will leave the nation." *' He is better than I 
thought he was." 

? 93. The comparative degree requires than after it; therefore such 
words as superior, inferior, interior, preferable, previous^ &c, are not in 
the comparative degree. 

And I doubt very much whether such words as inner, outer, upper, hinder, &c, can 
be properly said to be in the comparative degree. They do not admit than after them, 
and they refer to an opposite rather than to a positive state : thus, upper refers to loiver, 
rather than to up ; inner, to outer. Inner and outer differ very little from internal and ex- 
ternal. 

An adjective is in the superlative degree, — 
? 94. 1. When it ascribes the quality in the highest or the 
lowest degree, in which such objects have it. 

Ex. — " The loveliest flowers were there." " The most skillful rider could do no bet- 
ter." " The least skillful rider could do no worse." " Two kindest souls alone must meet ; 
'Tis friendship makes the bondage sweet." — Watts. 



ADJECTIVES. 79 

? 9§. 2. When it ascribes the quality in the highest or the 
lowest degree to one object, or group of objects, as compared 
with the rest, or with other conditions of the same object. 

Ex. — " The largest sycamore on the river." " The best peaches are taken from the 
tree." " He sat highest on Parnassus." " I am happiest at home." 

? 96. The superlative degree always implies three or more objects 
classed together ; or else it implies other similar conditions of the same 
object. 

Note. — Perhaps the superlative is sometimes allowable when there are but two ob- 
jects, provided the meaning is rather that there is not any thing beyond or superior, than that 
there is something inferior; as, "The farthest ho ise on the peninsula is my residence." 
" An iambus has the last syllable accented."— See Book Third. 

? 97. An adjective can not be compared with propriety, 
when it denotes a quality or property that can not exist in 
different degrees. 

Ex. — "Equal, level, perpendicular, square, naked, round, straight, first, second, one, 
two, blind, deaf, dead, empty, perfect, right, honest, sincere, hollow, four-footed." 

? 98. Good writers, however, sometimes use such adjectives in the com- 
parative or the superlative degree ; but then they do not take them in 
their full sense. 

Ex. — "Our sight is the most perfect of our unses." — Addison." This means that it 
approaches nearer, than the rest, to perfection. "And love is still an emptier name." — 
Goldsmith. 

? 99. The comparative and superlative degrees sometimes express 
even less of the quality than the positive degree expresses. 

Ex. — "Your largest horse is a mere pony." "The best are not good." "John's 
apple may be better than mine, and William may have the best apple, yet not one of 
them maybe really good.'''' If better and best may denote less of goodness than good 
itself, — the propriety of comparing which is never questioned, — why may not more per- 
fect and most perfect denote less than perfection ? And do we ever hesitate to say, " greater 
perfection," "full justice," "perfect freedom?" The truth is, almost all descriptive or 
qualifying adjectives may be used either as absolute in their meaning or as relative. — See 
Book Third. 

? 100. A little of the quality may be expressed by adding ish to the 
positive, or by placing before it such words as rather, somewhat, &c. 

Ex. — " Black, blackish ; saltish ; reddish ; yellowish ; somewhat disagreeable ; rather 
young." 

? 101. A high degree of the quality, without implying direct com- 
parison, is expressed by very, exceedingly, a most, &c. 

Ex. — " Very respectful; exceedingly polite; a most distinguished soldier.'* 



Adjectives are thus compared : — 
? 102. To express diminution, we use less and least. 

Ex. — Pos. good, comp. less good, superl. least good ; important, less important, least 
mportant. 

? 101, To denote increase, the comparison is formed by 
adding er and est to the positive, or by placing more and most 
before it. 

Ex. — Pos. large, comp. larger, superl. largest ; rich, richer, richest ; cheerful, more 
cheerful, most cheerful. — See Rules for Spelling. 



80 BOOK SECOND—THE STANDARD. 

? Which of these methods should be used, depends chiefly on the sound of the word, 
or on the number of its syllables. 

? 104. Adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding er 
for the comparative, and est for the superlative. 

Ex. — " Deep, deeper, deepest ; wise, wiser, wisest; sad, sadder, saddest; dry, drier, 
driest." 

? 105. Adjectives of three or more syllables must always be 
compared by more and most. 

Ex. — "Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful; economical, more economical, 
most economical." 

Adjectives of two syllables follow some of them one method, and some the other. 

? 106. Adjectives of two syllables ending in ?/, or in le after 
a consonant, or accented on the second syllable, are generally 
compared by er and est 

Ex. — " Happy, happier, happiest ; feeble, feebler, feeblest ; polite, politer, politest." 

? 107. Some other adjectives of two syllables are sometimes 
compared in like manner; especially, if they end in a vowel 
or a liquid sound. 

Ex. — " Narrow, narrower, narrowest ; handsome, handsomer, handsomest ; tender, 
tenderer, tenderest." " The metaphor is the commonest figure." " Philosophers are but 
a soberer sort of madmen." — Irving. 

? 108. Some words are expressed in the superlative degree, 
by annexing "most" to them. 

Ex. — " Foremost, utmost, inmost, innermost, hindmost, nethermost." 

? 109. To denote increase, any adjective may sometimes be 
compared by more and most. 

Ex. — " A foot more light, a step more true, 

Ne'er from the heath-flower dashed the dew." — Scott. 

? 110. When two or more adjectives come together, of which some 
fire properly compared by er and est, and others by more and most, the 
smaller are generally placed first, and all are compared as one, by more 
and 7)iost. 

Ex. — " The more nice and elegant parts." — Johnson. " Homer's imagination was by 
far the most rich and copious.''' — Pope. 

Note. — More, most, less, and lead, when used to compare other words, should bo 
parsed separately, and as adverbs. 

? 111. The adjectives whose comparison can not be learned by means 
of a general rule, are said to be irregular. 

Ex. — " Good, better, best ; bad, worse, worst ; " &c. — See Book First. 

? In conclusion, we may add, that usage, taste, and the sense, are the 
best guides in comparison. 



? 112. A word that is usually an adjective, sometimes has the sense of 
a noun, and then it may be parsed as a noun. 

Ex. — -'The beautiful, the useful, and the progressive." " Burke wrote on the beauti- 
ful and the sublime." " O'er the vast abrupt.''' — Milton. " We crossed the mighty deep.'" 
" In the dead of night." " Companion of the dead." — Campbell. " Children are afraid 
to go in the dark." " I' prefer green to red." " The past, at least, is secure." — Webster. 
" Between the noble's palace and the hut." 



ADJECTIVES. 81 

? A word thus used, expresses the quality by a general reference to 
some or all objects possessing it; or it sets forth some particular object, 
or class of objects, as preeminently characterized by it. 

? When an adverb is joined to such a word, the word must be parsed as an adjective, 
belonging to such a substantive understood as will make sense ; viz., thing, things, persons, 
people, place, style, &c : as, " The truly wise are not avaricious ; " " Hoiv much have you 
got?" "A fine instance of the truly sublime ; " better, — " of true sublimity." So, 
indeed, should every such word be parsed, when the word denoting the person or thing 
referred to, is obviously understood, or can be supplied without injuring the sense ; as, 
" Of the apples, he took the larger [ones] and left the smaller." " Turn to the left" 
[hand or side]. It is generally better to parse the adjective as a noun, only when it has 
so far usurped the character of a noun, that the expression, with the most suitable word 
supplied, would not exactly convey the same sense, or else would be tedious and clumsy. 



The qualities and relations of objects necessarily constitute a part of their nature. 
Hence, — 

Rule II. — Adjectives belong to the substantives which they 
qualify or limit. 

? When an adjective relates equally to two or more substantives, it should be parsed 
accordingly. Such substantives are usually kept apart by commas or conjunctions. An 
adjective should not be needlessly supplied before every substantive that has it not and 
yet is qualified by it. 

Ex. — " The apples, pears, and p>eaches, are eipe." " A fit time and place." " A man 
of great sensil'ilities and genius." " That house and lot." " The coiu and calf are white." 
" A white cow and calf." But, " A white cow and a calf," " A white cow and her calf," 
do not mean that the calf is white too. 

When two or more adjectives come between an article and a plural 
noun, they sometimes qualify each only a part of what the noun 
denotes. 

Ex.— "The New and Old Testaments " = The New Testament and the Old Testa- 
ment; not, The New Testaments and the Old Testaments. 

? 113. Note II. — An adjective is sometimes used without a substantive, to 

complete the sense of a preceding infinitive or participle. 

Ex. — " To be good is to be happy." " These are the consequences of being too fond of 
glory." " His beivg rich was the cause of his ruin." " There is nothing lost by being 
careful." But can not a suitable noun be always supplied ; and is it not better to sup- 
ply it, and refer the adjective to it according to Kule II ? Thus : " To be a good person 
is to be a happy person," or, " To be good people is to be happy people." " These are 
the consequences of being a nation too fond of glory." "His being a rich young man, 
was the cause of his ruin." " There is nothing lost by being a careful person — careful 
persons." 

The adjective, in examples appropriate to the Note, relates in sense to what is sug- 
gested by a previous possessive ; or else it relates indefinitely to some being, or to all 
beings whatsoever. 

Spell the comparative and the superlative : — 

(Strong, stronger, strongest ; wise, wiser, wisest ; sad, sadder, saddest ; lovely, lovelier, 
loveliest.) 



Clear, 


short, 


Nice, 


blue, 


Thin, 


grim, 


Dry, 


Ample, 


Serene, 


weak, 


warm, 


coarse, 


wide, 


fit, 


big, 


sprightly, 


able, 


discreet. 


bold, 


grand, 


brave, 


tame, 


fat, 


glib, 


healthy, 


gentle, 


severe, 


dark, 


mild, 


fierce, 


rare, 


hot, 


trim, 


hardy, 


noble, 


sublime, 


light, 


gay, 


rude, 


ripe, 


glad, 


grots, 


surly, 


idle, 


intense, 


fair, 


rough. 


white, 


strange. 


reel, 


droll. 


manly. 


humble. 


profound. 



Of the following adjectives, compare those that can be compared with propriety : — 
Bright, many, two-edged, old, gray, feeble, odious, counterfeit, haughty, proud, grace- 
ful, worthless, bottomless, probable, meagre, ornamental, fundamental, immovable, ada- 
mantine, barren, fruitful, vacant, costly, vernal, green, sluggish, sunburnt, red-haired, 
saucy, audible, dumb, much, little, eloquent. 



82 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

Compare the following adjectives by using less and least : — 

Broad, convenient, loud, confident, lively, troublesome, sick, joyful, sorrowful, exor- 
bitant, exact, star-spangled, indulgent, handsome. 

Correct the following : — 

Beautifullest, pleasanter, intelligenter, powerfullest, triflingest, awfullcst, squarer, 
wretcheder, brilliantest, more perpendicular, wonderfullest, commoner, unworthiest. 

? Double comparatives and double superlatives are improper. 

Correct the following : — 

" Worser ; more stronger ; most happiest ; a more healthier place; a less healthier 
place; a less sublimer strain." "A farmer's life is the most pleasantest." "I never 
heard a more stronger argument." " I had never before lived in a more wealthier and 
pleasanter neighborhood." " She is the most loveliest one of the sisters." " His was 
the most satisfactory and brightest explanation." " A new pair of shoes." 

Join suitable adjectives to each of the following nouns : — 

Moon, field, fountain, trees, garden, horse, willow, mountains, melon, potato, cherry, 
woman, mule, pen, ink, day, wood, boys, sorrow, thoughts, feelings, actions, conduct. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

A dark* cloud came over the city. The summer 13 breezes blow soft 2 
and cool. 2 The firm, rich, mountain' 2 grass swept our saddle-girths, as c 
we cantered over it. The annual, autumnal, desolating fires have almost 
destroyed this well-timbered country. Horses are as* 5 valuable e as* 7 
mules [are]. Italian f music is much admired. There are twos pear-trees 
in the second row. Webster was a greater 11 orator than Clay. Here 
the valleys are more beautiful, and the mountains [are] less rugged and 
more fertile. — Benton. Then comes an elevated rolling prairie country. 
The sweetest 1 flowers fringed the little stream. The river is highest in 
June. The cedars highest on the mountain, are the smallest [cedars]. 
The second blow was more fatal. The foremost horse is superior to the 
rest. Up springs the lark, shrill-voiced and loud. He treated poori 
[people] and rich [people] alike. Pity the afflicted A . To be 4 poor k is 
more honorable 1 than to be dishonorably rich [is honorable]. The set- 
ting^ sun reminds us of declining 1 years. The beautiful" 1 fields and 
forests now in view, were very extensive, and governed by some Peru- 
vian prince or princess. — Prescott. On the grassy bank stood a tall 
waving ash, sound to the very top. — Dickens. 

There brighter suns dispense serener light, 

And milder moons imparadise the night. — Montgomery. 

Where smiling Spring her earliest_visit paid, 

And parting Summer's lingering blooms delayed. — Goldsmith. 

{a.) " DarJc " is an adjective, — a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a sub- 
stantive ; compared pos. dark, comp. darker, superl. darkest; in the positive degree, it 
ascribes the quality simply ; and it belongs to " cloud" according to Rule II. Adjective* 
belong &c. 

(6.) " Summer" is an adjective, — a word * * * it can not be compared with propriety, 
and belongs etc. 

(c.) Adverb, (d.) " Desolating " is an adjective, — a word * * * participial, it is a 

participle ascribing * * * and belongs (e.) in the positive degree, it ascribes 

an equal degree of the quality; and belongs (/.) Parsed like "summer" above. 

(g.) " Two " is an adjective, * * * numeral, it is used for counting ; and belongs 

(h.) comparative degree, it ascribes the quality in a higher degree to one object as com- 
pared with another; and belongs (i.) in the superlative degree, it ascribes the 

quality &c. (See definitions of the superlative degree.) (j.) and belongs to "peo- 

pe" understood, according to Rule II. (k.)-> and belongs to "person" or "persons" 



ADJECTIVES. — NOUNS. 83 

understood, according to Rule II. Or say, and is here used without a substantive^ 

according to Note II. (I.) and it belongs to the phrase " To be poor," according 

to Rule II. (m.) and belongs to "fields and forests,'''' according to Rule II. 

? 114. Punctuation. — A comma is used to show that the adjective is 
parted by other adjectives from what it modifies, or that it is not restric- 
tive, or that the connecting word or phrase is omitted. 

JEx. — " David was a wise, good, and pious prince." " I bought a beautiful gray 
Spanish pony." " He was young, moral, intelligent, and energetic." " A dark, drizzly 
day "= A dark and drizzly day. "Confident of success, he took no warning." "He 
established a school, useful and ornamental." " The means necessary for this purpose 
we will now consider." 

lO. NOUNS. 

? 116. A noun is a name. 

Ex. — " George, Martha, Mary, Washington, river, water, dew, air, wind, pink, farm, 
farmer, grain, angel, world, judgment, mind, thought, joy, fitness, labor, laborer, labor- 

iousness ; Mary Jane Porter ; " " The signs 4-, , X, and -i- ; " " The pronouns he and 

who;" " Moll, or any other she;" "To study reading, writing, and ciphering;" "His 
hems and ha's; " " 3 and 4 ; " " The phrase, that man is born to trouble; " " With his usual 
' How do you do f ' and ' What can I do for you f " " For us to do so, would be improper." 
(What would be improper ?) " That she is innocent, is evident." (What is evident ?) 

When we look into the universe, which surrounds us ; or when the 
soul turns upon itself to notice its own feelings, thoughts, or whatsoever 
is within the scope of its knowledge or comprehension, — every thing 
that can be perceived as an object distinct from other objects, may be 
represented by a word or a mark, termed a noun. In other words, all 
objects whatsoever, whether natural, artificial, or imaginary, — in the 
world around us, or in the limits of our thoughts, — also the powers, 
feelings, and conceptions of the soul itself, may be denoted by nouns. 

The nouns, then, in any language, must correspond in number with 
the different objects, or kinds of objects, recognized by the people using 
that language. 



? Nouns are divided into two great classes ; proper and 
common. 

? 117. A proper noun is the peculiar name of a particular 
object or a particular group of objects. 

Ex. — " George, Martha, Alexander Hamilton, California, Washington City, Paris, St. 
Petersburg, Missouri, Paradise Lost ; the Missouri; the Iliad; the Andes ; the Alleghanies ; 
the Azores." And according to some authorities, "The Romans; the Cherokees; the 
Mexicans." 

? Proper nouns do not admit of definition. When first applied, they 
are generally given at pleasure ; and they serve to distinguish one indi- 
vidual of a kind, from others of the same kind. Most of the names on 
maps, and the names of persons, are proper nouns. The number of 
proper nouns is unlimited ; that of places alone is said to exceed seventy 
thousand. 

? 118. A common noun is a name common to all objects of 
the same kind or class. 

Ex. — Man, woman, boy, engineer, hunter, sheriff, horse, cow, deer, foxes, bell, oak, 
white-oak, walnut, apple, almond, steamboat, anger, contentment, happiness, reason. 



84 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? Common nouns have meaning, and admit of definition. They dis- 
tinguish different kinds or sorts from one another. A common noun is 
applied to more objects than one on account of something in which they 
resemble, and from which the same name is given to them all. Those 
nouns ill a common dictionary which are defined, are common nouns. 
The number of common nouns in the English language, is said to be 
about twenty-five or thirty thousand. 

? 119. When a proper noun assumes a meaning, or implies 
that there are more objects than one having the same name or 
character, it becomes a common noun. 

Ex. — " R~3 is neither a Solomon nor a Samson." " Bolivar was the Washington of 
South America." " No Alexander or Cossar ever did so." " Some mute, inglorious Mil- 
ton here may rest." "Alps on Alps [great difficulties] arise." And perhaps, " The two 
Adamses; the Marshalls of Virginia ; the Belgians; the Choetaws." 

? 120. But such plurals as the words Alps, Alleghanies, Andes, Orkneys, &c, denoting 
contiguous parts rather than similar individuals, are still proper nouns. They are proper 
nouns similar to the common nouns ashes, scissors, assets, minutiae, &c. 

? 121. When a common noun designates an object in the 
same way as an object is designated by a proper noun, it be- 
comes a proper noun. 

Ex. — " And Hope enchanting smiled." " Hail ! Liherty." " Let us go to the Park — 
to the Commons." So perhaps such terms as " Blue Ridge," " Niagara Falls," and 
" Mammoth Cave," when regarded as denoting particular places merely, rather than as 
characterizing tlioin by the ordinary meaning of the words. 

It is sometimes very difficult, to determine whether a given noun is 
proper or common. The same word is sometimes a proper and sometimes 
a common noun. 

Proper Nouns : " Sunday precedes Monday." "B follows A." " I is a p/onoun." 
" The English words Faith, Freedom, Heaven, and Home." " Smiling Spring has come 
again." "JBarth paused; and Nature sighed through all her works." "When Music, 
heavenly maid, was young." Common Nouns: " We have preaching on every Sunday.'''' 
" The b is followed by an a." " I love faith, freedom, heaven, and home.' 1 '' " In spring." 
" Every spring." '■'■Earth, to earth." "The sun shines upon the earth." "Nature is 
everywhere the same." " I am delighted with good music." 

Note. — A proper noun, even if known to us, we never venture to apply to an object, 
unless we presume to name it ourselves, or have heard others call it by that name ; but 
a common noun wo do not hesitate to apply to other similar objects, so soon as they 
appear to us or come into existence ; as, " I saw three suns this morning." A proper 
noun is designative and exclusive; a common noun, descriptive and inclusive. In the lan- 
guage of Mills, (.sv.;e his Logic,) the former denotes, and the latter connotes. Most proper 
nouns had originally some meaning, which, however, was not designed to make the word 
applicable to all other similar objects, but to distinguish and exclude thfi object named 
from all others. Examples: Jerusalem, habitation of peace; Christ, anointed; Sarah, 
2Jrincess; Margaret, pearl; Thatcher, Harper, Smith, occupation; White, Long, Stout, 
quality; Brooks, Woods, locality; Mississippi (originally Meshassepi), all the rivers ; Min- 
nesota, sky-tinted; Shenandoah, daughter of the stars; Winnipiseogee, smile of the (treat 
Spirit. The meaning of most proper nouns is lost, or is not taken into consideration 

in applying them. Most common nouns may have been arbitrary sounds at first, but 
they were given with the design of being applicable to all objects of the same class. When 
a word that has a meaning, is appropriated to a certain object, it becomes a proper noun 
if the meaning is no longer regarded ; and when a name at first arbitrarily given as a 
proper noun, acquires a meaning from the character or nature of what it denotes, it be- 
comes a common noun. — A few more remarks may be added with special reference to 
plural nouns. It may be urged, on the one hand, that the nouns in such phrases as 
" The Comanches, the Cherokces, the Choctaws, the Mohawks, the Gauls, the Spaniards, 
the Mexicans, the Jews, the Israelites, the Janizaries, the Mamelukes, the Muses, the 
Sirens, the Sybils, the Graces, the Naiads," are common, and not proper; because if they 
were at first given to more objects than one, it was from something characteristic of them 
all ; or if at first given arbitrarily to one, and then applied to others, it was also because 



nouns. 85 

the acquired meaning of the word rendered it applicable to them. Besides, we can say, 
" A Comanche, a Cherokee, a Muse," &c, — expressions implying that there are more ob- 
jects than one of the same class. Brit some grammarians may say, that the words above 
denote particular groups or classes ; so, we maintain, do the nouns in the following sentence : 
" God made the stars, the plants, the birds, the fishes, the human beings, and the angels." 
Such words as Alps, Azores, Orkneys, and Apennines, are, however, proper nouns; be- 
cause they denote groups of contiguous j/ctrts, and not groups of similar individuals. Yet 
I fancy we may conceive even these terms as denoting, metaphorically, clusters of things 
sprung out of the earth like a race of men from a common stock. — On the other hand, it 
may be urged, that such plurals as the above are applied to groups, just as other . 
proper nouns are applied to individuals ; and that they serve to distinguish the groups of 
a larger class, just as the other proper nouns serve to distinguish the individuals of a 
species. 

? 122. When two or more consecutive words serve merely to 
designate one object or group, they are all parsed together as 
one noun. 

Ex. — "Juan Fernandez, Henry Hudson, New Orleans, Jefferson City, Charles II, 
Brigadier-general Commandant, Lady Maries, Messrs. Harper." And perhaps as well, — 
" The Duke of Northumberland's forces." 

What did Adam do in Paradise, when he gave names to all the objects about him ? 

Tell ivhich of the following nouns are proper, which common, and why : — 

Arthur, boy, man, Wallace, woman, Josephine, city, Rome, country, New England, 
river, Osage, Ohio, Florida, Cuba, bucket, plant, seed, toothache, friendship, bees, 
works, corn, spice, pepper, oak, white-oak, congregation, Mrs. Amelia Welby, John C. 
Calhoun ; Thompson's Seasons ; Young's Night Thoughts. 

The nouns, and why ; whether proper or common, and why : — 

Pornpey being vanquished, Caisar returned triumphant to Borne. The little waves 
quivered on the bosom of the lake. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession by 
disgust. Isabella and Ferdinand, the queen and king of Spain, enabled Columbus to 
discover America. Prescott's Conquest of Mexico is worth a careful perusal. Scotland ! 
there is magic in the sound. The Laurenses, the Butledges, the Sumpters, the 
Marions, — Americans all. And Freedom shrieked — as Kosciusko fell. The Bahamas 
and the Antilles. "lis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter. The pronomials 
each, every, and either. The ifs and and*. alone stands for nothing. Learn the how 
and the ivhy. Col. Thomas H. Benton died in the year 1858. 

The pear and quince lay squandered on the grass ; 

The mould was purple with unheeded showers 
Of bloomy plums ; — a wilderness it was 
Of fruits, and weeds, and flowers ! — Hood. 

Write the names of all the different objects that you can think of as being in a city t — in 
the count y, — in the sky. 



? A portion of the common nouns are sometimes divided, 
according to their signification, into collective, abstract, sub- 
stantial, and verbal nouns. 

? 123. A noun denoting in the singular form more than one 
object of the^same kind, is a collective noun. 

Ex. — " Assembly, flock, swarm, family, congregation, committee, pair, crowd." 
? 124. But a noun in the singular number, that denotes a collection of 
things resembling in their general character but differing in their par- 
ticular character, is not a collective noun. 

Ex. — "Furniture, jewelry, machinery, imagery, finery, baggage, clothing." 

? 125. An abstract noun denotes a quality, an action, or a 
mode of being. 

Ex. — "Hope, virtue, contentment, wisdom, magnitude, disease, war, peace, govern 
ment." # 



6U BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Note. — Abstract signifies drawn from, and these nouns are so termed because they 
are not the names of certain substantive objects or things in the world, but the names 
of certain notions which the mind has drawn from them, or conceived concerning them. 
Thus, as we advance from childhood in our acquaintance with the world, we form some 
idea of what is meant by life, death, goodness, youth, happiness, beauty, sorrow, murder, 
revenge, cold, heat, ichiteness, softness, hardness, brightness, dai'kness, motion, rest, flight, 
silence, existence, hight, depth, growth, custom, fashion, strife, honor, glory, industry, economy, 
indolence, grandeur, religion, knowledge, honesty, deception, drunkenness, poverty, destiny, 
ambition, power. These and such nouns are abstract. 

? Space and time are two abstract nouns denoting what must contain 
all other things whatsoever. 

? 126. Most abstract nouns readily pass into concrete nouns. 

Ex. — " The beauty of nature." " The beauties of nature ; " i. e., the different objects 
in nature that are beautiful ; or else, the different kinds of beauty. " She is a beauty."'* 
"' Pride, Poverty, and Fashion, once undertook to keep house together." 

Note. — A concrete noun denotes a substance with its quality or attributes. 

? 127. A substantial noun denotes some kind of substance or 
matter. 

Ex — " Bread, meat, water, wine, beer, cheese, butter, salt, air, hay, flour, gold, 
silver, metal, iron, stone, wood, wheat, rye, corn, cabbage, lettuce." 

? Abstract nouns and substantial nouns have a universal, indivisible 
application, and generally also special applications. Some writers con- 
sider them abstract or substantial, only when used in the former sense. 

Ex. — 1. " Beauty is attractive." " Rain moistens the ground." " Virtue is hap- 
piness." 2. " The beauty of the rose." " The beauty of a landscape." " The rain that 
fell last night." " The virtue of quinine." 1 & 2. " Vice, a vice, vices ; fire, a fire, 
fires ; snow, a snow ; modulation, the modulation, modulations ; whiteness, the whiteness 
of chalk, the whiteness of paper, the whiteness of snow ; light, the light of the sun, the 
light of a star, the light of a candle." 

Abstract nouns are in some respects to spirit what substantial nouns are to matter. 

? 128. A verbal noun is a participle or an infinitive used as a 
noun. — See Verb. 

Ex. — "There was some Indian fighting in the settling of this country." " To know 
him is to love him." 

? 129. A phrase or clause used as a noun, is sometimes 
termed a substantive phrase or clause. 

Ex. — " Is it necessary for us to go ? " " That vanity is ridiculous, is generally admit- 
ted." 

? Note. — Substantive is a more general term than noun. Whatever sustains to other 
words the relation of case, is a substantive. 

Tell whether collective, abstract, or substantial, and why : — 

Tribe, nations, anger, pity, congress, caucus, adversity, sand, dust, navy, behavior, 
extent, violence, group, party, party-spirit, clique, bacon, wood, armies, zeal, civiliza- 
tion, eternity, company, wine, meat, age, ice, snow, coldness, food, corn, people, peoples, 
communities, right, wrong, duty, rights, wrongs, duties, law, medicine, science, phi- 
losophy, investigation, clergy, experience, perseverance, jury, trade, commerce. 

? 130. To the classes of nouns already given, some grammarians add 
correlative nouns,~such as father and son, husband and wife, master and 
servant, tyrant and slave ; and diminutive nouns, — or such as gosling from 
goose, duckling from duck; hillock, floweret, leaflet, lambkin. 



The foregoing classification is in accordance with the teachings of grammarians 
generally. The two following classifications are perhaps more philosophical. 

? 1. Nouns are either concrete or abstract. 



NOUNS. — GENDERS. 87 

? Concrete nouns denote self-existent objects, or objects having attri- 
butes ; as, God, earth, rose. 

Abstract nouns denote attributes; as, Goodness, power, wisdom, color, 
fragrance, motion, existence. 

? 2. Nouns may be divided into the following classes : proper, abstract, 
substantial, verbal, (all of which imply unity, singleness, or individ- 
uality,) and common including collective, (both of which imply plu- 
rality). 

? A proper noun is such a name of an object or a group, as is not 
applicable to others like it. 

Y An abstract noun denotes an attribute universally considered; as, 
truth. 

? A substantial noun denotes a kind of substance universally consid- 
ered; as, water. 

? A verbal noun is a participle or an infinitive used as a noun. The 
abstract nouns include the verbal nouns. 

? A common noun is such a name given to one or more objects, as is 
applicable to any others like them. 

? Collective nouns denote groups of similar objects, like other nouns de- 
note single objects. The common nouns include the collective nouns. 

Note. — The common nouns come near to the other classes in such expressions as, 
" The lion is courageous." " The oak is an emblem of strength." 

? Abstract or substantial nouns personified, and common nouns deprived 
of " connotation" become proper. 

Proper, abstract, substantial, or verbal nouns, when modified, become 
common. The modification at once suggests plurality of objects. The 
modification may be effected by pluralizing the noun, on by using an ar- 
ticle, adjective, adverb, adjunct, or other modifying expression. 

Ex. — " There were Macphersons and Macdonalds." " The hauling of the stones and 
other materials, was a heavy expense." "The honors of the society." " To think al- 
ways correctly, is a great accomplishment." " The Hudson, the Pyrenees," &c— The 
river Hudson, or the Hudson river, &c ; or they may be deemed exceptions. 

? The properties of nouns are genders, persons, numbers, and 
cases. 

11. GENDERS. 

? The gender of a word is its meaning in regard to sex. 
? There are four genders j the masculine, the feminine, the 
neuter, and the common. 
? 131. Nouns that denote males, are of the masculine gender. 

Ex. — " Man, father, son, uncle, nephew, brother, governor, horse, dog, drake." 

? 32. Nouns that denote females, are of the feminine gender. 

Ex. — " Woman, mother, daughter, girl, aunt, niece, sister, seamstress, cow, hen." 

? 31 Nouns that denote neither males nor females, are of 
the neuter gender. 

Ex. — "Tree, house, city, heaven, garden, needle, body, beauty, manhood, soul." 
? 134. The neuter gender aj plies cbie£y to things, and to qualities or 
other attributes. 



Ott BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? lcSS. Nouns that may denote either males or females or 
both, are of the common gender. 

Ex. — "Parents, children, birds, person, persons, friend, cousins, cat, insects." 

When common gender is asserted of a noun, the meaning is, that the 
noun denotes living beings, but does not show in itself whether males 
or females are meant, being equally applicable to both. This, however, 
may sometimes be ascertained from some other word in the sentence, 
and then the noun should be parsed accordingly. 

Ex. — " The child and his mother were in good health." Here child is masculine as 
shown hy hist. 

Note. — Some grammarians reject the " common gender," and would parse such words 
as parents and friends, as "of the masculine and feminine gender," " of the masculine or 
feminine gender," "of the masculine gender," or "of the feminine gender," according, 
to the sense. I see no valid objection to the term common gender, provided gender and 
sex be not, as they frequently are, confounded. They are distinct in meaning: gender is 
a property belonging to words only ; and sex, to objects. 

? 136. Nouns strictly applicable to males only, or to females only, are 
sometimes used to denote both. This usually occurs when the speaker 
aims at brevity of speech, and when the sex is not important to his de- 
sign. The masculine term is generally preferred. 

Ex. — " Horses are fond of green pastures," i. e.. Horses and marcs too. " The Jeivs 
are scattered over the whole world." " Heirs are often disappointed." " I saw geese and 
duels in the pond." 

? 137. Sometimes animals are regarded as male or female, not from 
their sex, but from their general character — from having masculine or 
feminine qualities. 

Ex. — "The lion meets 7*/.s foe boldly." " The fox made his escape." "The raider 
weaves her web." '* The dove smooths her feathers." "The timid hare leaps from her 
covert." " Every "bee minds her own business." — Addison. "The ant is a very cleanly 
insect, and throws out of her nest all the remains of the corn on which she feeds." — Id. 
Had these bees and ants appeared to Addison as uninteresting, ordinary things, he would 
probably have used " it " and "its;" but their attractive, amiable, and almost rational 
qualities made the adoption of the feminine gender peculiarly elegant. 

? 138. So, inanimate objects are sometimes regarded by the imagination 
as living beings, and have then a suitable sex ascribed to them. This oc- 
curs chiefly in poetry and in oratory. The objects, in such cases, are 
said to be personified, that is, endowed with personal qualities; and the 
nouns denoting such objects, may be parsed as masculine or feminine by 
personification. 

Ex. — " The sini rose and filled the earth with his glory." " The moon took her station 
still higher, and looked brighter than before." " The boat has lost her rudder." " The 
City is proud of her magnificence." " Behold the Morn in amber clouds arise ; See, with 
her rosy hands she paints the skies." — Lee. " Then Anger rushed — his eyes on fire." — 
Collins. See his Ode to the Passions. 

? 139. A collective noun when used in the plural number, orjrhen it 
represents the collection as an aggregate or whole, is of the neuter gen- 
der; otherwise, its gender corresponds with the sex of the individuals 
composing the collection. 

Ex.— " Six families settled on this river." " Every generation has its peculiarities." 
"The audience were much pleased." 

? 140. Some words may vary much in gender, according to the very 
different meanings which they have. 

Ex. — "A game at ball;" "I saw no game in my hunt." "A brilliant genius',"' 
i% He has genius." 



NOUNS. — GENDERS. 



8B 



? The English language has three methods of distinguishing 
objects that differ on account of sex only. 



? 141. 



1. By different words. 



Bachelor, 


maid. \ 


Gander, 


goose. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


spinster, j" 


Gentleman, 


lady. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Bake, 


jilt. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Ram, 


ewe. 


Boar, 


sow. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Sire, 


madame. 


Bridegroom 


, bride. 


King, 


queen. 


Sire (a horse' 


I, dam. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Sloven, 


slut. 


Bullock, 


heifer. 


Male, 


female. 


Son, 


daughter. 


Cock, ) 
Booster, J 


hen. 


Man, 


woman. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Steer, 


heifer. 


Colt, 


filly. 


Master, 


miss. 


Swain, 


nymph. 


Dog, 


bitch. 


Mr., 


Mrs. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Brake, 


duck. 


Milter, 


spawner. 


Wizard, 


witch. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Monk, 


nun. 


Youth, 


damsel. ) 
maiden. J 


Father, 


mother. 


Monsieur, 


mademoiselle. 


Friar, 


nun. 


Monsieur, 


madame. 


Charles, 


Caroline. 


? 


2. 


By difference of term 


ination. 





? 142. Most words of this class are appellations of office, occupation, 
or rank, and the feminine generally ends in ess or trix. 

Ex. — Abbott, abbess. Add ess : Baron, heir, host, priest, count, poet, peer, prophet 
tutors, mayor, prior, shepherd, sultan*, deacon, giant, dauphin, prince, (see Mules for 
Spelling,) ogre, patron, god, (see Rules for Spelling,) cit, Jew, hermit, archer, viscount, 
author, canon, diviner, doctor*, tailor, Hebrew, Jesuit, regent, soldier, warrior. Change 
ter or tor into tress, and der into dress : Actor, doctor, arbiter, benefactor, auditor, 
enchanter, elector, instructor, chanter, songster, conductor, embassador, hunter, mister, 
protector, traitor, commander, demander, detractor, victor, suitor, director*, proprietor, 
seamster, idolater, editor, progenitor, fornicator, porter, painter, orator* mediator*, of- 
fender, solicitor, rector, spectator*, creator, emulator, exactor, founder, tutor, huckster, 
sempster, inhabiter, minister, waiter, monitor, deserter*, inheritor*, inventor, competitor, 
executor*. Change tor into trix : Administrator, executor, adjutor, testator, prosecutor, 
inheritor, director, arbitrator. Change rer into ress : Adulterer, adventurer, caterer, 
hucksterer, murderer, sorcerer. 



s. I 

:SS. J 



WORDS NOT SO REGULAR. 



empress. 

emperess. 

negress. 

governess. 

votaress. 

tigress. 

eagless. 

laundress. 

duchess. 

tyranness. 

pythoness. 

anchoress. 

heroine. 



Carl, 


carline. 


Don, 


Landgrave, 


langravine. 


Infant, 


Margrave, 


margravine. 


Tzar, 


Palsgrave, 


palsgravine. 


Sultan, 


William, 


Wilhelmine. 


Augustus, 


Joseph, 


Josephine. 


Cornelius, 


Chamberlain; 


, chambermaid. 


George, 


Goodman, 


goody. 


Henry, 


Widower, 
Lover, \ 
Love, j 


widow, 
love. 


Julius, 
Louis, 


Signore, 


signora. 


John, 


Marquis, \ 
Marquess, j" 


marchioness. 


Frank, } 
Francis, j" 



donna. 

infanta. 

tzarina. 

sultana. 

Augusta. 

Cornelia. 

Georgia. 

Henrietta. 

Julia. 

Juliet. 

Louisa. 

Joanna. 

Frances. 



,} 



Emperor, 

Negro, 

Governor, 

Votary, 

Tiger, 

Eagle, 

Launderer, 

Duke, 

Tyrant, 

Pythonist, 

Anchorite, > 

Anchoret, J 

Hero, 

? 143. When, for either sex, the appropriate term is so seldom used as 
to be uncouth, the other term may be preferred; and wherever there is 
a term for but one of the sexes, it may be used for the other, if necessary. 

? 144. Words derived or compounded, usually express gender in the 
same way as their simple words. 

Ex. — "Coheir, coheiress; archduke, archduchess; grandsire, grandam; landlord, 
landlady ; schoolmaster, scooolmistress ; schoolboy, schoolgirl ; merman, mermaid ; 
grandfather, grandmother; peacock, peahen." 

* Words marked with a star, have also some other form to denote the female. 



90 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 145. 3. By using a distinguishing word. 

Ex. — He-bear, she-bear ; he -goat, she -goat ; man-servant, maid-servant ; cock-spar- 
row, hen-sparrow ; male descendants, female descendants ; Mr. Barton, Mrs. Barton ; Mr. 
Reynolds, Miss Reynolds. 

? 146. For some very common objects we have a common-gender term, 
as well as a masculine term and a feminine. 

Ex. — "Parent, father, mother; child, son, daughter; person, man, woman." 

? 147. Some descriptive terms are so rarely needed to denote women, 
that they have no corresponding feminine terms. 

Ex. — " Printer, carpenter, robber, baker, brewer, hostler, lawyer, fop, drummer, 
colonel." 

? 148. Others have rarely or never corresponding masculine terms. 

Ex. — " Laundress, sempstress, brunette, coquet, jilt, dowdy, vixen, termagant, hag." 

Mention six nouns of the masculine gender, — six of the feminine, — six of the common, — 
six of the neuter. 

The gender, and why : — 

Son, inhabitant, nurse, kinsman, kinswoman, relative, nephew, sheep, ram, ewe, 
Ellen, Francis, writer, animal, plant, companion, artist, Christian, talents, aristocracy, 
democracy, earth, soul, mule, American, Turk, juggler, merchant, yearling, doctor, 
juries, flocks, atom, nobody, elephant, dealer, donor, donee, indorser, indorsee, party, 
spirits, tiger, leopard, bee, Jew, princes, princess, chief, president, caterpillar, steer, 
corpse. All Switzerland is in the field ; She will not fly, she can not yield. — Montgomery. 

Spell the corresponding feminine : — 

Administrator, instructor, tutor, director, hero, executor, gander, count, earl, emperor, 
sultan, duke, prophet, sir, gentleman. 

Spell the corresponding masculine : — 

Wife, queen, heiress, enchantress, hind, roe, maid, spawner, lady, lass, girl, sister, 
marchioness, Harriet. 

12. PERSONS. 

? The person of a word shows whether it refers to the speaker, 
the object spoken to, or the object spoken of. 

In speaking, we can refer only to ourselves, to something addressed, 
or to something spoken of; hence — 

? There are three persons ; the first, the second, and the 
third. 

? 149. A word that represents a person as speaking, is of the 
first person. 

Ex. — "I William Jones here certify, that" &c. "J Sterling Price, Governor of 
Missouri," &c. "We, the people of the United States." " Many evils beset us mortals." 

? 150. A word that represents an object as spoken to or ad- 
dressed, is of the second person. 

Ex. — " Henry, shut the door." " Friends, Romans, countrymen! lend me your ears." 
" thou Almighty God, luho didst create this wondrous world." " Forbid it, Justice." 

? 151. When inanimate objects are addressed, they are of 
course personified. 

Ex. — " Liberty ! what crimes are committed in thy name ! " 

? 1§2. A word that represents an object as spoken of, is of 
the third person. 



NOUNS. — PERSONS.— NUMBERS. 91 

Ex. — " The city is in a bowl of mountains." " I have read Webster's reply to Hayne." 
11 1 am the man whom you wish to see." " To fail is disgraceful." 

? 153. When a noun comes after a verb to explain the nominative, it 
is of the third person, though the nominative may be of the first or the 
second person. 

Ex. — " We are the patrons that will support you." " You are the person wanted." 
" I am sheriff of the county." " We are strangers here." " You are heroes." 

Query. — Does not person essentially disappear from the words " sheriff," " strangers," 
and " heroes," as here used without an article ? " Sheriff," for instance, does not seem 
to denote the speaker as such, nor a person spoken of as such, but to be simply descrip- 
tive like an adjective. 

? 154. The third person is sometimes elegantly used for the first or the 
second. 

Ex. — " The king is always willing to listen to the just complaints of his subjects," 
for, I am always &c. " Surely, my mother does not mean to marry me to such an 
old miser," for, Surely, mother, you do not &c. 

.Note. — To address others and speak of them and ourselves in the third person, usually 
implies greater reserve, courtesy, and politeness ; as in cards of invitation, and such 
things : but in business letters, or where no such politeness and courtesy can be meant, 
the greater reserve or distance that is assumed, of course tends to suggest contempt. 

? 155. A noun of the first or the second person is never used as the 
subject of a verb. 

Ex. — "I William Smith believe" &c. "Children, obey your parents." Believe 
agrees with I, as its nominative ; and obey, with ye, or you, understood. 

156. A word used in speaking of one or of a part of the persons speak- 
ing or addressed, is in the third person, 

Ex.— " Each one of us is studying Ids lesson." " Every one of you knows his duty." 
" Some of you have lost their places." {Speaking to a spelling-class.) " Some of you have 
lost your places," sounds perhaps less uncouth to some ears ; yet the foimer is the correct 
expression according to principle. 

The naming of the different persons, as shown above, first, second, and third, is in 
accordance with the natural order of full discourse : as, " I James Bennett certify to you, 
William Morrison, that Timothy Flint is the legal owner of this farm." 
The nouns and the pronouns ; the person, and wliy : — 

John, bring the horse. Mary, you are an idle girl. I Joseph Rogers hold myself 
responsible. We passengers have poor fare. A horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse. 
Those evening bells ! those evening bells ! How many a tale their music tells. This 
watch is a present to you, Clarence. Come, Peace of mind, delightful guest. And peace, 
Virtue, peace is all thine own. We are old acquaintances. You are quite a philoso- 
pher. Well, my little friend, how fare the schoolboys ? 

The good man and woman are long since in their graves, who used to sit and plan 
the welfare of us their children. — Addison. 

And there lay the rider distorted and pale, 

With the dew on his brow, and the rust on his mail ; 
And the tents were all silent, the banners alone, 

The lances unlifted, the trumpets unblown. — Byron. 
Change into the other persons : — 

John writes. The girls study. Henry, you may play. I Augustus would do so. Is 
Guatamozin to be burned on glowing coals ? 

13. NUMBERS. 

? The number of a word shows whether it refers to one 
object or to more than one. 
? There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. 



92 BOOK SECOND. — THE STANDARD. 

? 157. A word that denotes but one, is of the singular num- 
ber. 

Ex. — " Boy, apple, knife, pin, grain, drop, button, flower, I, he." 

? 1§8. A word that denotes more than one, is of the plural 
number. 

Ex. — " Boys, figures, apples, knives, mice, drops, buttons, flowers, we, they." 
? A plural term sometimes comprises objects very similar, and some- 
times very dissimilar. 

Ex. — 1. " Twins, apples, pears, shingles." 2. " Tools, letters, words, acquaintances, 
qualifications." 

? 159. Two or more nouns connected merely by and } are always 
equivalent to a plural. 

Ex. — " John, James, and Thomas, are studying " = The boys are studying. 

? 160. Two or more objects, viewed one by one, or separately, have 
words referring to them in the singular number. 

Ex. — " Every heart best knows its own sorrows." " Neither Mary nor Martha has 
studied her lesson." 

? 161. A possession or attribute relating in common to several objects, 
must generally be expressed in the singular number. 

Ex. — " It was done for our sake" not sakes. " Let them be content with their lot," 
not lots. 

? 162, No proper, abstract, or substantial nouns, as such, are 
ever plural, except a few that have no singular form. 

Ex. — "Alice, Europe, France, pride, ambition, meekness, modesty, motion, hope, 
duration, eternity, gold, copper, meat, hay, straw, specie, butter, cider, beer, molasses, 
ivy, fire, snow, mud, water, flax, silk, dust, ashes, oats. Andes." 

? 16$, When a proper noun is pluralized, it denotes a race 
or family, or two or more objects as having the same name or 
character. 

Ex. — "The Boltons and the Dixons." " The twelve Csesars." "Her Marions, 
Sumpters, ILutleges, and Pinkneys." 

? 164. When abstract or substantial nouns are pluralized, 
they frequently imply more kinds than one. 

Ex. — " Fevers, diseases, vices, airs, wines, teas, cottons, silks, satins, taxes." 

? 165. Sometimes they denote two or more objects having 
the quality or the substance, and occasionally they denote 
something as composed of parts. 

Ex. — " All the sisters are beauties.' 1 '' " The highls of Abraham, (at Quebec)." " My 
marbles.' 1 '' "I had only a few coppers left." "I heard the waters roar down the 
cataract." " Curiosities, slates, straws, timbers, proceedings, liberties, rights, virtues, 
vices." "Make your loves to me." — Shak.; i. e., sayings or acts expressing love ; 
addresses ; endearments. 

? 166. Some nouns that denote objects consisting of two 
parts, or conceived to consist of many parts or individuals, 
are always plural. 

Ex. — " Tongs, scissors, lungs, embers, ashes, pincers, breeches, trowsers, bowels, 
entrails, intestines, billiards, calends, ides, nones, annals, archives, clothes, goggles, 
snuffers, stairs, head-quarters, poetics, riches, victuals, assets, teens, matins, vespers, 
hemorrhoids, hysterica, dreg*, bitters, filings, remains, obsequies, nuptials, chops, spat_ 



NOUNS. — NUMBERS. 93 

terdash.es, statistics, folks, aborigines, antipodes, literati, mammalia, grallse, passerSs, 
sporades, regalia, paraphernalia, vetches, cattle." Except, however, the class, furniture, 
jewelry, hosiery, &c, which are singular. 

? 167. Sometimes such a word may be used in the singular to denote 
a part, or to denote the object as an individual, or to denote the entire 
collection as one group. 

Ex.— "The left lung was diseased." "A stair; a bellows; the annal ; a valuable 

statistic." 

? 168, Some plural terms have the singular, but differ from it in sig- 
nification. 

Ex. — "Arms (weapons), letters (literature), pains (care), colors (banner, banners), 
means, manners, morals, physics." 

? 169. Some nouns remain unchanged to express either num- 
ber. 

Ex. — " Deer, sheep, swine, hose, grouse, series, species, superficies, eorps, apparatus, 
hiatus. " 

? 170. A collective noun is plural even when singular in form 
yet plural in idea. 

Ex. — " The American people are watchful of their liberties." 

? 171. In the same way may be used some nouns denoting animals; 
and also words of number preceded by a numeral adjective that seems 
sufficient of itself to determine the number. 

Ex.— " This creek abounds in trout and perch." To say, "in trouts and perches" 
might mean different kinds. " Fowl and fish for sale." " Two pair, three dozen, three 
score, five hundred." 

? 172. Foot and horse, in the sense of troops, and sail, in the sense of 
ships, are plural. Sometimes cannon and shot: also head; as, "forty 
head.' 1 

In short, the singular form of some words is sometimes used for the 
plural form. 

Ex. — "The foe! they come ; they come." — Byron. "The heathen." "All manner 
of evil." "To mould brick and burn them." 

? 173. But most of these words admit also the regular plural form. 

Ex. — " Herrings and mackerels." " Trouts and salmons swim against the stream." 
"Fowls and fishes." "In scores and dozens." "By hundreds and thousands." 
" Cannons and muskets." 

? In using the singular form, the mind dwells perhaps rather on the 
nature than on the number of the objects, — on what is meant rather than 
on how many are meant. 

? 174. Some nouns, though always plural in form, are considered to be 
either singular or plural, according as the mind conceives the thing 
as composed of parts, or as a single object of thought. 

Ex. — "News, odds, means, amends, alms, suds, mathematics, politics, ethics, phys- 
ics, optics, hydraulics, apocrypha, mumps, rickets." " The measles have brolten out 
thick upon him." " The measles is sometimes a dangerous disease." " There the differ- 
ent politics of the day were discussed." " Politics is an uncertain profession." 

? 175. The pupil should remember, that it is not always the form of 
the word, but the sense, that determines the number; hence molatset 
chints, jeans, are singular, though ending in s. 



94 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? A noun that makes sense with a or an before it, or is after it, is 
singular ; a noun that makes sense with two or these before it, or are 
after it, is plural. 

? There are a few instances of collective nouns used at the same time in both senses, 
and perhaps not improperly ; as, Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy." — Constitution of the United States. " There is a tribe in these 
mountains, ivho are fairer and more intelligent than the other Indians." — Irving. 

Whether singular or plural, and why : — 

Mountain, mountains, leaf, flowers, pinks, sleep, marble, marbles, apple-trees, catfish, 
scissors, powers, strawberries, seed, seeds, people, Europeans, William Shakspeare, six, 
sixes, rain, skies, heaven, heavens, winds, prairies, Cincinnati, New York, trappings, 
sweepings, doings, outpourings, responsibilities, men, foot, woman, oxen, tooth, remains, 
shackles, mechanics, dynamics, acoustics, radii, cluster, nation, tribe, series, masonry, 
assembly. 



? 76. Most nouns become plural by adding s to the singular. 

Ex. — " Book, books ; hats, shoes, streets, roads, rivers, towns, villages." 

? 77. When s alone annexed, could not be easily pronounc- 
ed ; and when the singular ends in i, o, u } or ?/, preceded each 
by a consonant, — the plural is formed by adding cs. 

Ex. — " Church, churches ; benches, stitches, blushes, dishes, misses, glasses, atlases, 
isthmuses, topazes, taxes, boxes ; alkali, alkalies ; rabbi, rabbies ; halo, haloes ; negro, 
negroes ; gnu, gnues ; story, stories ; the Winnebagoes ; the Missouries." 

? 178. But all proper nouns ending in y, and some in o, usually take 
* only. 

Ex. — "Tolly, Ttdlys; Henrys, Marys, Ciceros, Scipios, Xeros." 

? 179. When words taken from other parts of speech and ending in y 
or o, are to be used as plural nouns, they commonly follow the same 
rule. 

Ex. — " The novel is full of ohs, bys, whys, alsos, and noes." 
? It seems to me that the regular rule may be followed in regard to 
both the last two classes of nouns, whenever the word so pluralized can 
still be readily recognized. 

Ex. — "Harries, Henries, Maries, Ptolemies, Neroes, whies, noes." 

Some grammarians maintain that proper nouns should always be pluralized like com- 
mon nouns. But who would say, " The two Miss Feet," for " The two Miss Foots ? " It 
seems to be a general principle of our language, to change proper nouns, foreign nouns, 
and unusual nouns, as little as possible, until they are so familiarly known as to be easily 
recognized in almost any form. 

Note. — Mr. Prescott has written "tcocallis" (temples) from teocalli, and "major- 
domos " from major-domo. Argument against : Analogy. Argument for : The words are 
not common to our language, and by pluralizing them thus, we know at once that the 
singular ends in i or o, and not in ie, y, or oe. Perhaps it is also the foreign tinge that 
still keeps the following plurals in respectable use : Cantos, grottos, mementos, juntos, octa- 
vos, porticos, quartos, solos, tyros, zeros, (in stead of cantoes, grottoes, juntoes, etc.) 

The following nouns change their ending into ves: — 

Beef, beeves ; calf, calves ; elf, elves ; half, halves ; knife, knives ; leaf, leaves ; life, 
lives ; loaf, loaves ; self, selves ; sheaf, sheaves ; shelf, shelves ; thief, thieves ; wife, wives ; 
wolf, wolves. Wharf has sometimes wharves — a heavier word for pronunciation. Staff 
has staves., when not compounded ; but it should always have staffs, to distinguish its plu- 
ral from staves the plural of stave. 

? 180. For forming the plural of some nouns, no general rule 
can be given. Such are therefore said to be irregular. 



NOUNS. — NUMBERS. 



95 



Man, men. 
Woman, women. 
Child, children. 



Foot, feet. Ox, oxen. Cow, cows. 

Goose, geese. Mouse, mice. Cow has also Jane, 

Tooth, teeth. Louse, lice. the old or poetic plural . 

? 181. The words ending in man, that are not compounds of man, are 
regular and take s. 

Ex. — German, Germans ; talismans, Mussulmans. Bancroft also has " mussulmen." 

? 182. Some nouns have two plurals, a regular and an irregular, but 
with a difference in meaning. 



Brother, brothers (of the same family), 
Die, dies (stamps for coining) 
Fish, fishes (individuals), 
Genius, geniuses (men of genius), 
Index, indexes (tables of contents), 
Penny, pennies (pieces of money), 
Pea, peas (individuals — two or more), 



brethren (of the same society). 

dice (small cubes for gaming). 

fish (quantity, or the species). 

genii (spirits). 

indices (algebraic signs). 

pence (how much in value) . 

pease (in distinction from other vegetables) . 



Note. — The form peas should be used in both cases. Those forms of language, it 
seems to me, should generally be rejected, which appear to have nothing else to recom- 
mend them, than that they serve to show a person's knowledge of the minutiae of gram- 
mar. 

? 81. Most compound words pluralize only that part of the 
word which is described by the rest. 

Ex. — " Mouse -traps, ox-carts, brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law, billets-doux, courts- 
martial, aids-de-camp, cupfuls, spoonfuls, coach-fulls, wagon-loads, commanders-in-chief 
cestuis que trust. " 

? 184. When the compound word is a foreign term of which the de- 
scriptive part is not very obvious, the whole word is usually pluralized 
like a simple one. 

Ex. — "Piano-fortes, camera-obscuras, auto-da-fes, conge-de-liers, louis-d'ors, ipse- 
dixits." 

? 185. A few compound words pluralize both parts, 

Ex. — " Man-servant, men-servants ; w r omen-servants, knights-templars, ignes fatui." 

Our language has many words adopted from other languages. These 

usually retain the same plural in ours, that they have in the language 

from which they were taken. Some, however, take the English plural 

only; some, the foreign only ; and some, either. No certain rule can 

be given for forming such plurals, but the following may be of some 

assistance : — 

? 86. The termination us is changed to i; um or on, to a- 
is, to es or ides ; a, to az or ata ; and x or ex, to ces or ices. 

Change final A to m : — 



Larva, 


Um, on ; to a. 


Analysis, 


Calx, 


Varix, 


Lamina, 


Animalculum, 


Antithesis, 


Calix, 


Ex to ICES 


Macula, 


Arcanum, 


Basis, 


Cicatrix, 


Apex, 


Minutia, 


Automaton, 


Crisis, 


Helix, 


Vertex, 


Nebula, 


Criterion, 


Dia3resis, 


Matrix, 


Vortex, 


Siliqua, 


Corrigendum, 


Ellipsis, 


Radix, 


Index, 


Scoria, 


Datum, 


Emphasis, 


Quincunx, 


Caudex. 


Alumna, 


Desideratum, 


Oasis, 






Alumina, 


Effluvium, 


Borealis, 


Phalanx, 


phalanges. 


Arena, 


Ephemeron, 


Thesis, 


Larynx, 


larynges. 


Formula. 


Encomium, 


Phasis, 


Beau, 


beaux. 


A to ata: — 


Erratum, 


Praxis, 


Cherub, 


cherubim. 


Dogma, 


Gymnasium, 


Fascis, 


Seraph, 


seraphim. 


Stigma, 


Herbarium, 


Diesis, 


Stamen, 


stamina. 


Miasma. 


Medium, 


Metamorphosis, 


Tegmen, 


tegmina. 


Us to i :— 


Memorandum, 


Synopsis, 


Legumen, 


legumina. 



96 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



Alumnus, 


Momentum, 


Parenthesis, 


Bandit, 


banditti. 


Focus, 


Phenomenon, 


Hypothesis, 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosi. 


Fungus, 


Scholium, 


Synthesis, 


Cicerone, 


ciceroni. 


Genius, 


Speculum, 


Metropolis. 


Genus, 


genera. 


Magus, 


Stratum, 


Is to ides : — 


Monsieur, 


Messieurs. 


Obolus, 


Menstruum, 


Chrysalis, 


Mr., 


Messrs. 


Polypus, 


Spectrum, 


Ephemeris, 


Ignis-fatuus, 


ignes-fatui. 


Radius, 


Vinculum, 


Cantharis, 


Hiatus, 


hiatus. 


Stimulus, 


Trapezium, 


Epidermis, 


Apparatus, 


apparatus. 


Calculus, 


Parhelion, 


Aphis, 


Vertigo, 


vertigines. 


Echinus, 


Aphelion, 


Apsis, 


Billet-doux, 


billets-doux. 


Nautilus, 


Perihelion. 


Iris, 


Malum prohib- 


mala prohibita. 


Nucleus, 


Is to es : — 


Proboscis. 


itum, 




Sarcophagus, 


Axis, 


X to ces : — 






Hippopotamus. 


Amanuensis, 


Appendix, 







' Cross your fs and dot yxmr 
5s might mean 5 shillings or 



Those nouns of the foregoing list, which have become so far naturalized as to have 
also a regular plural like that of the natives, in addition to their original plural, are 
distinguished by Italics. 

? I believe the tendency is, to give the preference to the English plu- 
ral in familiar language ; to the foreign, in technical or scientific lan- 
guage. 

For more particulars in regard to these and such words, the student should consult 
his dictionary. 

? 187. Letters, figures, and other characters, are pluralized 
by adding 's. 

Ex. — " The a's and rfs in the first line." " By 5's and 7's." " What mean those 
g'sand Q's ? " 

The apostrophe is used to prevent ambiguity : thus, 
i's," is not the same as " Cross your ts and dot your is." 
five times s. 

? 188. A term composed of a proper name preceded by a 
title, is pluralized by annexing the plural termination to 
either, the name or the title, but not to both. 

Ex. — "The Miss Browns ; the Misses Davison; the Drs. Edmondson ; the Messrs. 
Harper." " May there be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science." — Watts. 

? 189. But when the title is Mrs., or is preceded by a numeral, the 
noun is always pluralized. 

Ex.—" The Mrs. Welbys ; " " The two Mr. Barlows." 

? 190. And the title is always pluralized, when it refers to 
two or more different or separate persons. 

Ex. — "Drs. Bruns, Edwards, and Johnson;" " Misses Mary and Julia Harri- 
son." 

I believe the prevailing custom is, not to pluralize that word of the 
term which the speaker means to use as descriptive or explanatory of the 
other. It seems to me generally preferable to pluralize the title when 
brothers or sisters are meant, and the name in other cases. Sometimes 
it is very difficult to determine, whether the title or the name should be 
made plural ; either form being authorized by good writers. Perhaps 
the best guides, in such cases, are the sense, euphony, and custom. 

S seems to have been wisely chosen to express inflections in the English language. It 
denotes a sound easily distinguished by the ear, and it coalesces readily with all the other 
letters. Perhaps no other letter having so characteristic a sound, blends it so easily with 
that of any other letter. 



NOUNS. — NUMBERS. — CASES. 97 

The foregoing section on Number may be briefly summed up in the following 
words : — 

The singular number denotes a single object, or a group viewed as a single object, or 
two or more objects viewed singly. 

The plural number denotes two or more distinct objects, or two or more kinds of 
objects, or the individuals of a group viewed singly, or an object as consisting of two 
parts or of multitudinous parts. 

The plural is denoted by s ; or, if the singular ends in a sibilant sound, or in i, o, u t 
or y, x>receded by a consonant by es. S is also preferred to es, when it better indicates 
the singular ; and even 's may be used, when s alone is not sufficient for this purpose. 
Words not perfectly naturalized, usually prefer the foreign plural. A term that is a 
compound word, or that is composed of several words, usually pluralizes only that 
part of the term which is not described by the rest. 



Spell the plural : — 

Drama, area, lamina, dogma, vista, tea, sofa, cupola, pea, Carolina. Slab, rib, 
cherub, barb, bulb, verb, orb. Almanac, critic, skeptic, topic, heretic, tropic. Rod, 
shred, crowd, bed, feather-bed, lowland, synod, Rosalind. Eye, goose, simile, eagle, 
verse, trace, change, mosque. Fife, knife, strife, wife, bluff, wharf, wolf, staff, flagstaff, 
distaff, leaf, handkerchief. Bug, twig, snag, egg, orang-outang. Hurrah, truth, booth, 
tooth, eyetooth, rajah, Randolph, Sarah, marsh, sketch, slough. Alkali, mufti, houri. 
Creek, track, silk, stalk, lark, hawk. Bill, gull, churl, acquittal, annual, arsenal. Storm, 
custom, stream, eulogium, emporium, stratum, spasm, aphorism. Chin, wren, organ, 
phenomenon, octagon, man, juryman, talisman, evergreen, Samson. Negro, two, (pron. 
too), cameo, tyro, buffalo, vertigo, virago, virtuoso, zero, Scipio, motto, canto, embryo, 
grotto. Cup, asp, harp, rap, thunderclap, Philip, house-top. Star, chair, quarter- 
master, murmur, door, burr, fur, war, spruce-fir. Class, census, stimulus, iambus, 
axis, iris, dutchess, ellipsis, Burns, James, Rufus, Socrates. Hat, foot, root, fruit, set- 
tlement, art, thunderbolt, Robert. Virtue, beau, law, straw, view, window, brow, eye- 
brow. Fox, ox, six, Ajax, ibex, ilex, calx, index, vortex, executrix, sardonyx. Alley, 
boy, jay, money, fly, city, chimney, curiosity, Henry, Nancy, waltz. 
Spell (lie singular : — 

Appendices, arcana, antitheses, foci, desiderata, leagues, beaux, mice, indices, 
indexes, genera, series, cherubim, stimuli, virtuosi, trellises, ignoramuses, volcanoes, 
nebulao, apostrophes, stamina, denarii, choruses, apparatus. 

Correct the following examples, and say why they should be thus corrected : — 
" Wifes, knifes, leafs, turves, whipstaves, hooves, cadis, rabbis, Missouris, torpedos, 
cargos, potatos, seraglioes, nuocioes, mulattos, beautys, (see Rules for Spelling,) monies 
attornies, elegys, prodigys, Venus's, Ajax's, Plato's, Socrates's and Confucius's, nostra, 
phenomenons, two phenomenon, Mussulmen, aldermans, oxens, seraphims,* alumnas, 
stigma?, vertebrata, ires, ephemeres, praxides, oasides, peninsula?, polypa, pendula, 
eulogia, cupsful, spoonsful, mother-in-laws, cousin -germans, coming-ins, court-mar- 
tials ; Misses Spragues ; Messrs. Harpers ; the Lords Chancellors ; the two Misses Nanson ; 
Serena and Mary Morrisons." " The ashes is hot." " A phenomena was seen." " Mis- 
souri, sir, has not been altogether destitute of great men : she has had her Barton's, 
her Linn's, and her Benton's." " In a work of so much detail, perfect accuracy is 
almost impossible : some minutia are apt to escape notice." " Mathematics treats of 
quantity." (The science of &c.) "Physics, or the science of physics, is now generally 
taught." (Physical science is now &c.) " Thou wast a cherubim to me." — Shak. 

14* CASES. 

? The cases are certain relations that substantives have to 
other words in a sentence. 

The cases originate chiefly in these three universal conditions of 
things: 1. We think of objects, especially as acting or doing, and of 
course say things of them. 2. We consider almost every object as 

* " Seraphims," if I rightly remember, seems to be used somewhere in the Old Testa- 
ment to denote groups of seraphs. If this is really the meaning, I think the form of 
the word is correct. For some words already plural in sense, may be pluralized again ; 
as, sixpence, sixpences. 



98 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

belonging to, as forming a part of, or as originating from, some other. 
3. We think of objects as acted upon by others, or as sustaining to 
others some of the various relations expressed by prepositions. 

? 191. There are three cases; the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective. 

Note. — Some grammarians give another case, — the absolute; but there seems to be 
no more propriety in distinguishing this case from the nominative, than there would be 
in dividing the differently governed objectives into two or three classes. 

? 192. 1. A substantive is in the nominative case, when it 
denotes the doer, or that of which something is said or af- 
firmed. 

Ex. — " The moon shines beautifully upon the garden." " John and James are play- 
ing." " The murderer was hanged." " Dear are the recollections of youth." 

Note. — When a substantive denotes that of which something is said or affirmed, it is 
also termed the subject of the verb or of the proposition ; and what is affirmed of it, is 
termed the predicate. Thus, " The sun shines beautifully." Here " sun " is the subject, 
and " shines beautifully" is the predicate. " Caesar was killed by Brutus." " Ccesar " is 
the subject ; and " was killed by Brums,'" the predicate. 

The subject or nominative can always be readily found, by asking a question with 
who or what before the verb. Thus, "Jackson vanquished the British." Who van- 
quished ? Jackson. " The river is deep." What is deep ? The river. 

? 195. 2. A substantive is in the nominative case, when it 
is uttered merely to draw attention to what it denotes, or to 
what the speaker says ; or when it denotes something of which 
he is thinking so intensely or feelingly, that he seems to utter 
the name almost unconsciously. 

Ex. — "Webster's Dictionary Unabridged." "Barnum's Hotel.' 1 '' "California, what 
can you say about it ? " " John, look at yonder kite." " Rise, fellow-men, our country 
yet remains." " Reputation ! reputation ! oh, I have lost it ! " " Liberty ! what a charm- 
ing sound." "The isles of Greece ! the isles of Greece ! Where burning Sappho loved 
and sung." 

? 194. 3. A substantive is in the nominative case, when its 
case is not determined by another substantive, and it is so 
construed with a verb not finite that it would be in the nom- 
inative case if the verb were finite. 

Ex. — "The icork being done, we went to the river to fish "== When our work was 
done, &c. " His being a foreigner, was the cause of his defeat "=He was defeated because 
he was a foreigner. " To become a spendthrift, is easy "=A person may easily become a 
spendthrift. 

The substantives in the nominative case, and why in the nominative case : — 
The wind blows. The soil is rich and highly cultivated. She once saw better days. 
The Greeks were more ingenious than the Romans. In peace, he was the gale of spring ; 
in war, the mountain storm. Many steamboats are busy on the Mississippi. Mary has 
many admirers. John killed some squirrels. How sweetly sings the mocking-bird ! 
Then rushed the steeds to battle driven. Far flashed the red artillery. Ah ! few shall 
part where many meet S Time and tide wait for no man. Then came war and civil dit - 
cord. I love rural scenery. Small dogs are not regarded when they snarl ; but great 
men tremble when the lion roars. Fair blooms the lily. They bounded ; they fought ; 
they screamed ; they tore ; they ran howling round and round the circle. The Indians, 
— where are they ! Soldiers, arm for battle. Sweet fountain, once again I visit thee. 
Margaret, Margaret ! 

? When a substantive is in the possessive ca&e, it denotes that 
to which something else belongs or pertains. 



NOUNS.— CASES. 99 

? 196. The possessive case denotes that to which something originally 
belonged, to which something now belongs, or to which something is 
expected to belong. Sometimes it denotes the whole to which some- 
thing belongs as a part. 

Ex. — " Mary's bonnet ; John's slate ; Washington'' s estate." " Hope's enchantments ; " 
" Earth's loveliest scenes ;" " Boone's settlement ; " " Milton's poems ; " "Harper's Fer- 
ry;" " Welter's speech." " I have bought Kemper's farm." " Men's and boys' boots 
for sale here." " The master's slave, and the slave's master." " Nature's gifts." " The 
army's ammunition." " War's ravages." " Ambition's rise may be virtue's fall." " The 
temple's spire." "The lily's beauty." "Eagles' wings." "India's coral strand." 
" John's head is large." 

? 197. The possessive case of every noun not ending in the 
sound of s, is indicated by annexing 's. 

Ex. — " Harry's slate ; " " The children's books ; " " Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress ; " 
" In Rome's best day." 

~? 198. To plurals ending in s, only the apostrophe (') is add- 
ed; and to nouns of the singular number, ending in the 
sound of s, 's is added, but sometimes the apostrophe (') only. 

Ex. — " Boys' sports ; " " The soldiers' camp ; " " James's novels ; " " For conscience' 
sake;" "Clarence's dream;" " Cassius' dagger;" " Thebes's streets;" "Euphrates' 
banks ; " " Archimedes' screw ; " " Montrose's party ; " " Morris's speech ; " " Dennis's 
works." 

When the singular ends with the sound of s, it is sometimes difficult 
to decide whether 's, or * only, should be added. Perhaps the ear is 
the best guide. Monosyllables nearly always take '5. 

Ex. — "The horse's heels;" " Burns's works;" "Morse's Geography;" "Louis's 
reign;" "The witness's deposition;" "Jones's commercial school." "As sure as 
Jones's mill it goes." 

In poetry, when the singular ends in a hissing sound, the s may be used or omitted 
to suit the poet's convenience ; but in prose, I believe it is frequently omitted where it 
should rather be used. If not too many hissing sounds come together, and if the pos- 
sessive s would not be too far removed from an accented syllable, I think it should be 
used ; and in other cases, of is perhaps preferable. People do not Hesitate to write, 
" The horse's heels ; " " The young prince's father." Now, if sound is to determine the 
use or the omission of the s, I can not see why many other words are less entitled to it 
than such words as these. Moreover, few full possessives would be harsher or heavier 
than such plural words as glasses, carcasses, atlases, dutchesses, actresses, &c, which no- 
body hesitates to use when needed. I can not concur with Dr. Bullions, in the propriety 
of omitting the s in written language, but retaining it in spoken. Let language be 
written as it is spoken ; at least, let us not introduce any more anomalies in this respect. 

Sometimes a harsh possessive may be avoided by converting it into 
an adjective. Thus, U A fox's tail"=A fox tail; but "A summer's 
day" is not necessarily equivalent to "A summer day." 

? 199. When two or more successive words taken together, are used to 
denote but one possessor, or when the same thing belongs to several in 
common, the possessive sign is usually annexed but once, and immedi- 
ately before the name of the object possessed, but not always to the 
word in the possessive case. 

Ex. — " William Henry Harrison's election ; " " Judge Story's works;" "Her Maj- 
esty Queen Victoria's government ; " " The Bishop of Landaff's residence ; " " Lord 
Marmion's reply;" "The captain of the Fulton's wife died yesterday." Here "cap- 
tain" is in the possessive case, governed by "wife;" and " Fulton" in the object case, 
governed by "of." "The Duke of Wellington's achievements." Here "Duke of Wel- 
lington's " maybe panel as one noun, so also may Bishoj) of Landafj's, and most such 
expressions. " Bartor, Hutchinson, and Spotswood's store." Here " Bcorton" " JIutch- 



100 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

inson" and ^Bpotawood's" are each in the possessive case, governed by "store." " Barton's, 
Hutchinson's, and Spotswood's store " Barton's store, Hutchinson's store, and Spots- 
wood's store; or, " Barton's" and " Hutchinson's " are governed by "afore" understood. 

V 200. Possession may also be sometimes expressed by of and the ob- 
jective case. When this mode of expression would be more elegant or 
appropriate than the other, it should be preferred. 

j(] Xi — »«My friend's wife" The wife of my friend. "The lifeand death of Socrates;* 1 
»The horrors of war ; " "The Insolence of aristocracy; " "The banks of ( In- Mississip- 
pi ; ' » The si iter of John's wife's brother ; " " The residence of Robert Wells, my friend 
and neighbor." 

? But of does not always imply possession. 

Ex, "A knowledge of the subject;" "A spring of clear water;" "A chain of 
pearls;" Cl A bed of roses." 

Note. -The apostrophe appears to be used chiefly t<> distinguish the possessive in s 
from the plural in a. Pronouns whose plural does not end in s, have it no1 ; nor is ii so 
,, ; r( | in the German language, which also expresses possession by means of s, bu1 not 
plurality.— -The '« was originally iaores; as, "The Hngis crovrne." 

The words in ili<' possessive case, and the words denoting the object possessed: — 

Henry's books. The summer's heal. Heroes 1 honors. Madeira's vine-clad hills. 
Europe's system of government. Thomas Jefferson's residence. Archimedes' screw. 
John's slate and pencil. Lewis and Barton's factory. iMy friend and neighbor's farm. 
The Duke of Marlborough's fame. A thought's 1 expansion. A discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton's. 

Sfyell or write the possessive: 

Brother, brothers, women, committee, soldier, soldiers. A.lcibiades, Mr. Dix, father- 
in law ; Secretary of Slate ; Price, Oordell, (Money, and Crawford. 

Change into the other form, and notice the effect: — 

\jax' shield. The company's control. The company's management. The doctor's 
treatment. God's love. Knowledge of the man, My friend's nomination. Augustus 
ft ie Roman emperor's decree. Prentice's poems. Morris's poetry. Hope's pleasures. 
Memory's pleasures. William's brol her's wife's sister. The rumof of the death of the 
wife of the President. Nature's, custom's, reason's, passion's strife. 

? 201. -V substantive is in the objective case, when it denotes 
the object of a verb or of a preposition. 

K x> " Mary plucked a fresh rose." " I saw Mary plucking a fresh rose." " Mary 

went to pluck a fresh rose*" "A cle;ir stream from the mountain flowed down the 
\ au.ky.' 1 

The word in the objective cc.se can be readily found, hy asking a question with whom 
or what alter the vei b or preposition. Thus, - The soldiers carried their bleeding com- 
panion to the river." Carried whom? Companion. Towhat? River. 

? 908. A substantive is also in the objective case, when it is 
used without a governing word, and limits the meaning of 
some other word like an adverb or adjunct. 

Ex.— "The river is forty 'feet deep and a mile wide." il I was taught grammar" 
» The Lightnings Hashed vermilion."— -Dante. 

Y Nouns are not changed In form to express the nominative or the ob- 
jective c;vm\ 

7V// which words arc in the objective case, and why: — 

The boy canghl a flsh. David slew Goliath. The snow covers (he ground. A storm 

of had destroyed the fruit, hi prosperity, he hiimhle; in adversity, cheerful. The men 

and women they slew, and the children they carried away, indulge no desiro at the 
expense of virtue. Such friendship] never enjoyed before. Much of the world have 1 

seen, and not a. little Of Its VlleneSS. 

Chiefs, sages, heroes, bards, and seers, 

That live iii story and in SOng, 

Time, for the last two hundred years, 
Elas raised, and shown, and swept along. 



NOUNS. — CASES. — EXERCISES. 101 

? 203. A substantive is put in the same case as another, when 
it is merely an emphatic repetition of it, or is used, by way of 
emphasis or description, as another term for the same object. 

Ex. — " Company, villainous company, has been the ruin of me." " He himself is 
most in fault." " Here Washington, our first president, lies buried." " In that part of 
Monterey, the Mexicans overwhelmed and slew Gillespie, that heroic captain.'"' " This 
book is John's, my classmate, ," "William is a mechanic; and Theodore, a farmer." 
" Will sneaks a scrivener, an exceeding knave.'''' I Joseph Walter, a justice of the peace, 
certify &c. 

The cases, being certain relations of substantives to other words, are essentially de- 
fined in the Kules of Syntax. Repeat Rule 4th,— 5th,— 6th,— 7th,— 8th,— 9th,— 10th,— 
11th. 

Note. — Since the cases are certain relations of substantives to other words, to be able 
to comprehend them fully, it is necessary that the student know the nature of several 
other parts of speech : a full consideration of this subject will therefore be deferred, until 
he is better prepared to understand it. 



The nouns, and why; whether proper, abstract, substantial, common, or collective, and 
why; the gender, and ivhy ; the person, and ivhy ; the number, and why; the case, and the 
Bule for it : — 

All persons like good music. The honey-suckle round the portico is in bloom. 2" is 
a pronoun, and or is a conjunction, -j- and — - are much used in algebra. Georgia has 
beds of coal and iron ; her lime, gypsum, and marl ; her quarries of granite and marble. 
General Jackson was president of the United States in 1836. The foot and horse were 
instantly arrayed. On these plains, thousands of cattle range ; and large quantities of 
hides, hair, horns, and tallow, are lost for want of transportation. Council Bluffs is a 
flourishing little town. Our journal will be devoted to the beautiful, the useful, and the 
progressive. John, bring your book. Hope's enchantments never die. Sleep, balmy 
sleep, nature's sweet restorer. Secession ! secession ! Heaven forbid it. The clamorous 
zeal of unofficed politicians is generally hushed, by simply getting the ins out and the 
outs in. I prefer blue to red. Place me on Sunium's marbled steep. The rich man's 
joys increase the poor's decay. 

The storms of time that prostrated the proudest monuments of the world, seemed to 
have left their vibrations in the still, solemn air ; ages of history passed before me ; the 
mighty procession of nations, kings, consuls, emperors, empires, and generations, had 
passed over that sublime theatre. — Travels: Borne. 

On that day of desolation, 
Lady, I was captive made ; 

Bleeding for my Christian nation, 

By the walls of high Belgrade. — Campbell. 

For, when his hand's upon it, you may know 

That there's go in it, and he'll make it go. — Pierpont. 

Make any thing, in short, for sea or shore, 

From a child's rattle to a seventy-four. — Id. 

Many a vanished year and age, 

And tempest's breath, and battle's rage, 

Have swept o'er Corinth ; yet she stands, 

A fortress formed to Freedom's hands. 

The whirlwind's wrath, the earthquake's shock, 

Have left untouched her hoary rock, 

The keystone of a land, which still, 

Though fall'n, looks proudly on that hill. — Byron. 

EXERCISES FOB ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

A fisherman's 7 boat 4 carried the passengers 8 to a small island 9 . Napo- 
leon Bonaparte defeated the allies at the battle of Austerlitz. I have 
read Milton's Paradise Lost and Young's Night Thoughts. Fifty painted 
Indians from Minnesota went down the Mississippi on the Black Hawk. 
Education expands and elevates the mind. Religion refines and purifies 
the affections. Hope cheers and rouses the soul. Spices are brought 



102 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

from the East Indies. He lived long on bread and water. I will use 
John's book, and you may use Mary's. Earth's serenest prospects fly. 
Great hypocrisy characterized a part of Louis XlV's reign. John's 
wife's sister is in town. I have read Charles de Moor's Remorse and 
the Introduction to Davies' Legendre's Geometry. The literati of Eu- 
rope are famous for profound erudition. Mexico lies between the Pacific 
Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The little company then steered for the 
Azores. I have just heard an able lecture on the useful. Rome from 
her throne of beauty ruled the world. Wide o'er the east the Morning 
now her radiant curtain draws. The clouds dispersing, we renewed our 
journey. Scotland! there is magic in the sound. My Lords 5 , I could 
not have said less. 

Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest; 

Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. 

Prefer, my son 5 , the toils of Hercules, 

To dalliance, banquets, and ignoble ease. 

Note. — The exercises have been so copious that no explanations of the parsing 
lesson are deemed necessary. Let the student exert himself; and for some assist- 
ance, he may refer to the parsing under the Article and the Adjective, to see how 
the principles learned, aro to be applied. 

15. PRONOUNS. 

? 204, A pronoun is a word that supplies the place of a 
noun. 

Ex. — " He, she, her, them, our, your, yours, it, itself, themselves, who, which, what." 
Pronouns are not absolutely necessarv in discourse, but very con- 
venient. To avoid tiresome and disagreeable repetition of nouns, these 
little words are often used to represent persons or things already men- 
tioned, inquired after, or easily recognized by them. 

Ex. — "Alexander told Elizabeth that Elizabeth might write Elizabeth's name in 
Elizabeth's book with Alexander's pen," may be expressed more briefly and agreeably, 
by " Alexander told Elizabeth that she might write her name in her book with his 
pen." — " Who was it ? " " He is a fine scholar." 

Note. — Pronouns, in short, seem to have originated in these two things : 1. That 
a frequent repetition of the same term, especially if long, is disagreeable ; 2. That 
very little is sufficient to recall to the mind what has been already mentioned, or is 
already known. 

When pronouns are to be used, they are selected with reference to 
the gender, person, number, relative position, or some other circum- 
stance of the words or objects to be represented. In other words, pro- 
nouns were made, in the formation of speech, with reference to some 
important property or properties of what they were to denote. 

Ex. — He may be used to denote any object that is of the male kind ; she, of the 
female kind ; I, any speaker ; they, any persons or things spoken of, who, any person 
mentioned or alluded to in the same sentence. 

Thus it is that the pronouns can denote all objects whatsoever, and yet their entire 
number is only about 6G. — See Book First. 

Note. — I incline to think that pronouns frequently refer, not so much to the names of 
objects, as to the objects themselves ; especially the personal pronouns of the first and 
second persons. 

? Pronouns are divided into three classes ; personal, relative, 
and interrogative. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 103 

Xote. — A personal pronoun denotes invariably the same particular person (gram- 
matical), and has no such relation to other words that its clause can not make 
sense by itself; a relative pronoun is in a clause that can not make sense by itself, but 
only as"a part of a sentance ; and an interrogative pronoun always asks a question. 

16. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

? The personal pronouns are Z, thou or you, lie, she, and it, 
with their declined forms and their compounds. 

? They are called personal, because their chief use is, to dis- 
tinguish the different persons. 

Note. — The term persons is here used in its grammar sense ; i. e., as referring to the 
speaker, the object addressed, and the object spoken of. 

? Pronouns being substitutes for nouns, have the same prop- 
erties; namely, gender, person, number, and case. 

^®" For their Declension, see Book First, page J.1. In line 4th, "yon, or yours '.' 
should be "your, or yours." 

The speaker and the person addressed being mutually present, or generally known 
to each other in regard to sex, it was not thought necessary, in the formation of speech, 
to make different pronouns for distinguishing them in this respect. The pronouns of 
those persons should therefore be parsed as of the common gender, unless the sex becomes 
more definitely known by some other word in the sentence. In the third person 
singular, however, the different sexes are distinguished by personal pronouns adapted in 
gender to each. 

? 205. The pronouns of the first person plural, we, our, ours, &c, are 
used when the speaker includes others with himself, and sometimes, to 
represent two or more persons as uttering the same thing together. 

Ex. — " Let u$ go." "John, Mary, and I, must learn our lessons." " We, the people " 
&c. — Constitution of the U. S. " We are going to the mountains." — Boclcy Mountain Song. 

? 205. The pronouns of the second person plural, you, your, &c, are 
used to denote two or more persons addressed, or one only with others 
included. 

Ex. — "My countrymen, I appeal to you." " You boys may go and play." " You, 
sir, you .were the boys that threw rocks through the windows." " You mechanics 
[speaking to one only] are required to work only 10 hours per day." 

? 206. Hence it is perhaps that we and you, as well as they, sometimes 
refer to mankind generally. 

Ex. — " We are apt to love those who love us." " You may as well seek honey in gall, 
as happiness in vice." " Shakspeare presents to you the universal Avorld." " They say 
that Buchanan will be elected." " They say that free governments will be ultimately 
established in all parts of the world." 

? 207. In proclamations, speeches, and editorial articles, we, our, &c., 
are frequently used to denote apparently but one. 

Ex. — " We trust these sentiments will meet with approbation." " We believe provis- 
ions will be scarce." " We shall not yield to our rebellious subjects." 

This manner of speaking generally gives an air of modesty or authority to the asser- 
tion ; the speaker seeming to deliver his own sentiments as if they were also enter- 
tained, or could be enforced, by others as well as by himself. Let a writer in an influen- 
tial periodical say, " I believe there is an impending crisis in the money market," and 
who cares for or heeds his assertion ? but let him say, " We believe there is an impend- 
ing crisis in the money market," and the expression will at once strike alarm and terror 
into the hearts of thousands. Bat the palpable use of we for i", is, like some other 
politeness, unsupported by nature and good sense. Some one has said, it is as if the 
person were ashamed to show his face. An author may sometimes use we, not in refer- 
ence to his party or the world generally, but simply in reference to his reader as going 
along with him ; but when there is no reference whatever to any others than himself. 



104 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

the use of we for I may be more polite, yet it is certainly less correct. Authors often 
avoid the dilemma, by speaking of themselves in the third person. When responsibility 
or an unenviable position is to be assumed, it is obviously more polite to use I than we. 
Note. — To the foregoing manner of speaking, ourself is peculiarly adapted, and it 
is sometimes used accordingly; but yourself is strictly singular. 

? 208. In familiar discourse, the pronouns you, your, yours, &c, are 
now used almost exclusively. They are singular as well as plural. 

Note. — There is not room here to discuss the propriety of regarding these words as 
plural only, or as either singular or plural. But if the meaning of a word determines 
its character ; if good authorities are to be regarded ; and if the facts that these words 
are not strictly analogous to we, our, &c, when these are apparently singular, and that 
love, for instance, in " You love," maybe regarded as a singular form, with as much 
propriety as in " I love," — then we think our position is correct. 

? 209. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, may rather be regarded as 
antiquated forms. Hence, they are used by a certain religious 
denomination termed Friends, or Quakers; also frequently in sacred 
writings and in poetry. They usually imply more serious earnestness, 
and are now to be sometimes preferred, perhaps only when the design 
is to express greater earnestness or seriousness, or when there is less 
equality and familiarity between the speaker and what is addressed. 

Ex. — " I tell thee, friend Charles, thou " &c. " Thou Almighty Ruler, hallowed bo 
thy name." " Ye angels and ministers of grace, defend us." — Shah. " Thou sun." 
" Ye elements." " Ye winds." " Ye waves." " Thy words had such a melting flow." 
" Hail ! horrors, hail ! and thou profoundest Hell, receive thy new possessor." — Milton. 
"Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he that first broke peace in Heaven?" — Id. 
" Here I reign king ; and, to enrage thee more, thy king and lord." — Id. 
" I have no words, my voice is in my sword ; — 
Thou bloodier villain, than terms can lot thee out." — Shak. 

Note. — In modern usage, it is perhaps not true, as some assert, that you has a greater 
air of politeness than thou. 

Ex. — "You, Sir, who manufacture stage thunder against Mr. Eden for his anti- 
American principles, — you, Sir, whom it pleases to chant a hymn to the immortal 
Hampden ; — you ; Sir, approved of the tyranny exercised against America, — and you, 
Sir, voted four thousand Irish troops to cut the throats of the Americans, fighting for 
their freedom. * * * The merchant may say to you, the constitutionalist may say 
to you, the Americans may say to you, — and I, I now say, and say to your beard, Sir, — 
you are not an honest man ! " — Graltaii. See Graf-tan's Reply to Mr. Flood. Here you 
indicates no politeness, either open or concealed : it is highly contemptuous. Thou 
would have indicated too much of affectation and quaintness, or not enough of ease and 
earnestness. Thou has generally an antique, scriptural, or poetic air. 

Perhaps we may as well notice here some titular terms. Sir, applied to strangers, and 
also when used after such words as yes, no, loell, why, O, &c, is rather respectful; but 
when it is applied to friends or familiars, it usually disowns the friendship or familiarity, 
and requests the person to keep at a proper or respectful distance : it is in the spirit of 
the young lady's remark to her long-wooing and finally rejected lover, " I know nothing 
about you, sir." Mister, without the name, is rather contemptuous — it is similar to the 
contemptuous Sir ; with the name of a stranger, it is rather respectful. When it is 
omitted from a name, the expression either implies that a very ordinary fellow is meant 
— a fellow of little importance — of no high respectability — of rather low standing in 
society, — it is somewhat similar in spirit to the word Jack; — or that the person is a very 
well-known, intimate, and familiar friend or favorite, not only to the speaker, but to all 
present, — it suggests that great cordiality and entire want of formality which are 
peculiar to the family circle ;— or that the person is of general or universal fame. Dr. 
Johnson spoke very contemptuously of a certain man's taste, who had indexed his 
" Lives of the Poets " thus : " Milton, Mr. John ; Shakspeare, Mr. William." To sign 
one's name with Mr. before it, would be rather self-conceited and ridiculous ; but to 
title oneself as in the following expressions, — " I have no card ; please to tell Gov. 
Price that Mr. Richardson— Mr. Phelps from Springfield— Capt. Mitchell— called to see 
him," would be.more appropriate and polite than to give the name simply. (See Persons.) 
The same remarks apply, in general, to the titles Miss and Mrs. To mention a woman 
by her surname only, is very contemptuous : it usually presents her as a very common, 
notorious, and masculine porsonago. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 105 

? 210. He, she, and they, sometimes refer to any one or any ones of a 
certain class of persons. 

Ex. " He who trifles away his life, will never be rich in honors." " She who knows 
merely how to dress, dance, and flirt, will never make a good wife." " They who 
deserve most blame, are apt to blame first." 

? 211. The pronoun it, usually regarded neuter only, is, I suspect, also 
of the common gender, when it stands for nouns of this gender, and 
sometimes when it denotes objects slightly personified. 

Ex. " The tiger broke its chain." "The child has singed its frock." " 1 he mouse 
ran back when it saw me." " Sleep never visits sorrow ; when it does, it is a comforter." 
— Shale. 

? 212. This pronoun should be thus applied to animals, perhaps only 
when they are small, or not obviously distinguished in regard to sex. 

Note. — Perhaps it is not asserting too much, to say that the three prononns he, she, 
and it, may sometimes refer to objects without special regard to sex; he being preferred 
for what is large, bold, or preeminent ; she, for what is effeminate or dependent ; and 
it, for what is small, unimportant, or imperfectly known. 

Ex. — " The elephant writhed his lithe proboscis." " The swan with her beautiful curv- 
ing neck." "The sea-bird with its wild scream." "Her young the partridge led." — 
Bryant. In this last sentence, the other words make the feminine pronoun preferable. — 
The principle of the foregoing Note, I think I have also often observed in our mode of 
speaking of laboring animals, and of pets. 

? 213. The pronoun it is also used to denote what the speaker can not 
well designate in any other way, or what he deems sufficiently obvious 
when thus mentioned, and often to introduce at once what is more defi- 
nitely denoted by some following word or words. 

Ex. — " It rains." " It thunders." " It was moonlight on the Persian sea." " Who 
is it ? " " Who is it that calls the dead ? " " It ran into a hollow tree, but I do not 
know what it was." " Lo ! there it comes." — Shale. " How goes it with you ? " "It is 
not well with me to-day." " Come and trip it as you go." " It is he." " It is I." " It 
was you." "It was they." "It is idleness that leads to vice." " It is useless for me 
to ask him." " It is mean to take advantage of another's distress." The following re- 
mark tells the truth in many instances : " It denotes the state or condition of things." 

? 214. The possessive pronouns do not always denote possession merely ; 
but sometimes they imply, that the object denoted by them possesses 
certain things not less than other objects possess them. 

Ex. — " Like every other man, he has his peculiar notions." " It is a common saying, 
' Every one has his faults.' " " Georgia has her beds of coal and iron ; her lime, gypsum, 
and marl ; her quarries of granite and marble." — Stephens. That is, Georgia possesses 
these things as well as other States possess them, to say the least of her : she is not be- 
hind the other States in natural advantages. 

? Ours, yours, hers, and theirs, should always, and mine and thine should 
generally, be considered equivalent to the other possessive pronoun and 
the name of the object possessed, and then be parsed accordingly. 

Ex. — " He ate his apple, you ate yours [your apple], and I ate mine " [my apple]. 

Note. — In familiar language, these words are sometimes used in a peculiar idiomatic 
way : thus, " This law of yours " may mean " This law of your laws ; " but, " This head 
of yours," "That father of yours," "This poor self of mine," are not equivalent to 
" This head of your heads," " That father of your fathes," " This poor self of my selves.' ' 
Perhaps we may, in parsing, treat such phrases thus: "This head of yours "=" This 
head of your possesssion ; " or in some other similar way. 

? 215. Before vowel sounds or the aspirate h, mine and thine are some- 
times preferred, in the solemn style, to my and thy. 



Myself, (rarely ourself) ourselves ; thyself ) yourself your- 



106 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

selves ; himself, herself itself and themselves, are termed the 
compound personal pronouns. 

? Those ending in self are singular ; in selves, plural. 

? 216. These pronouns are used to denote persons or things 
as emphatically distinguished from others. 

Ex. — " I will go myself; (you may stay)." " I spoke with the man himself." " I once 
felt a little inclined to marry her myself ," 

" Hereditary bondsmen ! know ye not, 
Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow ? " — Campbell. 

? 217. These pronouns are further used, when that which is 
denoted by the subject of the verb, is also that on which the 
act or state terminates. 

Ex. — " They drew themselves up by ropes.*' "She saw herself in the glass." "He 
killed himself'' " Said I to myself ' I am myself again. 1 " 

? These pronouns are used only in the nominative and the objective 
case ; and for both they have the same form. 

? 218. To express emphatic distinction in the possessive case, 
we use the word own in stead of self or selves. 

Ex. — "Let every man attend to his own business, and every woman gossip about her 
own faults." 

? 219. In the objective case, the simple pronoun is sometimes used for 
the compound, especially in poetry. 

Ex. — "I thither went, and laid me down on the green bank." — Milton. "I set me 
down a pensive hour to spend." — Goldsmith. 

Note. — It is worthy of notice, tljat the compound pronouns of the first and second 
persons take the possessive simple pronoun ; and those of the third person, the objective. 

Tell the gender, pei'son, nvmber, and case: — 

He, she, I, we, you, thj', her, theirs, us, me, myself, himself, yourselves, it, its, them, 
themselves. 

What is the nominative corresponding to — 

Me, us, thee, him, her, them, themselves, himself, it ? 

WJiat is the objective corresponding to — 

I, thou, we, ye, he, she, they? 

Correct the following words : — 

Your's, our's, her's, their's, hisself, theirselves, meself, themself, yourn, hern, ourn, 
theirn, hissen. 

Annex self : My, our, thy, your, him, her, it, one. Annex selves : Our, your, them. 
— See the last Note. 

Tell which are the personal pronouns, and for ivhat they stand when it can be deter- 
mined: also the gender, and why ; person, and why; number, and ichy ; case, and why : — 

When a dandy has squandered his estate, he is not apt to regain it. The river over- 
flows its banks. Mary and her sister. The stars held out their silver lamps. As the 
geese flew over me, I shot at them. He who is idle, is mischievous. Let them jest at 
scars who never felt a wound. I hope to meet you soon again. Around their dying 
mother the little children wept. John, you and I must water our garden. Said William 
to Joseph, "I will go with you." TJenry, you must study. Hail! ye men of Altorf. 
Liberty has God on her side. Let every man take care of himself. She deceived herself. 
I hurt myself. Where is it, Jack, where is it ? It is easy to spend money. We may die 
ignominiously and on the scaffold : be it so. It rained the whole night. It was Henry 
that said it. Is the book yours or mine ? My heart is in thy keeping. What ! weep 
you when you but behold Cassar's wounded vestures ? Look ye here, here is himself, 
marred bv traitors ! 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 107 

And if thou saidst I'm not a peer 

To any lord in Scotland here, 

Lowland or Highland, far or near, 

Lord Angus, thou hast lied. — Scott. 

My mother, when I learned that thou wast dead, 

Say, wast thou conscious of the tears I shed ? , 

Hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son? 

Wretch even then, life's journey just begun. — Cowper. 

16. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

? The words used as relative pronouns, are who, which, what, 
and their compounds ; and sometimes that and as. — See 
page 11. 

? 220. A relative pronoun makes its clause dependent on 
another clause, or on a preceding word. 

Ex. — " There is the man ivhom you saiv." " I have ivhal you need.'''' " I can not tell 
what ails him." "Spirit that breaihest through my lattice." — Bryant. Here, " whom you 
saw," for instance, can not stand by itself, and make sense. 

Note. — A relative pronoun stands at or near the head of a clause that usually relates 
to a substantive belonging to the same sentence. This substantive is either expressed, 
understood, or implied ; and the relative clause modifies it as a restrictive or descriptive 
word would if placed before it or after its verb ; in other words, it performs the office of 
an adjective or a noun. 

Ex. — "The boy who studies, will learn " = The studious boy will learn. " Who will 
not work, should not eat " = He who will not work, should not eat. " I will do what I 
promised to do " =1 will do the thing which I promised to do. " I know not who he isf " 
(Know what ?) 

? 221. Who is applied to persons, and to other objects when 
regarded as persons. 

"The man who feels truly noble, will become so." "And Avarice, ivho sold him- 
self to hell." " Now a faint tick was heard below, from the Pendulum, who thus spoke." 

" ' Dear Madam, I pray,' quoth" a Magpie one day, 
To a Monley, who happened to come in her way." 

? 222. Which is applied to the inferior animals ; to things ; 
to groups of persons denoted by collective nouns, when all the 
individuals of the collection are viewed together as one thing ; 
and frequently to children. 

Ex. — "The elephant which' 1 '' "The bird which'''' "The rose which" 

"The worldwhich" "The army which" "The nations which encompass the 

Mediterranean." " Congress, which is a body of wise men." " The child which I found." 

? 223. Which is used in connection with some word denoting the ob- 
ject referred to, or when the object is present, or has been already men- 
tioned or brought to mind. 

Ex. — " The misfortunes which crushed him." " I can not tell which is which." " I 
do not know which you mean." 

? Which, in old English, was also used like who, and so we often find 
it used in the Bible. 

? Who and ivhich are declined, having the same form in both numbers. 

? Whose, as the possessive of which, is not so much used as the equiv- 
alent phrase of which. 

Ex. — "A party whose leaders are corrupt "=• A party of which the leaders are 
corrupt. 



108 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 2M. What is applied to tilings, and sometimes to other ob- 
jects when regarded as things. 

Ex. — " I will take what you send." " There is in my carriage what has life, soul, 
and beauty." 

? What is used when the objects spoken of may be represented by the 
indefinite term thing or things and ivhich. It properly represents them 
both, and does not have, in modern usage, the word thing or things under- 
stood before it. 

? What is never changed in form, and it is rarely plural. 

? 225. That is a relative when who or which can be put in 
its place without destroying the sense. 

Ex. — " The ablest man that [who] spoke on the subject." " The same horse that 
[which] I rode." 

? 226. That is used in preference to who or which when both persons and 
other objects are referred to; when the relative clause is restrictive, es- 
pecially after the superlative degree, after ivho, same, very, no, all, any, 
each, every, and frequently after the personal pronouns ; and generally 
where ivho or which would seem less proper, or would not sound so well. 

Note. — The relative or relative clause is said to be restrictive, when it makes the 
word to which it refers denote only such objects as arc described by the relative clause. 

Ex. — "Riches that are ill gotten, are seldom enjoyed." " In words that breathe, and 
thoughts that burn." " God must be conscious of every motion that arises in the material 
universe, ivhich he thus essentially pervades." (The first restrictive, the other not.) 

Note. — It is often difficult, to determine whether that should be preferred to who or 
which. Sometimes either may be used with equal propriety. When the antecedent is so 
fixed or definite by itself, or so limited by other definite words — such as the, that, those — 
that the relative clause can not vary its meaning, who or which may be allowable or even 
preferable ; when the antecedent is an indefinite term, or is made indefinite by such modi- 
fying words as a, some, any, every, &c, that may be preferable, or even necessary to make 
the meaning sufficiently definite, or to show precisely what objects are meant. 

" He is engaged in speculations ivhich are very profitable," might suggest that all 
speculations are very profitable : say, "in speculations that.' 1 '' " He is a man ivho cheats 
every body," may be understood to mean that rascality is the essential quality of a man 
or of a gentleman : say, "a man that." " It is the thought or sentiment which lies under 
the figured expression, that gives it its merit." Here no change could be made without 
injuring the sentence: ivhich and that, as here used, (though both restrictive,) well show 
the subordinate character of the middle clause, and the restrictive character of the last 
clause. " I don't doubt you'll like my friend, whom I have sent with a most trusty and 
faithful servant, who deserves your friendship and favor." This sentence is not so cical- 
as it might be : had the author said, " and who deserves," the reference would have been 
clearly to " friend ; " had he said, " that deserves," to " servant." 

? 327. As is generally a relative when it is used after such, 
many, or same. 

Ex. — "He pursued such a course as ruined him." "He deceived as many as trusted 
him." " The daughter has the same inclinations as the mother." 

? What, that, and as, are used in two cases only ; the nominative and 
the objective. 
? Whose may be used as the possessive of that, when needed. 

Note. — As, at bottom, is perhaps a conjunction ; but since a relative must then be al- 
ways supplied to complete the sense of the following clause, it may as well be parsed as 
a relative. Some grammarians maintain that it is never a relative ; others, that it is al- 
ways a relative after such, many, or same. The truth lies perhaps between the two ex- 
tremes. As is used in two different senses. It may recall the identical objects mentioned 
before, or it may present only similar objects. When, by supplying the necessary words, 
the meaning would be changed, as should certainly be parsed as a relative. " I bought, 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 109 

at the auction, such mules as were sold — as many mules as were sold " = " I bought the 
mules that were sold — all the mules that were sold; " but, "I bought, at the auction, 
such mules as the mules were that were sold — as many mules as the mules were that 
were sold," suggests rather that there were two distinct parcels of mules, or that I 
bought other mules than those that were sold at the auction. Observe also, that, above, 
some other relative can be substituted for as, especially by changing the preceding such 
or as many into the, those, or all. So, " He took as many as he could get " = He took all 
that he could get. " He took such apples as pleased him." " She played such tunes as 
were called for." " He was the father of all such as play on the harp and organ." "As 
many as came were baptized." " I will come at such an hour as I can spare." But 
when I say, " I bought such mules as you have for sale ; " " We do not want such men 
as he is ; " as should perhaps be considered a conjunction. In the last example, if parsed 
as a relative, it can not agree, as a predicate-nominative, with he : we can not say, " He is 
such men." Locke, however, has the following sentence: "There be some men whom 
you would rather have your son to be, with live hundred pounds a year, than some other 
with five thousand pounds." Whom is here used very much like as in the previous example. 
— This latter sense of as is also analogous to that of than in such sentences as, " I have 
more money than you have ; " "He wanted more than he got." 

? To who, which, and what, ever, soever, or so, is sometimes 
annexed, and then they are usually termed compound relative 
pronouns. 

? 228. These pronouns are. in most instances, almost equivalent to 
the simple ones. They are preferred to them, when the speaker means 
to indicate more forcibly that he refers to an object considered as gene- 
ral, indefinite, or undetermined. 

They are parsed like the corresponding simple pronouns ; but as they never refer to 
a determined or particular object, there is rarely or never a substantive in the sentence 
for which they can be said to stand. 

" Whoever [Any person that] despises the lowly, knows not the fickleness of fortune "== 
Who despises the lowly, &c. " Take whichever [any one that] you like." " Do what 
[any or every thing that] is right." 

Note. — Ever, from denoting time indefinitely, was naturally extended to place and time, 
and thence of course to objects. 

The indefinite ever or soever partly represents the antecedent, by being a sort of sub- 
stitute for the indefinite adjective which must precede the antecedent ; hence, when the 
antecedent is expressed (or supplied), the ever or soever must generally be dropped ; as 
" Whoever cares not for others, should not expect their favor. "=Any one who cares not 
&c. 

17. INTEHBOQATIVE PRONOUNS. 

? When who, which, and what, are used to ask questions, 
they are termed interrogative pronouns. 

Ex. " Who came with you ? " " What do you want ? " " Which is yours ? " 

? Each of the interrogatives may be applied to any person 
or thing whatsoever ; except who, which is applicable to 
persons only. 

As all these pronouns may be applied to persons, each one has its appropriate use. 

? 229. Who inquires for the name or some other appellation ; 
and when the name is in the question, it inquires for the 
character or some description of the person. 

Ex. — " Who wrote the book ? " " Whom do you take me to be ? " " Wlio was Blen- 
nerhasset ? " " Who was George Washington ? " 

Note. — Mr. Brown says, " Who demands a person's name ; " Dr. Bullions, " Who 
inquires for the name ; " and so the other grammarians. That these definitions are 
inadequate, the last two examples plainly show. 



110 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDABD. 

? 210. Which supposes the name known or disregards it, 
but seeks further to distinguish a certain individual from 
others. 

Ex. — " Wliich of you will go with me ? " " Which is the Governor ? " " Which is the 
tigress ? " " Which must I take ? " " Whichis your daughter ? " " Which is which ? " 

? 231 What goes still farther, and inquires into the character 
or the occupation. 

Ex.—" What is that fellow? " 
? Generally speaking, who seeks to designate ; which, to distinguish; and 
what, to describe. 

Ex. — Who is that gentleman? — Mr. Everett. — Which one? — Edward Everett? — 
What is he ? — An eminent scholar and statesman. 

? Sometimes either who or what may be used in speaking of persons ; 

but, in most such instances, who is perhaps a little more respectful. 

Note. — Whether was formally used as an interrogative pronoun, in referring to one 
of two ; but, in this sense, which or whichever supplies its place now, and it is employed 
only as a conjunction that usually corresponds to or. 

Ex. — " Whether of the twain "—Which of the two. " Whether be will or not." 



? 232 When who, ivhich, or what, occurs in a clause that is in answer or 
apparently in answer to the same clause used interrogatively, it is 
neither an interrogative pronoun, nor a relative pronoun in the sense of 
other relative pronouns; but, according to some grammarians, it is a 
responsive or an indejinite pronoun. It ma}', however, be considered a 
relative pronoun ; for it makes its clause dependent as the common rela- 
tives do. 

Ex. — Interrogative: "Who broke the window ? " Responsive relative: "I do not 
know ivho broke it ? " " Do you know who broke it ? " 

The following sentences illustrate the different uses of who, which, and what: — 

INTERROGATIVE. RESPONSIVE RELATIVE. RELATIVE. 

WKo came , ]^Z^J^^i } * *> ~* — the man w „o came, 

Which is the lesson ? I remember which is The lesson. I remember the lesson tvhich I recited. 
What did he buy ? I know what he bought. I admire what he bought. 

~ " *«* ' ^Cchme^StU is. } T -* ™ «*« is **■ 
From these sentences, we may deduce the following rule of distinction : — 
When tbese words are interrogative pronouns, they must stand at tbe beginning of the 

question ; when responsive relative pronouns, the verb or preposition (usually preceding) 

governs the entire clause ; and when common relative pronouns, it relates only to what is 

denoted by them. 

? 233. When which and what, or their compounds, are placed immedi- 
ately before nouns to limit them, they are not pronouns, but pronomial 
adjectives. 

Ex. — " What man ; " " What men ; " " What a man ! " " What large trees ; " " What- 
ever books ; " " Which road ; " " On whichsoever side." 

When so used, they are applied like the interrogative pronouns. 

In the place of a pronoun, we may frequently put a noun with the 
same pronoun or a word of the same class or nature placed as an adjec- 
tive before the noun. 

Ex. — " Who is he? "—What person is he ? " Show me what it is ,, =Show me what 
thing it is. " Which of the horses will vou take ? "== Which horse will you take. " I will 
ride one horse to drive the others"!, e., the oiler horses. " The pleasures of vice are 



PRONOUNS. — EXERCISES. Ill 

momentary; those of virtue, everlasting "=The pleasures of vice are momentary ; the 
pleasures of virtue, everlasting. 

Tlie pronouns, and why ; the hinds, and why : — observe also how these pronouns illustrate 
what I have said about pronouns : — 

The roses which bloom by our window. Let me advise you to treat him kindly. 
They who are pleased themselves, must always please. There is the wolf at which I shot. 
The tall cedars which grew on Mount Lebanon. Virtue is the paint that can smooth 
the wrinkles of age. 1 who speak to you, am the man. He had a few friends whom he 
could trust. Do you know who did this? Who knows who he is ? Can you tell which 
is mine ? I can not describe what my anxious mind suffered. Tell me what you want. 
What would gentleman have? Who did this ? "Mary, what did you bring? — Some 
presents. — Which is mine ? — The smallest." " What is botany ? — The science of plants." 
With whom do you board ? Which is the right road ? Here I could not tell which was 
the right road. Yes ; I am a foreigner ! but who was Pulaski, who was De Kalb, who 
was McDonald, who was La Fayette, and — who was Arnold ? Who is he ? Which is he ? 
What is he ? Whom do you take me to be ? This is the same knife that you gave me, 
and it is the best that I have. Let such as are dissatisfied, leave. He received as many 
pupils as applied. He read such books as he could borrow. Here the same customs pre- 
vail as in the city of Mexico. If you were in such a condition as I am in, what would 
you do ? This house is built of the same stones as that church. Give me as many as 
you can spare. Give me all that you can spare. He that knows his place, is a gentle- 
man. He is a gentleman, who knows his place. He is a gentleman that knows his 
place. 

His principles are such as a good man should blush to own. His principles are 
those which a good man should blush to own. Let us go into the shady woods. We 
are prone to sin. The child got what she wanted. What the child wanted, she got. 
The child got whatever it wanted. Will you be responsible for what I do ? Will you 
justify whatever I do. Who violates this rule, shall suffer the penalty. Whoever 
violates this rule, shall suffer the penalty. I hope what I say will have an effect upon 
him, and prevent the impression which what he says may have upon others. I hurt 
myself. I went myself. Selfish men always take care of themselves and their own 
property. 

What art thou, that dar'st so grim and terribly advance 

Thy miscreated front athwart my way ? — Milton. 

Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure brow ; 

Such as creation's dawn beheld thee, such thou rollest now. — Byron. 

"Said I to myself, and myself said to me, 

Take care of thyself, for none care for thee." 
JS®" Note. — When the student has reached the next parsing lessons, it may be well 
for him to pass through the foregoing sentences again, applying Rules third and twelfth 
wherever applicable ; — and then again, stating the gender of the pronouns and why ; 
the person, and why ; the number, and why : the case, and according to what Rule. 



Pronouns and nouns having the same properties, the same Rules are applicable to 
both, except Rules third and twelfth, which are peculiar to pronouns. 

Rule III, — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, in 
gender, person, and number. 

Ex. — " John obeys his instructor." His is of the masculine gender, third person, sin- 
gular number, to agree with John according to Rule III. 

Note. — The antecedent of a pronoun is the substantive (usually a preceding one) in 
reference to which it is used. It may be a different pronoun, a substantive phrase, or a 
substantive clause, as well as a noun. Sometimes the antecedent comes after the pro- 
noun ; as, — 

" Can storied urn, or animated bust, 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?" — Gray. 

When a pronoun is applied directly to the object itself; when the supposed antece- 
dent does not denote the identical object ; when the speaker can not be thought to have 
the supposed antecedent in his mind ; and when the supposed antecedent does not first 
recall the object meant, — I doubt the necessity or even the propriety of applying Rule III . 
Hence, the Rule may generally be dispensed with in parsing interrogatives, pronomi- 
als, responsives, and frequently, personal pronouns, and relatives. Even in such senten- 
ces as, " Who knows himself a braggart, let him fear this ; " " Whomsoever you can not 
manage, him you need not send ; " " W hatever you do, do it well," — him and it are per- 
haps not antecedents : the relatives do not refer to them ; but more directly, or as 
directly as they, to the objects themselves. 



112 BOOK SECOND-— THE STANDARD. 

Rule XII. — The relative what and similar expressions 
may have a TWOFOLD construction in regard to case. 

Note. — This Rule applies to what, its compounds, to some nouns preceded by such 
adjectives as ivhat or winch, and to any other relative whenever the sense requires two cases, 
and the form of the word does NOT prevent it from, being adapted to express both. — Should 
the above seem & peculiar Rule, we answer that it applies to a peculiar class of express- 
ions. There is not room here to present an array of arguments in favor of our position. 
Suffice it to say, that we endeavor to accept the language, so far as possible, as we find it ; 
and that what such expressions were in former or ancient times, is no pi oof of what they are 
now. When I was a little boy, every steamboat engine had a balance-wheel, but now 
the water-wheel performs the office of that wheel too ; and who would think of putting 
a balance-wheel into a drawing of such an engine, when the wheel is no longer 
needed or used ? Resides, the kindred words, when, where, and while, are usually parsed 
as modifying words in two different clauses ; and participial nouns are frequently parsed as 
performing a double office. Furthermore, simplicity is also promoted. 

When what is interrogative or responsive, it is needed in but one case, depending in 
construction on some word in its own clause. When the form of the relative prevents 
it from furnishing two cases, it must take the lorm required for its own clause, and a 
suitable antecedent must be supplied for the other clause ; but then the ever or soever 
must be omitted. — See Compound Relatives. 

? 234. The pronoun is sometimes omitted. 

Ex. — " 'Tis Heaven [that] has brought me to the state [which] you see." " There is 
the man [whom] I saw." [Thou] " Thyself shaft see the act." 

An antecedent may be supplied when it is needed for the sake of other words, or even 
when it can be easily supplied, and without producing harshness. 

Ex. — " Give it to whoever [any one that] needs it." " Let such [persons] as hear, take 
heed." [He] " Who lives to fancy, never can be rich." 

Hence, we may infer, That a pronoun either relates to a substantive 
expressed, or to a substantive understood, or takes the place of a sub- 
stantive implied. — It is necessary tor speech to range from the greatest 
definiteness to the greatest, vagueness; and, accordingly, we may 
range, in denoting objects, from the most definite proper nouns to the 
most indefinite pronouns. 

Remember, in parsing, that the antecedent never relates to a word in the relative 
clause, but frequently refers to one beyond it. 

Ex. — " The boy who trifles away his time, will be wretched in manhood." Boy is in 
the nominative case, not to trifles, but to will be. 



Insert such nouns and pronouns as will preserve the sense, and male the expressions 
jull:— 

I have lost the last letter you wrote. Who bets, should expect to lose. Whoever 
sins, is wretched. The door opens to whoever knocks. I want such as hear me, to 
take warning. Of these apples take such as you like. Look ye here, here is himself. 
Whom she loves so much, 1 never could fancy. Here are the marbles : take which is 
yours. 

Tell which ivords are the antecedents of the pronouns, also dispose of both nouns and pro- 
nouns in regard to case : — 

The sister promised her brother that she would never forsake him. He who deserves 
nothing, should be content with any thing. The stranger whose carriage is here, has 
disappeared. He was the most suitable person that could be found. The plan which 
you have proposed, is hardly practicable. He who created me, whose I am, and who 
preserves me, is eternal. Lis praise is lost, who waits till all commend. Whatever he 
undertakes, he performs. What in me is dark, illumine ; what is low, raise and support. 
Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits know. Which, is Shylock, 
and which is Antonio? I know not which is which. 1 know not who is the candidate. 
You are very sick, and I am sorry for it. You wrote to me, which was all you did. 
And there her brood the partridge led. Whatever is, is right, 



ADJECTIVES. 113 

18. PRONOMIAL ADJECTIVES. 

? A pronomial adjective is a specifying word modifying in a 
certain way the meaning of the substantive to which it 
belongs. 

Ex. — All, any, both, certain, each, every, either, else, neither, no, none, other, another, 
one, same, such, some, this, these, that, those, yon, yonder ; also what and which, and their 
compounds. " This tree ; that tree ; any tree ; some tree ; every tree ; no tree ; all trees ; 
certain trees ; other trees ; the same trees ; such trees ; whatever trees ; " &c. 

? The pronomial adjectives are so called, because they may, like other 
adjectives, be placed before nouns to limit their meaning, and most of 
them may also stand for nouns like pronouns. 

? They usually suggest, that the objects referred to are considered in 
a certain way in regard to place, to number, to one another, or to other 
objects. 

They differ so much from one another in their effect upon the following substantive, 
that no classification has ever been made of them that is not objectionable ; and as they 
are much used and abused, it may be best to give a brief explanation of each.* 



? 235, All takes in the whole number spoken of, or the entire object. 

Ex.— " All fields ; " " A 11 the fields ; " " All the field;" " .4ZZ happiness ; " "All the 
years of man's life." " If all the year were playing holidays." " He is the best of them 
all." " His disposition was all sweetness." — Addison. 

? 236. Any strongly denotes an indefinite object. It denotes it as op- 
posed to a particular one, or to none. 

Ex. — " There is little honor in what any body can do." " Have you any foreigners in 
your county? " 

? 237. Both means the two. It is usually emphatic, implying not only 
the one, but the other also. 

Ex. — " Both horses are lame." "His father and mother are both dead." 

? 238. Certain (Lat. quidam) indefinitely describes a definite or known 
object. , 

Ex. — " A certain man planted a vineyard." " Certain ones of the scribes." " I will 
not vote for a certain candidate." 

? 239. Each means both or all considered separately. It implies two 
or more. 

Ex. — " Each one of the twins has a horse." " Each pupil must use his own books." 

? 240. Every means all considered separately. It implies several or 
many. 

Ex. — " Every apple in the basket is frozen." " Fick up every one." " We have done 
every thing that can be done." 

? 241. Either means the one or the other of two, but not both. Some- 
times, it denotes the two in the sense of each, but with greater distinct- 
ness. 

* All articles and adjectives may be divided into qualifying adjectives and limiting ad- 
jectives ; qualifying adjectives into common adjectives and participial adjectives ; limiting 
adjectives into definite, indefinite, and distributive, — referring to particular objects, refer- 
ring to no particular objects, referring to objects taken one by one : as, The, that; a, any, 
some ; each, every, either. This division is plausible enough in theory, but unmanageable 
or objectionable in practice. 



114 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Ex. — " I will sell either one of my two horses." " Either road leads to town." 
" Either method produces the same result." " On either side they found impassable bar- 
riers." — Irving. That is, if they turned to one side, they found them there ; and if they 
turned to the other side, they also found them there. 

? 242. Else excludes what is ascertained, from something indefinite. 

Ex,—" Who else; " " What else; " " Anyone else; " " Anything else; " " Something 
else; " " Who else have seen him." 

? 243. Many a means many considered separately. It differs from 
every only in not denoting all. (In the German, it may be expressed by 
one word.) 

Ex.—" Many a man has been ruined by intemperance." " Full many a flower is 
born to blush unseen." 

? 244. Neither means not the one nor the other. It is opposed to each 
denoting two, or to either in this sense ; sometimes to both. 

Ex.— " Each of yours is good, but neither of mine is." "Shall I take both, one, or 
neither ?" 

? 245. iVo means "not any" or "not a" or it denies of all separately. 
Sometimes it denies a certain character of an object. 

Ex. — " No man knows his destiny." " No such principles." "No water." "She 
is no friend of mine." " Even Sunday shines no Sabbath-day to me." — Pope. 

? 246. One may be applied indefinitely to any person or other object. 
It implies that there are or may be others. 

Ex. — " Some one ; " " Any one; " " The forsaken one ; " " The little owes." " There 
one can purchase anything he wants." " One by one." " Such men as one may some- 
times see." 

One corresponds to another, when the meaning is not that there are but two ; one or 
the one, to the other of two. (On<=cither of two ; the one=a particular one of two.) 

Ex. — " First came one daughter, and then another." "They marched one after an- 
other." " He went from one extreme to the other." 

None (no-one) is singular or plural, and generally used for no and a noun. 

? 247. One sometimes denotes a person as not well known, or as of not 
much importance. Hence it is sometimes very contemptuous. 

Ex. — " One Peter Simmons was the defendant." "Here lived one Nick Biddle." 
" An attack upon me by one Wilkes." — Benton. 

? 248. Other or another denotes something different or distinct from 
something else, yet of the same class or name. With allusion to some- 
thing known or mentioned, it denotes something else. 

Ex. — " An other overflow." " Take the other." " They are meant for us ; they can 
be meant for no other." — P. Henry. 

Own implies possession with emphasis or distinction. 

Ex. — " My own." " Use your own book." " Our oim Webster." 
? 249. Same means not another or not different. It denotes the identical 
object or a similar object. In the first sense, it is most frequently fol- 
lowed by that ; in the second, by as. 

Ex. — " It is the same boat that we saw an hour ago." " In the same direction as the 
other." 

? 250. Some denotes one or a portion indefinitely. It is opposed to all, 
a particular one, or the whole. 

Ex. — "Some one calls a blush the color of virtue." "Some of the robbers were 
caught." " Some of his money was stolen." 

? 251. When two indefinite portions are spoken of, some is often applied 
to one, and others to the other ; when more than two are spoken of, some 
is generally used throughout. 



PRONOMIAL ADJECTIVES. 115 

Ex. — " Some of the men were without coats, and others without shoes." " Some of 
the pupils are indolent, some are mischievous, and some are stupid." 

? 252. Such refers to an object as being of the same nature, character, 
or description, as some thing else. 

Ex. — " Modesty, meekness, and such virtues." " Such men as he is." " Such priii- 
ciple^ as we approve." 

? 253. This (plu. these) strongly and distinctly points out something 

as near the speaker. 

Ex. — " Th is house and these fields, are they not yours?" "This subject has been 
frequently discussed." 

? 254. That (plu. those ) strongly and distinctly points out something 
as not near the speaker; or as not so near as something else. Hence, in 
speaking of two, that may be applied to the former, and this to the 
latter. 

Ex.— " That cloud is exceedingly beautiful." "These roses will bloom longer than 
those.'" . 

" Some put the bliss in action, some in ease : 
Those call it pleasure ; and contentment, these.''' 1 — Pope. 
Note.— In the explanatory phrase "that is," that often seems to be used in the sense 
of this. Sometimes that is simply more forcible than the. 

"That man who said so, is mistaken." "I trust I have none of that other spirit 
which would drag angels down." — Webster. 

? 255. Yon or yonder strongly points out something in sight. 

Ex.—" Yon hawthorn bush." " Yonder hills, robed in misty blue, were the haunts 
of my childhood." 

? What and which, whether interrogative or responsive, and also their 
compounds, point out objects definitely, and sometimes indefinitely. 

Ex.—" What man among you." " Whatever motives govern him." "All persons 
vjhatsoever." " What money he earned, she spent." "By which charter certain rights 
were secured to us." 

Note. — To the foregoing list of pronomials, some grammarians would add the words 
few, mm i/, several, very, much, whole, sundry, divers, former, latter, and some others. These 
words, in some of their uses at least, are sufficiently like other adjectives to be excluded 
from the pronomials. They are either compared, or they are qualifying adjectives in the 
language from which they are derived, or other qualifying adjectives may sometimes be sub- 
stituted for them. Few denotes a comparatively small number; many, a comparatively 
large number. Several denotes more than two and fewer than many. Much denotes a 
comparatively large quantity. Very (Lat. verus) is nearly equivalent to a compound per- 
sonal pronoun, or to the word even ; as, " Our very existence depends upon it"=Our ex- 
istence itself &c. 

? 256. Adjectives implying number, must agree in number with the 
nouns to which they belong. 

Ex. — "Four feet," not "Four foot;" "That kind of trees," not " Those kind of 
trees." 

When a pronomial limits the following noun or a preceding one, or when a noun can 
be supplied after it without injuring the sense, it should be parsed as a pronomial 
adjective ; otherwise, as a pronoun. 

The same is true of other adjectives, except that they are parsed as nouns, and not as 
pronouns, when a noun can not be supplied after them. Some grammarians would 
parse such words, when so used, always as substantives ; yet this is objectionable, as 
they may generally be, and frequently are, modified by adverbs. 

The words occurring most frequently as pronouns, are that, one, oneself, none, other, 
another, each other, one another, what, and which. The last two may be parsed as pro- 
nomial adjectives, by supplying a suitable noun after them ; but they are usually parsed 
as pronouns. — See Interrogative Pronouns. 

Ex. — "The age of modest, industrious, and meritorious yeomanry is gone; that [the 
age] of pining, office-seeking aristocracy is at hand." " The lost one.'" " The best ones." 
" Some others." " Conscience wakes the bitter memory of what he was, what he is, and 
what must be." — Milton. 



116 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

One, other, and another, are declined like nouns. Another = an other ; hence, singular. 

Note. — Dr. Whately writes " oneself" in a form analogous to herself, himself, and 
better, I think, than "one's self." — Another, though generally expressed as one word, is 
thought by some grammarians to be better expressed as two. Other is sometimes found 
in old English for others. 

? 257. Each other applies to two only, or to pairs ; one 
another, to more than two. 

Ex. — " The brother and sister love each other." " Wives and husbands are, indeed, 
incessantly complaining of each other. " — Johnson. " Put the dozen cups within one 
another." " The several Indian chiefs made peace with one another." 

These phrases, especially one another, usually represent the relation between two 
indefinite objects of the group, as being that between any and every two of the entire 
series. They may be parsed as compound reciprocal pronouns, whenever they can not be 
easily disposed of otherwise ; though, by supplying such words as may be supposed to 
have been omitted, they can, in most such instances, be parsed separately ; each (or its 
noun) in apposition with the whole group, and other (or its noun) as an objective. 

" The girls love one another." " The candidates vilified one another's characters." 

Note. — In the Greek language, one another is expressed by one word ; in the German, 
it is also expressed as one word, which corresponds in its composition and meaning 
exactly with the English phrase. 

" Wie zwo Flammen sich ergreifen, wie 

Harphentone in einander spielen." — Schiller. 

Here, the two words could not be parsed separately : ein in ander would be a solecism. 
Besides, " They love themselves," and "They love one another," sufficiently resemble, 
I think, to be construed alike. 

The pronomials, (except what and which,) when used as pronouns, form a group out- 
side of the classes of pronouns that we have given. They may therefore be parsed simply 
as pronouns. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Note. — For models in parsing, see Book First. 

1. 
I 4 will never forsake you 8 . We should always prefer our 7 duty to our 
pleasure, lie is not content with his situation. I seated myself next 2 
to the window. Joseph bought the book for himself 3 & 9 . Man 5 ! know 
thyself 3 oc 8 : all wisdom centres there. — Young. The Indians often paint 
themselves. The wounded snake bit itself. The party reposed them- 
selves on the shady sward. 

2. 

The poor widow lost hcr 3 & 7 only son. The Yankees understand their 
interest well. Where confidence has been destroyed, it seldom revives. 
John, I saw your father. The deer waved its branchy head. It is 
wicked to scoff u at religion. It is too early for flowers. It happened 
on a lovely summer's day. It rains. It thunders. It went hard with 
him. She is handsome, and she knows it 3 & 8 . My heart beats yet, but 
liers a I can not feel. 

3. Antecedent Expressed. 

The man who 3 & 4 neglects his 3 & 7 business, will soon be without 
business. The captives to whom life had been promised, were afterwards 
barbarously murdered. That b man is enslaved who can not govern him- 
self. How beautiful are yonder willows, which overshadow the little 
river! The sycamores which fringe the river, are beautifully white. 
Sarah has plucked the prettiest rose that 3 & 4 bloomed in the garden. 
The traveler described very accurately such things as he remembered. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 117 

She has already as many troubles as she can bear. The sister has the 
same traits of character as her brothers. 

4. Antecedent not Expressed. 
Many blessings has the world derived from those whose origin was 
humble. Assist such b as need thy assistance. Who 12 has not virtue, is 
not truly wise. I saw whom 12 1 wanted to see. I love whoever* loves 
me. Whoever 12 violates this rule, shall pay a fine. Whomsoever 12 you 
send, I will cheerfully instruct. 

5. 
I remember what 12 was said. He reads whatever 12 is instructive. 
Fops are more attentive to what 12 is showy, than mindful of whati 2 is 
necessary. Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifies it. Whatever he 
found, he took. Whatsoever he doeth, shall prosper. Whatever money* 2 
I had, I spent. Conscience wakes the bitter memory of what 1 ! he 4 was, 
what he is, and what must be. 

6, 

"Who* first crossed the Alps? — Hannibal 4 ." What constitutes a 
State? My countrymen, oh what b a fail was there! What 8 means this 
martial array? Which belongs to you? Do you know who said so? 
I know not who said so. Who can tell whom he meant? Whatn is it 4 
that 3 & 8 you want? I never heard what it was that brought him here. 
" What country is better than ours ? a — None." 4 Which man was hurt? 
What b man 12 but enters, dies. Take whichever horse 12 you like. On 
whichsoever side we cast our eyes, we saw nothing but ruins. 

7. 

Gentle reader, whoever thou art, remember this. I believe no other 
author whatever would advance the same doctrines. I tell you what, 
my son, these friends of ours ha^ve forgotten us. My son, whatever the 
world may say, adhere to what is right. Whatever you undertake, do 
it well. Whomsoever he finds, him he will send. 

8. 

Any man can carry the whole limb with ail its apples. Would any 
man defend infidelity by such or any other arguments? No man is 
perfectly independent of all others. d There is a horse for each man. 
Many a fine intellect is buried in poverty. Neither course is proper. 
This chair is nearer to me than that. Who else came. One story is good 
until another is told. Silver and gold have I none. These resolutions 
reasserted the sole right of the colonies to tax themselves in all cases 
whatsoever. 

She took the good ones, and left the others. None are perfectly good. 
Mankind slay one another in cruel wars. Pity from you is dearer than 
that from another. Who is there to mourn for Logan ? Not one. 

10. 
Point out and parse the articles, adjectives, nouns, and pronouns ; or, if there is not time 
for this, point out and parse merely the pronouns and pronomials : — 

White man, there is eternal war between me and thee ! I quit not 
the land of my fathers but with my life. In those woods where I bent 
my youthful bow, I will still hunt the deer. Over yonder waters I will 
still glide unrestrained in my bark canoe. By those dashing waterfalls 



118 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

I will still lay up my winters store of food. On these fertile meadows 

I will still plant my corn. Stranger, the land is mine! 1 understand 
not these paper rights. I gave not my consent, when, as thou sayest, 
these broad regions were purchased, for a few baubles, of my fathers. 
They could sell what was theirs ; they could sell no more. How could 
my fathers sell that which the Great Spirit sent me into the world to 
live upon ? They knew not what they did. The stranger came, a 
timid suppliant, few and feeble, and asked to lie down on the red man's 
bear-skin, and warm himself at the red man's fire, and have a little 
piece of land to raise corn for his women and children ; and now he is 
become strong, and mighty, and bold, and spreads out his parchment 
over the whole, and says, It is mine. Stranger, there is no room for us 
both. The Great Spirit has not made us to live together. 

(a.) " Hers" = her heart, (ft.) Parse pronomial adjectives in accordance with the 
following Formule: An adjective, and why ; pronomial, and definition; its -peculiar 
sense or use in the example given ; to tchat 'it belongs, and according to what Rule, 
(c.) " What he was," is a substantive clause of the neuter gender, third person, singular 
number, and in the objective case — being the object of the preposition of— according 
to Rule IX. (cf.) " Others" is a pronoun. — See page 19. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Formule. — Incorrect: should be ; because ; or else, according to 

Rule 

Errors in the choice of words. — "The best which I have." " The first man 
which I met." "The same man whom I saw." "Take all which I have." "The 
woman which came with us, is sick." " This is not the book what I brought to school." 

II It is the most beautiful tree which grows on these mountains." '• I sent the same 
book as he had ordered." " The man and horses which went under the tree, were killed 
by lightning." " The monkey which had been appointed as the orator on the occasion, 
then began to address the assembly." M "Who of these men is your uncle ?" 

"Either of the eight professors." " Any one of the two." " Either of the three." 

" Servants of both sexes to hire on moderate terms." ( — of either sex ) " Those kind 

of men." " These sort of books." " Neither one of the seven." " All the boys in our 
school are kind to each other." "The two sisters love one another." "Paul and 
Barnabas departed from one another." "Them books." " Them resolutions." "Look 
at them boys." " I have finished them sums." " These are the same sums as wc 
had before." 

What is the ohjectiveof who, whoever, whosoever? — the possessive f 

Violations of Rule III. — " Every person should try to improve their mind." 
" Nobody will ever intrust themselves to that boat again." "Will someone of you 
lend ine your umbrella ? " " The cuckoo lays his eggs in the nests of other birds." " I 
like molasses when they are clean." 

Errors in the form of words — violations of Rules. — " Him and me are of the 
same age." " Thee art most in fault." " Them are my sentiments." 

" Who do you mean ? " " Who did you see ? " " Who was it sent to ? " " There is 
some pudding left for you and I." " He cares only for his self." "They did it their 
selves." " It is not your's, but our's." "Me being sick, the business was neglected." 
" I bought the book of Fisher, he who lives on Main Street." " It was not me." " I 
know it washer." " It could not have been him." " Whom do you think it was?" 
" But the better man, whom we supposed would be elected, was defeated." "The Mis- 
souri is forty foot deep." " Those kind of things." 



? 258. Punctuation. — A elause depending on another for complete 
sense, is usually separated from it by the comma. 

Ex. — If you have done any thing shameful, never hope to remain concealed." " Cyrus 
took care, whenever hisfiends were ivith him, that the most pleasant subjects of conversa- 
tion should be presented." " There was not a Spartan, who, if his country had been in 
danger, would not have been ready to die for it." " What one does not possess, he can not 
give to another." 



VERBS. 119 

? 259. A clause having a responsive or restrictive relative, or a clause 
so closely related as to perform the office of a part of speech, is not 
usually separated by a comma from the words on which it depends. 

Ex. — " I know ivhorn you mean.'''' "The flowers that blooms early, die early." " A 
bad man who obtains power, is not apt to bear good fortune as he ought." " Those who 
learn every thing by their own efforts, are self-taught." "I know that he is ambitious." 
" Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." " So it seems that you were there." 
" God must be conscious of every motion that arises in the material universe, which he thus 
essentially pervades." — Addison. (The first relative is restrictive ; the other, not.) 

19. VERBS. 

? 260. A verb is a word used to affirm something of a sub- 
ject. 

? 261. When the verb is a participle or an infinitive, it 
merely assumes the act or state, or does not affirm it. 

Ex. — " The horse ran up the street." " Sweet blooms the rose." " John is loved by 
all." " Troy ivas, but is no more." " Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed by fire from 
heaven." " Fairies are beings of the fancy." " The clouds parting, the moon shone 
through." " Some are born to creep." 

Note. — Most verbs denote certain kinds of action or state, and thus are analogous 
in sense to common nouns ; others merely connect in a certain way the act or state to its 
subject. 

The former are called principal, and sometimes notional, verbs ; the latter, auxiliary ', 
and sometimes relational, verbs. 

? That of which the act or state is affirmed or assumed, may be termed 
its subject. 

Ex. — " The thunder rolls." "The etars twinkle." "Snow is white." " Cazsar was 
stabbed." " J saw htr weaving." " He ordered the carriage to be sent away." 

? That on which the act is exerted, or in respect to which the state 
exists, is termed its object. 

Ex. — " Cain slew Abel." " He studies the proposition." " You resemble your father." 
Tell which are the verbs, and why : — 

The horse neighs. Water flows. Far heaved the forest. The steamboats are busy. 
John caught a fish. Mary plays well, and sings delightfully. The moon shines. 
Bright were the stars. Joseph, study your lesson. Who brought the news ? We have 
come to assist you. The clouds were dispersed, the sun shone again, and the birds were 
singing in the glittering woods. 

The armaments which thunderstrike the walls 
Of rock -built cities, bidding nations quake 
And monarchs tremble in their capitals, — 
These are thy toys. 



? Verbs are divided, according to their meaning, into trans- 
itive and intransitive. 

? 262. A transitive verb has an object, or requires one to 
complete the sense. 

Ex.—" The lightning struck the oalc." " Wliom did you see ? " " The garden has 
flowers." " I knew him well, and every truant knew." " When he caught the mur- 
derer, they cried out — ' kill ! ' " 

? 26$. Transitive verbs are termed passive, when the act is 
affirmed, not of the doer, but of the object acted upon. — See 
Voice. 



120 BOOK SECOND — THE £7. :;DARD. 

Ex. — " James killed a snake." "A snake was kille- by James." "I will plant a 
cedar over her grave." " A cedar shall be planted over her grave." 

Note. — Transitive means passing over, and transitive verbs are so called because they 
generally represent actions as passing from the subject over to the object. 

? 264. An intransitive verb does not require an object to 
complete the sense. 

Ex. — "Birds fly." "Roses bloomy "The wind roars." "Martha lexrns fast." 
" Lawyers plead.'''' " Acquire in youth, that you may enjoy in age." " Gamblers 
cheat." 

? 265. Such intransitive verbs as do not imply action or 
exertion, are termed neuter. 

Ex. — " The ocean is deep." " The book lies on the table." " How sleep the brave." 
Note. — Though the neuter verbs are but few, yet these few can be asserted of more 

objects than all the active verbs. The verb be alone ranges farther than all of them. 

Existence is a more general idea than action or motion. Hence the neuter verbs are 

deemed worthy of being made a separate class. 

? The same word is sometimes transitive, and sometimes in- 
transitive. 

Ex. — " The prince succeeds the king ; " " In every undertaking he succeeds." " To 
stand on the floor;" "To stand exposure." "To set trees in a row;" "The sun 
sets." 

? 2G6. A verb**nsually transitive, becomes sometimes intransitive. The 
intention in such cases is simply to ascribe a certain act or state, and to 
leave the object designedly unknown or indefinite : the mind dwells 
upon the act rather than upon the object affected by it. 

Ex. — " She reads well." " lie studies in the morning, and rides in the evening." 
" I keep his house, and I wash, taring, brew, bake, scour, dress meat, and make tho 
beds, and do all myself" — Shah. 

? 267. A verb usually intransitive sometimes become transitive. This 
occurs, 1. When the verb is used in a causative sense; 2. When the 
object is like the verb in meaning, or when it serves to modify it some- 
what like an adverb. 

En:. — " To march armies ; " i. e., to cause them to march. " To melt snow ; " i. e., 
cans." it to melt. " To live a righteous life." " To die a miserable death." " To blow 
a louder blast." "To dance a waltz ; to sing a song." "To look daggers." {Seethe 

next Note.) " Eyes looked love looked pity." " He looked the rage that rankled in his 

heart." — Crabbe. " Death grinned a ghastly smile." " The lightnings flashed a brighter 
curve." "The lightnings flashed vermilion." — Dante. (See the next Note.) " The streams 
ran nectar ; " i. e., sent forth or poured forth nectar. 

? In many such instances, the verb shows how the object is expressed 
or made; or else the object characterizes the verb. 

Note. — Perhaps many such substantives, usually parsed as I have jnst shown, would 
give a much better view of the sense, if parsed according to llule X, and sometimes 
according to Rule XI. 

? From some intransitive verbs are derived corresponding transi- 
tives. 

Ex. — Lie, lay ; sit, set, seat ; fall, fell ; rise, raise; drink, drench. 

? 203. Sometimes objectives are combined with the verb so closely, that, 
in sense, they almost make apart of it; and some objectives are identi- 
cal with the subject, merely complete the sense, and imply no transfer 
of the act. 

Ex. — " To take care of; to lose sight of; to lay hold on." "To bestir oneself; to 
bethink oneself; to conduct oneself well ; to feign oneself sick ; to laugh oneself hoarse ; " 
" He slept himself weary ; " " He drank himself dead drunk." 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 121 

? 269. The objective is sometimes a phrase or a clause. 

Ex. — " He commanded the soldier to be brought.' 1 '' " I know how deeply liberty is rooted 
in the hearts of these people" 

The verbs, and why ; whether transitive, passive, intransitive, or neuter, and why : — 
The horse carries his rider. The horses were hitched to the wagon. The governor 
appointed a committee. The fort was blown up. This man makes the best carriages. 
The picture hung upon the wall. The man kicked the horse. The horse kicked the 
man. The man was kicked by the horse. The horse kicks. The boy was thrown from 
the horse and killed. Then rose Lord Chatham. The crew captured and sold a whale. 
A proper education refines and elevates the feelings. She was arraigned, tried, con- 
demned, and executed. Such as I am, I have always been, and always shall be. Spare 
superfluities, to provide necessaries. We sat on the green grass. It seems proper. She 
grieves and weeps. The bird flutters. He talks well. He talks nonsense. Teachers 
teach, and pupils learn. Your leaders hissed their indignation, and shouted — " Kill ! " 
I never ascertained why he wanted me to write on the subject. He mutters — gasps — 
Jove, help him — so — he's dead. 

Now, now, while my strength and my youth are in bloom, 
Let me think what will serve me when sickness shall come, 

And pray that my sins be forgiven : 
Let me read in good books, and believe and obey, 
That, when Death turns me out of this cottage of clay, 
I may dwell in a palace in heaven. — Watts. 



? Verbs are also divided, according to their form, into regu- 
lar and irregular. 

? 270. A verb is regular, when its imperfect tense and perfect 
participle are formed by adding ed to the present (imperative). 
When it takes the inflection ed. ■ 

Ex. — "Love, loved, loved; call, called, called; defy, defied, defied; blot, blotted, 
blotted." 

? §71. A verb is irregular, when its imperfect tense and per- 
fect participle are not formed by adding ed to the present (im- 
perative). When it does not take the inflection ed. 

Ex. — " Write, wrote, written ; throw, threw, thrown ; bring, brought, brought ; cast, 
cast, cast." 

? The " present" is usually the simplest form of the verb by which we 
command the act or state, or by which we speak of it ; the " imperfect " 
is the simplest form of the verb representing something as indefinitely 
past; and the " perfect participle" is the form required to make sense 
with the word having or being. 

Ex. — "Run, instruct, reap, think, waver; ran, reaped, thought, went, spoke ; having 
spoken, having run, being worn, being supported.'''' 

? The present, the imperfect, or preterit, and the perfect par- 
ticiple, are called the principal parts of the verb. 

? In addition to these parts, there is another, called the pres- 
ent participle. It is always formed by adding ing to the present. 

Note. — Parts not formed by adding ed, have been called " strong forms," in distinc- 
tion from those ending in ed; because they tend to make language more vigorous and 
lively. 

The number of verbs in our language is said to be about 5000, of which about 200 are 
irregular. 

20. Iiist ©f Irregjilar Verlis. 

The following catalogue exhibits the principal parts of the irregular 
verbs. 

6 



122 



BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 



Note. — In using irregular verbs, we are liable to error for the most part only in those 
whose imperfect tense and perfect participle are not alike. These verbs have therefore 
been given first, and separate from the rest, that they may be learned perfectly. R. de- 
notes that the regular form may also be used in stead of the others. * denotes that the 
form under it is seldom used, being either ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. Tho 
form supposed to be of the best present usage, is placed first. The second form of some 



verbs is preferable, when applied in a certain way ; as, "freighted with spices and silks," 
" fraught with mischief; " " thunderstruck," " sorrow-stricken." 

1. THE TWO PAST FORMS DIFFERENT. 

Imperf., or Preterit. Perf. Part. Pres. Imperf., or Preterit. Perf. Part. 



Pres. 

Arise, 
Awake, 

Be, 

Bear (bring forth), 
Bear (earn/), 

Beat, 



Become, 
Befall, 

Beget, 

Begin, 

Bid, 

Blow, 

Break, 

Chide, 
Choose, 
Cleave (adhere) 

Cleave (split), 

Come, 

Crow, 

Do (principal verb), did 

Draw, drew, 

Drink, . drank, 

Dive, 

Dare (venture), 

( Dare — challenge, 



arose, 

awoke, r., 

was, 

bore, bare, 
bore, 

beat, 

became, 

befell, 

begot, 

begat,* 

began, 

begun,* 

bid, bade, 

blew, r.,* 

broke, 

brake,* 

chid, 

chose, 
cleaver! , *l 
clave*,* J 
cleft, clove, 
clave, 
came, 
crowed, 
crew, 



Eat, 
Fall, 
Ely, 
Eorbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freight, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Give, 
Go, 

Grave, 
Grow, 

Hide, 



dived, d/5ve ; 
dared, b 
durst, 
dared, 
ate, eat, 
fell, 
flew, 
forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 

freighted, 

froze, 

got, 

gave, 
went, 
graved, 
grew, 

hid, 



arisen . 

awaked, 

awoke.* 

been. 

born. 

borne. 

beaten, 

beat. 

become. 

befallen. 

begotten, 

begot. 

begun. 

bid, 

bidden. 

blown, r.* 

broken, 

broke.* 

chidden, 

chid. 

chosen.* 

cleaved. 

cleft, 

cloven. 

come. 

crowed. 

dune. 

drawn. 

drunk, 

drank.* 

dived. 

dared. 

dared.) 

eaten. 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken . 

freighted, 

fraught. 

frozen. 

got, 

gotten. 

given. 

gone. 

graven, r. 

grown. 

hidden, 

hid. 



Hold, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Know, 
Lade (load), 

Lean, 

Leap, 

Lie (repose), 



■speak falsely, lied, 

mowe 



(Lie- 
Mow, 

Prove, 
Bend, 



Bide, 

Rive, 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Run, 

Saw, 

See, 

Shake, 

Seethe, 

Shape, 

Shave, 
Show, 
Shear, 

Shrink, 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Smite, 

Sing, 
Sink, 

Sow (scatter), 



held, 

heaved, 

hove, 

hew r ed, ' 

knew, 

laded, 

leaned, 

leant, 

leaped, 

leapt,* 

lay, 



proved, 
rent, 

rode, 

rived, 

rang, rung. 

rose, 

ran, run,* 

sawed, 

saw, 

shook, 

seethed, 

sod, 

shaped, 

shaved, 

showed, 
sheared, 
shore,* 
shrunk, 

shrank, 

slew, 

slid, r., 



Spit, 
Steal, 
Spring, 

Stride, 



smote, 

sung, sang, 
sunk, sank, 
sowed, 
spoke, 
spake, 

spit, spat, 

stole, 

sprung, 

sprang, 

strode, 

strid, 



held, 
holden.c* 
heaved, 
hoven. 
hewn, r. 
known, 
laden, r. 
leaned, 
leant, 
leaped, 
leapt.* 
lain, 
lied.) 
mown, r. 
proved, 
proven.* 
rent, 
rendedd.* 
rode, 
ridden, 
riven, r.* 
» rung, 
risen, 
run. 
sawn, r. 
seen, 
shaken, 
seethed, 
sodden, 
shaped, 
shapen. 
shaved, 
shaven, 
shown, r. 

shorn, r. 

shrunk, 

shrunken* 

slain. 

slid den, 

slid, r. 

smitten, 

smit. 



sung, 
sunk. 



spoken. 

spit, 

spitten.* 

stolen. 

sprung. 

stridden, 
strid. 



(a.) " My tongue clave to the roof of my mouth." — Dickens. 
not cross."— Macaulay. 



(b.) " This line he dared 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



123 



Pres. 



Imperf, or Preterit. Per/, part. Pres. Imperf ., or Preterit. Perf. Part. 



Strike, 


struck, 


struck, 
stricken. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 
throve, 


thrived, 
thriven. 


Strive, 


strove, r., 


striven, r. 


Throw, 


threw, r. 


thrown,r. J 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, r. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, 




swore, 






trode*, 


trod. 


Swear, 


sware, 


sworn. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, r. 






waxen. 




swum, 




Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swum. 


Weave, 


wove, r. 


woven, r. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 




writ,* 






2. THE 


rWO PAST OR THE THREE FORMS 


ALIKE. 




Pres. 


Imperf., or Preterit. Perf. Part 


Pres. Imperf., or Preteri 


5. Perf. Part 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Bend, 


bent, r., 


bent, r. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Belay, 


belaid, r., 


belaid, r. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


bereave, 


bereft, r., 


bereft, r. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Light, 


lighted, 


lighted, 


Bet, 


bet, r., 


bet, r. 


lit, 


lit. 


Betide, 


betided, 


betided, 


Lose. 


lost, 


lost. 


betid,* 


betid.* 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


M_eer> 


met, 


met. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Pass, 


passed, 


passed, 


Build, 


built, r., 


built, r. 


past,* 


past. 


Burst, 


burst, r.,-< 


burst, r.* 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Pen (fence in), 


penned, 


penned, 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


pent, 


pent. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


(Pen (write), 


penned, 


penned.) 


Catch, 


caught, r. 


,* caught, r.* 


Plead, 


pleaded, 


pleaded, 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


clothed, 


pled, 


pled. 


clad, 


clad. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Quit, 


quit, r., 


quit, r. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Rap, 


rapped, 


rapped, 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


rapt, 


rapt.f 


Crow, 


crowed, 
crew, 


crowed. 


Read, 
Rid, 


read, 
rid, 


read, 
rid. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Deal, 


dealt, r., ;; 


dealt, r. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Dig, 


dug, r., 


dug, r. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, ?-., 


dwelt, r. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Dream, 


dreamed, 


dreamed, 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Shine, 


shone, r.,* 


shone, r.* 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Gild, 


gilded, 


gilded, 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


gilt, 


gilt. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Hang, 


hung, r., 


hung, r. 


Slit, 


slit, r., 


slit, r. 


Have(prin 


verb), had, 


had. 


Speed, 


sped, r.,* 


sped, r.* 


Hear, 
Hit, 


heard, 
hit, 


heard, 
hit. • 


Spell, 


spelled, 
spelt, 


spelled, 
spelt. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Spill, 


spilt, r., 


spilt, r. 


Kneel 


kneeled, 


kneeled, 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


' 


knelt, 


knelt. 


Split, 


split, r.,* 


split, r.* 


Knit, 


knit, r., 


knit, r. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 



(c.) Beholden; witholden*. 
-W. Scott. 



(d.) " Come as the winds come when forests are rended." 



124 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



Pres. 



Imperf., or Preterit. Perf. Part. Pres. 



Stay, 


staid, r., 


staid, r.g 


Work, 




worked, 


String, 


strung,?-., 


'-- strung, r. 






wroughi 


Sweat, 


sweated, 


sweated, 


Wring, 




wrung, 1 


sweat, 


sweat. 








Stave, 
Stand, 


stove, r., 
stood, 


stove, r. 
stood. 


Beware, 






Can, 




could, 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Do (aux 


'liary), 


did, 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Have (auxiliary), 


had, 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


May, 




might, 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Must, 




must, 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Ought, 




ought, 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 






quoth, 




Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Shall, 




should, 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Will (auxiliary), 


would, 


Wake, 


woke,r., 


woke, r. 


( Will — wish,bequeath, willed, 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Wit, 1 






Wet, 


wet, r., 


wet, r. 


Wis,* 




wot,* 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Weet,* 




wist,* 


Wind, 


wound, r., 


•• wound, r.* 


Wot,* 




wote.* 



Imperf, or Preterit. Perf. Part. 

worked, 
wrought, 
wrung, r. 



willed.) 



? The last few verbs are termed defective, because some of the parts are 
wanting; and verbs having more parts than necessary, are termed re- 
dundant; as, bereave, slide, swim. 

Some regular verbs are occasionally made irregular for the sake of pronunciation, by 
changing ed into t; as, blest, burnt, ctirst, drcst, spoilt. 

? 272. Verbs formed from others, are generally inflected in the same 
way. 

Give the principal parts of hold, withhold, uphold; go, undergo; give, misgive, forgive; 
do, undo; act, counteract, regaacl; say, gainsay. 

Give the principal parts of the following verbs, and say whether regular or irregular : — 

Range, bow, mow, grow, sow, sew, plant, set, .screen, surround, behave, favor, ordain, 
sin, win, spin, authorize, criticise, create, skim, swim, steal, heal, fling, bring, spread, 
dread, sit, fit, hit, lie, die, mold, hold, close, lose, choose, blind, find, fine, spurn, burn, 
reel, feel, rend, blend, lend, loan, tend, tent, blight, fight, drink, think, slink, wink, 
speak, sneak, steep, sleep, leave, weave, cleave, reach, teach, get, let, fret, put, smut, free, 
see, flee, fly, blow, cry, crucify, write, bite, requite, take, make, bake, dare, slay, pay, 
stray, stick, click, call, fall, fell, bind, bound, heat, cat, come, welcome, will, have, land, 
stand, am, rise, raise, set, lie, lay. 

Mention the verb ; give its principal parts; tell whether it is regular or irregular; and 
why : — 

The lark sings. The fire glows. The horse was neither bought, sold, nor borrowed, 
but given and delivered. The laborer should be rewarded. He rose, reigned, and fell. 
" That alters the case," quoth the farmer. I never heard a sweeter voice. If lie thinks 
as he speaks, he may be safely trusted. If you are able to give help, wait not to be asked. 
He seated himself. He sat in a corner. He set a trap for partridges. Lay the book 
where it lay before. 



" ? I. The true or most appropriate verb or form should always be 
selected. 

With the auxiliaries be, have, and their derivatives, should be com- 
bined, not the preterit, but the perfect participle. 

Correct the following sentences : — 

The sun had rose.* You might have went yourself. He was forsook by his friends. 
Mary has tore her book. The apple which was gave to mc, was froze. My coat'Is com- 
pletely wore out. The post is drove into the ground. Having swam the river, he was 
took by some Indians. 1 had saw it before. 

-Tncorrect : rose should be risen; because "With the auxiliaries be, have," &c. 



(e.) Hang, hanged, hanged ; to suspend by the neck with intent to kill. 
rapt*; to seize with rapture, (g.) Sta\ , stayed, stayed ; to cause to slop. 



(/.) Bap, rapt, 



VERBS. — VOICES. 125 

? ITI. The proper form for the imperfect tense, and not the perfect 
participle, should be used to express it. 

Correct the following sentences : — 

He run all the way. He begun well, but ended badly. I seen them yesterday. I 
done so. He done it well. They done the best they could. He become a bankrupt long 
ago. The robbers slain him. He drunk but little. He been here several days. I seen 
your brother there. I never seen any thing of it. We clone all the sums on that page in 
an hour. 

Correct the following sentences : — 

I had mistook your meaning. The wine was all drank up, though I drunk but lit- 
tle. The flowers were interwove with gold. You could have went to town before I 
come. The tree had fell, and all its branches were broke. Our candidate run well, 
though he was beat. Having smote Goliath, David returned. The apples were shook 
off by the wind. The lead had sank deep into the sea. I knew he had wrote it, for it 
was writ well. Having stole some money, he was took and tried. The carriage was 
drove by a negro lad. They had chose the best. 

Correct the following sentences and phrases, according to the first of the foregoing 
directions : — 

At the last setting of our legislature. After laying awhile, he raised up. He has lain 
the book where he can not find it. The rice-plantations were overflown by the river. 
He set up a short time, then lay himself down again. We rapt at the dooi . Kapped into 
future times, the bard began. He was hung for murder. He was holden in bondage. 
We are not beheld unto you. He was acquit by the jury. I clomb the tree, and my 
brother holp me. He abided there a long time. She knowed much more than she said. 
A snake creeped through the fence. The weeds were throwed into the fire. The spring 
suddenly stopt, which had flown from the mountain. He played on a strung instrument 
stringed to the highest pitch. John alit from his horse. Smasht, crusht, fixt, mixt, 
nurst, kickt, crackt, attackt, dipt, annext, linkt, prankt, stript, elapst. The price is fell 
again, and we can git nothing for produce ; the river aint riz yet, and some knowin men 
give us to understand that they spec it aint gwine to riz this year. I have done seen it. 
I have done written. I have done done it. 



? Verbs have voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

Note. — Voice has generally some reference to action; mood, to reality ; tense, to time; 
person and number indicate the subject, and thus allow the subject and the verb to be 
separated to make room for modifications or to accomplish other purposes — in some lan- 
guages, they allow the omission of the subject when merely a pronoun. 

21. VOICES. 

? The meaning of every active transitive verb can be expressed in two 
different ways; thus, "Cain killed Abel ?, = Abel was killed by Cain. 
This gives rise to voice. 

? Voice, then, shows whether the act of a transitive verb is 
imparted by the nominative, or received by it; as, "John 
struck;" " John was struck" 

? There are two voices ; the active and the passive. 

? 27$. A verb in the active voice represents its subject as 
acting. 

Ex. — " The laborers gather corn." " The frost broke the pitcher." "The girls are 
learning their lessons." 

? 274. A verb in the passive voice represents its subject as 
acted upon. 

Ex. — " The pitcher was broken." " Many hogs were driven to market." "The bridge 
is building." 



126 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

Passive means suffering ; and passive verbs are so called because they represent their 
subjects as suffering or receiving. 

? 275. Some transitive verbs may be used, without a change of form, 
to assert, not so much the receiving of the act, as the capacity to receive 
it in a certain way. Such verbs also should be termed passive. 

Ex. — " This timber saivs well." " Sycamore splits badly." " This field ploughs well." 
" Linen ivears better than cotton." "Your poem reads smoothly." "Wheat sells — is 
selling — is sold — for a dollar a bushel." 

Note. — Some grammarians parse such verbs merely as intransitive; but in my opinion 
they should be termed passive, especially when they imply an act rather than a state. 
The usual objectives stand as nominatives : and these grammarians themselves admit, that 
sense rather than form should determine the voice ; for they do not call such forms as is 
gone, was come, passive. 

? 276. A few intransitive verbs are sometimes used in a passive form, 
without having a passive meaning. Such verbs should not be termed 
passive. 

Ex. — "He is fallen." "She is gone." " The melancholy days are come." "We are 
assembled here to-day to celebrate" &c. Equivalent to has fallen, has gone, have come, 
have assembled. But " John is struck," is not the same as " John has struck ; " — " James 
is going;" " James is gone." Perhaps the passive form differs by an elegant shade of 
meaning from the active : in the former, the mind dwells rather on the state of things after 
the act ; in the latter, on the act itself. 

? 277. A few intransitive verbs may be made passive, when their mean- 
ing is combiaed with a following preposition or other word. In such 
cases, all the words necessary to make the passive verb, should be termed 
a compound passive verb. 

Ex. — " Peace was despaired of." "An honest man will be well thought of, and looked 
up to." " Col. Butler was accordingly written to, and ordered to hasten forward with the 
volunteers." — Irving. " If you wear such a coat, you will be laughed at "=ridiculed. " He 
was smiled on by fortune "^favored. " He was justly dealt with" =*treated. " My claim 
was lost sight of." 

Such expressions could not be well parsed in a different way, and the modification is 
so closely combined with the verb, that, in sense, it seems to make a part of it. In the 
active voice, however, such expressions Deed rarely be treated as compound verbs ; especi- 
ally, if we go back to the primitive, literal meaning of the words, and consider them 
applied figuratively : as, " To cast up accounts ; " " To fall to work." 

? 278. A passive verb is generally composed of the verb be, 
or some variation of it, and the perfect participle of some 
other verb. 

? 279. The object of the active verb, sometimes of the prepo- 
sition, is made the subject of the passive. 

Transitive verbs may be used actively or passively, at pleasure ; as, " Washington de- 
fended our country." " Our country was defended by Washington." By having both 
forms, language is improved in variety of expression. But the active voice is preferred 
when the chief aim is, to set forth the doer with the kind of action performed by him ; 
and the passive, when it is to set forth the object with the kind of action affecting it. 

"Bascom preached in Kentucky, and Campbell disputed in Virginia." (Who did? 
and did what ?) " She reads and writes well." — " My motives were slandered." " The 
ship was stranded." " He was killed by night." " The work was done, although he 
refused to touch it." 

? 280. The active can be used without the object, the passive without 
the as;ent, each of which it is sometimes not possible, not important, or 
not desirable, to mention. 

The verbs; whether active or passive, and why : — 

The water turned the wheel. The wheel was turned by the water. Mary reads. The 
book is read. The apples were gathered and sold. The traveler lost his horse. The 



VERBS. — VOICES. — MOODS. 127 

horses were harnessed. Explain and exemplify your doctrine. Such laws should be es- 
tablished as will restrain the bad and protect the good. While these affairs were trans- 
acting. Our chains are forging. The workmen are building the house. The house is 
building. Green maple cuts easily. The speech was eagerly listened to. He was never 
heard of afterwards. My watch was stolen. Some thief has stolen my watch. " Since 
the3e men could not be convinced, it was determined that they should be persecuted. 
Persecution produced its usual effects on them. It found them a sect ; it made them a 
faction." — Macaulay. 

Air, water, earth, 
By fowl, fish, beast, was flown, was swum, was walked. — Milton. 
Change active into passive, and passive into active: — 
The sun adorns the world. The heavens declare the glory of God. This rose was 
plucked by Anna. The winds fan the flowers and ruffle the waters. I know him well. 
He paid for the carriage. Every streamlet overflowed its banks. Children waste their 
money. The ministers speak of peace. Peace is spoken of. He was expected to strike. 
He saw and conquered. To write ; to smoke ; to dry ; loving. He knows to govern. 

32. MOODS. 

? The moods are certain modes of expressing the verb in re- 
gard to its subject. 

Ex. — " He writes." " If he write." " He may, can, must, should, or would write." 
" Write thou." " To write is better than to forget." " I come to bury Caesar, not to 
praise him." " The boat, while pushing from shore, blew up." 

The action or state denoted by a verb, may be conceived as actually taking place in 
present, past, or future time ; or its existence may depend on something else ; or it may 
exist in the mind as something merely desirable, necessary, probable, allowable, possible, 
willed, obligatory, &c. ; or we may demand it of some one ; or it may be spoken of simply as 
an object of thought, without being referred to any definite subject ; or it may be ascribed 
to its subject, without being asserted of it. In this state of things originate the moods. 

The chief advantage of having moods is this : Beyond what things we know to be 
actually existing, there are many deemed uncertain or merely ideal ; i. e., whatever we 
think of, is either something real, or something ideal, or something intermediate. The 
moods express at once with the verb itself, whether the act or state is viewed as a reality, 
or as a mere conception, or as something intermediate with the contingency on which its 
development into reality depends. 

? Our language has five moods; the indicative, the potential, 
the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive. 

? 281. A verb is in the indicative mood, when it affirms some- 
thing as an actual occurrence or fact. 

Ex. — " Columbus discovered America." " The bank has failed." " It is raining.''' 1 
" The peaches will soon be ripe." 

? 282. Also, when the occurrence or fact is to be represented, without a 
change in the form or time of the declarative verb, as a condition, or as 
something not absolutely certain. 

Ex. — " If Columbus discovered America." " If the bank has failed." " If it is rain- 
ing." " If the peaches shall be ripe." 

The verbs ; the mood, and why : — 

The sun shines. The trees are budding. The mail has arrived. The world is gov- 
erned by fixed laws. When I saw John, he had sold his horse. God raised the mountains 
with their pine-clad spires. Earth smiled lovely in her rich attire. They who perse- 
vere, seldom fail. Soon shalt thou be deserted upon earth ; none will regard thee. Who 
never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys. The northern part of the state is covered with dense 
forests, and the people are actively engaged in the lumber trade. He retreats, retraces 
his steps to the window, passes out through it as he came in, and escapes. If he is. If 
he was. If he has been. When he knows his lesson, I will hear it. 
The lambs with wolves shall graze the verdant mead, 
And boys in flowery bands the tiger lead. — Pope. 



128 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? A verb in the 'potential mood affirms merely the power, 
liberty, liability, necessity, will, duty, or some other relation, 
of the subject to the act or state. 

Ex. — "It may rain." "You can go — could go — must go — should go — would go — 
might go." 

? When an act or state is expressed in this mood, it may take place or 
not. It is not the business of the mood to show whether it does or not, 
but merely what relation the subject bears to it. To express this mood, 
we combine with the verb ( the infinitive form without the sign to) the 
■wor&may, can, must, might, could, would, or should, and sometimes perhaps 
shall in the sense of must, or will in the sense of would or to be willing. 

The potential mood sometimes approaches the indicative in meaning, and sometimes 
the imperative, and sometimes it has the meaning- of the subjunctive. It is, in fact, a 
coinposite mood; its forms being composed of indicative and infinitive, of subjunctive 
and infinitive, or of imperative and infinitive, elements. The sign to of the infinitive 
being omitted in combination. Indie*. 4- infin. : " I knew he could \ learn it ; " " He 
would \ go then;" "We must \ endure it;" "I can \pay him." S'ubjunc. -f- infin.'. 
"She could \ sing if she would." "I might J learn the lesson;" "I should | hardly 
believe you even then ; " "I might \ have written to him, had I known it ; " " Study, that 
you may \ learn." Imper. -f infin. : '* May you | prosper; " " May it | phase your hon- 
ors ; " "When John Gilpin rides again, may I | be there to see." When the auxiliary 
element adheres to the time usually given to its tense, it is indicative; but when it does 
not, or, like subjunctives, moves forward in time, or becomes indefinite in time, it is sub- 
ju active. 

The verbs ; the mood, and why : — 

Mary can sing— could sing — would sing — should sing — sings — has sung — had sung — 
will sing. I can not say the lesson, though 1 could repeat it yesterday. You must 
remain with us this evening. He would have come, but he was unwell. We should 
never slight the lowly. Must I endure all this? Shall the poor starve that the rich 
may riot ? Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of reconciliation and love? Shall 
we ever meet again ? We must fight ; 1 repeat it, sir, we must fight. The murderer 
might have been caught then, though he can not be caught now. The man who battles 
for reason, for country, does not so easily admit that he is vanquished. 1 thank God, 
that, if I am gifted with a little of the spirit which is said to be able to raise mortals to 
the skies, 1 have yet none, as I trust, of that other spirit, which would drag them down. 



? 283. A verb in the subjunctive mood affirms the act or state 
as something merely ideal or contingent. It affirms some- 
thing as contingent, optative, or intellective, but not as mat- 
ter of fact. 

Note. — What is ideal may be a supposition, a conclusion, or a wish; what is contin- 
gent, is fortuitous, or depends on other events. 

Ex. — " Were I a woman, T would try to be modest at least." "Had he Known the 
stranger, he would have treated him differently." " 0, that 1 were as when my mother 
pressed me to her besom, and Bung the warlike deeds of the Mohawks." " In propor- 
tion as the water were pourediu, the oil would rise." " If a common bottle were filled 
with water, and plunged under the oil until it reached # * * it would remain "&c. — 
Arnot. " If such a man were balanced in the scale of a weighing-beam, he would find 
that he weighed just as much less as if he were pressing with his stick." " If all knew 
their duty, and appreciated their responsibilities, there would be less calamity in the 
world."— Shannon. "The wicked sometimes conduct themselves in such a manner as 
if they expe<ted no punishment for their sins." — Addison. "If a man were to deal in 
this world only for a day, * ■•• * it irere then no great matter (speaking as to the 
concernments of this world) if he spent his reputation all at once, and ventured it at one 
throw; but if he be to continue" &c. — Id. "Hud I Jieard of the affair sooner, this 
accident had not happened." " I had rather pay [infinitive] the debt at once, than be his 
security." "But if, while the hsh continued in the situation supposed, the hundred 
pounds of water were suddenly lifted from off its back, the opposite pressure would at 
once crush it" &c. " If this sucker be applied to a loose stone, the stone may be lifted." 
*' Though he deceive me, yet will 1 trust him." " Till the owner present himself, 1 will 



VERBS. — MOODS. 129 

keep it." " Except ye be born again, ye can not enter the kingdom of heaven." 
" Beware, lest thou be led into temptation." " See that no one go astray — be forgotten.'''' 

? The sentences in which this mood occurs, are founded rather in the 
speaker's mind, than in the external world around him. They originate 
in his feelings, knowledge, or reasoning. 

? When a verb is in this mood, such words, or words of such import, as 
if, unless, except, tvhether, lest, though, that, till, &c, generally precede it, 
or may be supplied before it. 

Ex. — " Had John been at home." " If John had been at home." " If John were 
at home." "Take heed that thou enter not into reckless speculation." " Suppose I 
were to go." 

But let it not be supposed that these preceding words produce the mood or change the 
form of the verb. It is rather the state of mind under which the verb is put forth, that 
produces the mood, and requires or allows the conditional word before it. 

? 284. When a verb is in this mood, some auxiliary verb — shall, will, 
may, should — may in most instances be inserted in the clause, without 
materially varying the sense; provided the auxiliary be understood as 
expressing time or contingence, and not resolution, necessity, obliga- 
tion, &c. 

Ex. — " If he be at home, I will go to see him " == If he shall be at home, &c. " If 
thou ever return, thou shouldst be thankful " = If thou shouldst ever return, &c. 
" Beware that thou come not to poverty ; " i. e., that thou mayst not come to poverty. 

This mood is expressed in our language by the same forms of the verb, or else by 
nearly the same forms, as the indicative, but without any variations (except wert) for the 
different persons and numbers. 

Indic. : "He writes." "He wrote." "He had written." " Thou writest." "I 
am." "T was." 

Subjunc. : " If he write." " If he wrote." ' " Had he written." " If thou write.'* 
" If I be." " If I were." 

? A prominent characteristic of this mood is, that it carries the act or 
state forward in time. Thus, the pluperfect form implies simply past 
time ; the imperfect form, present, or present in that sense which is ap- 
plied to general truths ; and the present form, future time. 

Ex. — Had I been (at some past time, not before). Were I (now). If I be (here- 
after). 

Note". — I have not unfrequently heard the uneducated, whose sagacity is sometimes 
greater than that of philosophers, try to express this mood in pluperfect time, by such 
expressions as these : " Had I ov [have] known it ; " " Had he ov touched me." 

? Another characteristic is, that when a verb in this mood refers to 
past or present time, it generally, but not always, implies a denial of 
the fact ; when to future time, that the fact is uncertain and contingent. 

Ex. — " Had I seen you, I would have gone with you." (I saw you not.) " Were I a 
turtle, I would not think much about it." (I am not a turtle.) " Did you but know 
how I love you ; — (but you do not)." " 0, that he were wiser." " If he be at home when 
you get there." "Unless he repent, he will never reform." 

Additional examples to illustrate this mood : — 

" If he be studious, he will excel. If he were studious, he would excel. 
If he had been studious, he would have excelled." " If a person lay his head on 
the ground, he can hear the cataract from this place." " If it were not for woman, what 
would become of chivalry." "I recommend that the deposits be removed.'''' " Men do 
not despise a thief, if he steal to satisfy his soul when he is hungry." " These men would 
bear aloft, if occasion required, the standard of revolution." " No fear lest dinner cool.'''' 
" If you were rich " — a supposition iv it) '/ out, fact. " If you he rich " — a condition not improb- 
able; " 0, that you were rich" — a mere wish. "Suppose that there existed no treaties 
between the United States and Great Britain." (A supposition of some past uncertain 
fact, or a supposition of something contrary to present fact.) " Suppose that there exists 
no treaty." (The existence is undetermined.) " Suppose that there exist no treaty." 



130 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

(Future contingency.) " If this be treason, make the most of it," refers to future trial 
or judicial investigation. (If it prove to he treason, when I shall happen to he tried for 
it.) " If this is treason, make the most of it ; " i. e., granting that you have all decided it 
to he treason, then make the most of it. " Be he strong or weak, I am not afraid of him." 
(Whether, on trial, I shall find him strong or weak, &c.) " The argument is founded on 
a supposed assent to the exercise of legislative authority, without considering whether 
that exercise be legal or illegal." — D. Webster. Here is would question the right to have 
any government whatever. Nor can any auxiliary be used with foe, that will preserve 
precisely the same sense that is now conveyed. There is reference to something contin- 
gent to be ascertained by future inquiry. " He speaks to me as if he knev) me." (He 
does not know me.) " He speaks to me as if he knows me." (And perhaps he does know 
me.) " He spoke to me as if he knew me." (Though he knew me not, or — and perhaps 
he did know me.) "He spoke to me as if he had known me " — though forgotten then. 
" He strikes as if he were defending himself." " He struck as if he were defending him- 
self." (Though he was not, or — and perhaps he was defending himself.) Here the 
imperfect form seems to be needed to denote past time ; for to say, " He struck as if he 
had been defending himself," turns to the probability of the fact, or of his having actually 
struck before the time in self-defence, and becomes pluperfect indicative ; but perhaps 
the expression is better considered elliptical : " He struck as he would strike if he were 
defending himself." " He will strike as if he were defending himself." " In a society of 
perfect men where all understood what was [is?] right, and were determined to act 
accordingly, it is obvious that human laws * ■•' * would be unnecessary." — Shannon. 
(A case merely supposed, — one that, from the very nature of man, never has existed and 
never can exist.) "In a society of perfect men, where all understand what is right, and 
are determined to act accordingly, it is obvious that human laws * * * are unneces- 
sary." (A supposed case ; yet one that is not impossible, — one of which the world 
actually has afforded or may afford some instances.) 

" Were it becoming, I would " &c. " It were becoming, if you would " &c. 

" Hud it been becoming, I would " &c. " It had been becoming,-'- had you " &c. 

" If any thing remained, I would" &c. " Whatever remained, I would return." 

Here the verbs on the right should be referred to the subjunctive mood, as well as 
those on the left. 

Note. — The moods of our language seem always to have greatly perplexed gramma- 
rians. Some extend the subjunctive mood to every tense and form of the indicative .and 
potential moods ; others give it but two tenses ; and many, to cut the matter short, 
recommend its total abolition. In my opinion, the truth lies, as usual, somewhere 
within the extremes. It would be more in accordance with reason, to unthrone the 
Potential Mood, and distribute its dominions among the four remaining moods. {See 
remark under Potential Mood.) We should then have, to express assertions, two moods — 
the indicative and the subjunctive — adapted to the two classes made by metaphysicians, 
namely, things objective and things subjectice. All verbs might then be considered as 
capable of being asserted in both moods ; and the so-called auxiliaries of the potential 
as differing from other verbs only in this, — that they denote general conditions of sub- 
jects universally, and not outward open acts ; and hence are so frequently taken in con- 
nection with other verbs, that the sign to of the notional infinitive verbs combined with 
them, has been dropped, and, like some parts of the verb foe, (likewise universally used 
to denote existence,) have not so many person-and-numbor endings. I do not concur 
in the recommendation to abolish the subjunctive mood or its forms ; for that which may 
be sometimes used to express what can not be so well expressed by any other means, 
should ever be retained : nor am I foreigner enough to recommend the adoption of every 
thing that is imported from abroad, — and so to extend this mood, over all the forms of 
two other moods. To make the existence of a mood depend merely on conjunctions, is 
to begin with the branches and thus proceed to the roots, in order to trace the growth 
of the tree. 

I have troubled myself not a little about the moods ; and the view I have presented 
of the subjunctise mood, was adopted in preference to that usually given, 1st, because it 
is more simple ; 2dly, because it suffices to teach the proper use of the language in this 
respect; 3dly, because, all things considered, — forms, meaning, analogy, and foreign 
languages, — it seems to me the most rational. The potential forms I have excluded from 
it. If we give it thos'e forms of the indicative which are usually given to it, no good 
reason can be urged for not giving it more of the potential forms than are usually 

■'Subjunctive and not indicative : Because it is construed like the admitted forms of the 
subjunctive; it is equivalent to a potential form ; in time, it is not antecedent, but con- 
comitant or subsequent; a conclusion, though more certain than a supposition, is still 
mental, and not matter of fact ; literally put into German, it would be an unquestioned 
subjunctive; the two languages are precisely analogous in this respect. It is suprising 
that more than 500 grammarians have overlooked this point for two or three centuries. 



VERBS. — MOODS. 131 

assigned to it ; and the pluperfect form of the indicative which I have given it, agrees so 
well with its other two tenses, and diifers so much in mood and tense from the real plu- 
perfect indicative form, that it should never be considered the same. Its three tenses are 
generally indicative in form but subjunctive in sense and construction, and adapted to 
the three great divisions of time. It is used most frequently in what is called the 
protasis or apodosis of a sentence, or in connection with a clause implying future time or 
mere supposition or conclusion. Its clause often depends on another for complete sense, 
and hence the mood is called subjunctive. 



? 085 A verb in the imperative mood commands, entreats, 
exhorts, or permits. 

Ex. — " John, come to me." ' ' Return to your homes." " Be prudent." . " Go where 
glory waits thee." 

Note. — We use this mood whenever we tell a person or other being to do something, 
or to be in a certain state ; hence it can be used only in reference to what has, or is con- 
ceived to have, life and sense. 

? The act or state may or may not take place; the business of the 
mood is, merely to show that such a thing is commanded, allowed, or 
sought. If it takes place, it must be after the command itself, which is 
always expressed in present time, or in what is so considered at the 
time referred to. 

? As we always speak to when we command, this mood has the second 
person only; and the subject of the verb, when of the second person, is 
never a noun, but thou, you, or ye, which is nearly always understood. 

? 286. Some other languages, however, and certain expressions in our 
own, show that this mood may be used in other tenses and persons. 

Ex.— " Have done thy charms, thou hateful, withered hag." — Shah. " Somebody 
call my wife." — Id. "He that hath the steerage of my bark, direct my sail." — Id. 
" Laugh those who can, weep those who may." — Scott. " ' Now tread we a measure ! ' said 
young Lochinvar." — Id. " Proceed we therefore in our subject." — Pope. (Let us &c.) 
" Delve we there for richer mines." — Montgomery. " Whoever comes this way — behold and 
fear to sin." — Pollock. "Beit this day enacted.'''' " Be it so." — Webster. " Perish my 
name and perish my memory, provided Switzerland may be free." — Tell. 

It is sometimes difficult, to determine whether, in such expressions as the foregoing, 
the verb should be parsed as imperative, or as potential having may understood. This 
must be decided according as a wish, or the meaning of the definition of the imperative, 
predominates in the sentence. To avoid, however, the difficulty of making subtle 
distinctions, such expressions may be parsed as imperatives expressing a mingled wish 
and command. The speaker commands in what he proposes to bear a part himself; or he 
commands, so far as he can, what is absent, inanimate, unknown to nim, or out of his 
control. Besides, the analogy of other languages confirms this view. 

In the first example above, " Have done " (perf. imperative) = Make an end of what 
you are doing ; " Do " (pres. imperative) would signify, Begin to do what you are not doing 
as yet. The one refers to the end as the other refers to the beginning. 

? The imperative mood is sometimes used when there is but a slight or 
no reference to a person addressed, to express more modestly the inten- 
tion or will of the speaker. 

Ex. — " Let us make light." " Allow me to congratulate you." 

The verbs; the mood, and why : — 

Advance, ye rising generations. I said, " Go," and he went. Bring your book. 
Were it really so, then I would say, Quit your business. Move the chairs, and set the 
table. Let me alone. 0, pray, pray, pray ! Charge, Chester, charge ! Seize him, seize 
him ! Condescend to all the weaknesses of your fellow-creatures ; cover their frailties ; 
love their excellences ; encourage their virtues ; relieve their wants ; rejoice in their pros- 
perity ; compassionate their distress ; receive their friendship ; overlook their unkindness ; 
forgive their malice ; and be a servant of servants. Do you mind your own business, and 
let mine alone. Say they who can advise. Live long and be happy. Be it enacted. 
All the charms of Sycorax, — toads, beetles, bats, light on you ! Awake, iEolian lyre, 
awake. Hallowed be thy name. Weave the warp and weave the woof. Heaven defend me 
from that Welsh fairy. Retire we to our chamber ; a little water clears us of this deed . 



132 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ; 
Confusion on thy banners wait ! — Gray. 
Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest secure of future harms. — Pope. 

Go one, and call the Jew into the court. — Shale. : Merchant of Venice. 
Cleopatra. This mortal house I'll ruin, 

Do Caesar what he can. — Shak. 
She is my goods, my chattels ; she's my house, 
My household stuff, my field, my barn, 
My horse, my ox, my cart, my any thing, 

And here she stands, touch her whoever dares. — Shah. : Taming the Shrew. 
Bear witness, Greece, thy living page 
Attest it many a deathless age. — Byron. 

? A verb in the infinitive mood expresses the act or state 
without affirming it. This mood comprises the infinitive and 
the participle. 

Ex. — " To slay ; to have slain ; to be slain ; to have been slain." " Slaying ; having 
slain ; being slain ; having been slain." " Having spoken, he arose." " He arose speak- 
ing.'" "He arose to speak." " He arose when about to speak." " The robber, having 
escaped detection, fied." 

The affirmation is always in some other verb preceding or following the infinitive in 
the same clause or sentence. 

? 287. A verb in the infinitive mood represents the act or state as 
something preceding, accompanying, or following ; or as the subject object, 
cause, condition, manner, consequence, purpose, or respect wherein. It is 
frequently used in close connection with some other verb; and then, 
sometimes the one, and sometimes the other, denotes what is uppermost 
in the speaker's mind. Sometimes it represents the act or state 
abstractly ; that is, without referring it to any definite subject. 

Ex. — " I was surprised to hear him speak so well." " You must be sure to let us hear 
from you." " He felt his envy rising at the view." " He is a villain ! to say such things 
of me." " Content will cheer thee, trudging to thine home." " Bright' lamps hung 
flickering from, the ceiling." "Homeward he goes, falling and faltering, and but half 
awakened, asking to sleep again." " Believing that he had most reason to be offended, he 
could not be persuaded to seek a reconciliation." " These calmly grieving, will their fears 
suppress." Nerves cease to tremble, heads forbear to ache. Half friends they parted, — 
better so to close, Than longer wait to part entirely foes. We heard the jingling bells, 
the signal to depart. To teach them so as to please their parents, is not easily done. 

? This mood is so called, because its forms of the verb can not be 
affirmed alone of the subject, nor do they undergo any change to suit 
the person or number of the subject. 
? The mood may frequently be known by the little word to or the end- 
ing ing or ed. To is sometimes understood. 

The infinitives and the participles, and why they are in the infinitive mood : — 

She is learning to sing, to play, to dress, and to spend. And those who came to scoff, 
remained to pray. He is to go. He is about to go. We advised him to persevere. 
Having received an invitation, he was expected to come. He is willing to know, but 
unwilling to study. The gallant steed fell to rise no more. He proceeded too cautiously 
to be easily answered. There is nothing I approve more than to see oppressors humbled. 
To speak the truth, is easier than to lie. Borrowing is not paying. He waked like one 
wishing to sleep again, and sleep forever. He has means to pay. He has the doctor to 
pay. What have you to fear? On a small island formed of shelly sand. A boat comes 
gliding from an anchored ship. We'll bid the hours in calm enjoyment glide. 

The verbs ; the mood, and why : — 

Coal is found in many parts of this State. I would I could assist you. If the Gov- 
ernor be impeached, the Lieutenant-governor shall act as a member. To subdue these 
Indians, a greater force must be sent. I had to sell it. I had rather sell it. {Better : 



VERBS. — MOODS. — TENSES. 133 

I would rather sell it.) Did I not assure myself our friendship were grown beyond 
suspicion of compliment, I should think I should have need to make excuses ; but I know 
you will credit me, when I tell you it has been neither negligence nor forge tfulness. — 
Locke. 

Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition ! 

By that sin fell the angels : how can man, then, 

The image of his Maker, hope to win by it ? 

Love thyself last ; cherish those hearts that hate thee, — 

Corruption wins not more than honesty ; 

Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace 

To silence envious tongues. Be just, and fear not. 

Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, 

Thy God's, and truth's : then, if thou fall'st, Cromwell, 

Thou fall'st a blessed martyr ! 

? 288. Almost the same sense may sometimes be expressed by a differ- 
ent mood. 

Ex. — " I came that I might assist you — to assist you." "May you always love virtue ; " 
"Do always love virtue." " You will not hurt him ? " "Do not hart him." " It would 
he useless;" " It were useless." "Deny us pleasure, and you unfit us for business ; " "If 
you deny us" &c. 

23. TENSES. 

? Tense is the meaning of the verb in respect to time. 
Or: It is that property which makes the verb appear in 
different forms, to express the act or state in different times. 

Ex. — " I write — wrote — have written — had written — shall write — may write — might 
have written." 

The tenses enable us to express, to some extent, with the verb itself, the time, com- 
pleteness, or incompleteness, of the act or state. 

Time may naturally be divided into three periods ; the present, the past, and the 
future. Present time, strictly speaking, can denote but a moment of duration ; yet longer 
periods, extending both into the nast and into the future, are often considered present ; 
as when we say, this hour, this day, this week, this year, this century, the present age, in our 
lifetime. Past time begins from the present, and extends back as far as our thoughts can 
wander ; future time begins from the same point, and goes forward to a similar extent. 

In each of these periods, an act may be considered as merely occurring or progress- 
ing, or else as completed or ended. Thus, " I write — am writing, have written — have 
been writing ; I wrote — was writing, had written — had been writing ; I shall write — shall 
be writing, shall have written — shall have been writing." 

Since nearly all that we know of Nature and her operations, and nearly all that we know 
of man's actions and achievements, refer or belong to the past, this important period has 
three tenses. The present, comprehending but a short space, has only one tense ; and the 
future, being vague and uncertain, has but two. Hence — 

? There are six tenses; the present, the perfect, the imperfect, 
the pluperfect, the future, and the futureperfect. 

? 289. The present tense expresses the act or state in present 
time. 

Ex. — "I write." " He is esteemed." "The man is hilled." "Mary can read." 
" Write." " The whole city is in flames." " The grass is growing rapidly in our meadow." 

? 290. It must be used to express what is now habitual or customary ; 
or what is always true, or must always be as it is from the very nature 
of things. 

Ex.—" He chews tobacco." " Crops are gathered when ripe." " The Americans visit 
much." " Virtue produces happiness." " Fishes live in water." " Drunkards seldom 
reform." " Truth can not be destroyed." " There are no such things as ghosts." "Heat 
expands bodies, and cold contracts them." 

? 291. It may be used to express past transactions more vividly, and 



134 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

future acts or events with the greatest certainty, by representing them 
as present. 

Ex. — " "Washington crosses the Delaware, advances to Princeton, and attacks the Brit- 
ish." " The combat deepen*. On, ye brave ! " "I am going after a while." " A little 
water clears us of this deed." "I go to no such feast." "The Guard never surrenders: 
it dies!'''' — Waterloo: Napoleon 's Body -guard. 

Note. — " A little water clears us of this deed." As a matter of course : who doesn't 
know that water always washes away blood ? Lady Macbeth thus tries to make as light 
of the murder as possible. "I go to no such feast." " The Guard never surrenders : it 
dies!" As much as to say, These acts are not contingent., but depend on principle, and 
so can be decided instantly : they are absolutely certain now, or as certain as they will 
ever be. 

? 292. The present tense may be used to express actions or qualities 
ascribed to authors though dead, when the reference is to their works 
still existing. 

Ex. — " The Evangelists give us an account of the Savior." " Milton is sublime, but 
Shakspeare is universal." " Virgil imitates Homer." " Seneca reasons and moralizes well." 

The verbs, and why ; the tense, and why : — 

A steamboat is coming. Loud roars the blast. I have good news for you. My 
money is all spent. Here a little stream pours down a precipice 300 feet high. The 
eastern part of the state is hilly. Sometimes he works, and sometimes he plays. 
Many persons spend too much time in gossiping. Schemes of happiness are often illu- 
sive. Blossoms come before fruit. He who is a stranger to industry, may possess, but 
he can not enjoy. Caasar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy. Milton 
describes Paradise aud Pandemonium, with matchless power. What ocean washes the 
shores of California ? Art thou he ? Can you pay your taxes ? The raccoon must be in 
this tree. One Caesar lives — a thousand are forgot. Too low they build who build be- 
neath the stars. If the tree is sound, cut it down. May the summer's last roses lie hid 
in the wine. Pour out the rich juices still bright with the sun. 

Correct the following sentences : — 

Socrates defined what justice was. He said that eloquence consisted not in language 
merely. One of his sayings was, that extremes were always followed by extremes. 



? 293. The imperfect tense refers the act or state simply to 
past time. 

Or: It denotes what is fully and indefinitely past. 

Ex. — " Thou wast before the foundations of the deep were laid." " God created the 
world in six days." " Christ was crucified" "Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek liko 
fire." " He was fishing when I saw him." " He could go, but he would not." "The 
tree feU this morning." 

? 294. This tense represents something as merely past, — as indefinitely 
and completely past; in other words, it may express whatever is entirely 
past, anywhere along the whole period of past time, from a few minutes 
ago to the beginning of duration. When a particular point or space of 
past time is referred to, this must be indicated by some other word or 
words. 

Ex. — He was killed (somewhere in past time — this morning — last night — last week — 
last year — three thousand years ago — in the battle — belbre relief could be brought to 
him — after we arrived on the spot — &c). 

The verbs, and why ; the tense, and why : — 

The bird was singing. Loud roared the blast. Csesar left Gaul, crossed the Rubicon, 
and entered Italy. In even scale the battle hung. Then rushed the steed to battle 
driven. Webster was born, reared, and educated, among the granite hills of New Hamp- 
shire. He was a great lover of nature. While we were talking together, down fell the 
bridge. He called for his horse, but no one could find him. The doctor said he would 
not go if the patient was already dying. " Wolseley ordered his infantry to the attack. 
They struggled through the bog, made their way to firm ground, and rushed on the 
guns. There was then a short and desperate fight. The Irish cannoneers stood gal- 
lantly to their pieces, till they were cut down to a man." — Macaulay. 



VERBS. — TENSES. 135 

? 295. The pluperfect tense represents something as finished 
or ended by a certain past time. 

Ex. — " Had written ; had been writing ; had been written." " He had been gover- 
nor." " Here a small cabin had been erected.' 1 ' 1 " He had now gained the object of his 

wishes." 

? 296. This tense is not always to be used when a past state or act 
takes place before another or before a certain past time, but merely 
when it is to be represented as finished or ended by a certain past time 
expressed or implied. 

Ex. — " Little John was up before day light ; " " The horse jumped into the field, and 

soon afterwards began to eat the corn," — are proper, and not the same as had been 

up ; had jumped 

The verbs, and why ; the tense, and ivhy : — 

The birds had been singing — had sung. The storm had passed away. The cars had 
just arrived. He had been a captain in the army. He was telling how a little band of 
Spartans had withstood a whole army. Do you know what he was writing, and what he 
had been writing ? The shouts of revelry had died away : the roar of the lion had 
ceased ; the last loiterer had retired from the banquet ; and the lights in the palace of 
the victor were extinguished. The moon silvered the dewdrops on the corselet of the 
Roman sentinel, and tipped the dark waters of the Vulturnus with a wavy, tremulous 
light. T saw the breast that had nourished me, trampled by the war-horse. 

? 297. The perfect tense represents something as past, but 
still connected with present time. 

Ex. — " I have written — have been writing." " The letter has been written." " It has 
rained.'''' " I have lost my knife." " The managers may have been appointed." "He has 
owned this farm for many years." 

This tense represents something as just ended, or as having taken place in a period 
of time not considered entirely past. It usually implies that the time in which the act 
took place or first took place, and the present time, with perhaps some of the future, are 
viewed as one unbroken period. This tense is peculiarly adapted to express many of 
those relations which things present have to things past. 

? 298 It is sometimes used in reference to the time of the act or state ; 
and sometimes in reference to the doer, the act, or the result. A sen- 
tence may have a nominative, a verb, and an objective; hence, the perfect 
tense is sometimes used — to suggest that the doer or subject yet exists, or 
that the act may be repeated. 

Ex. — "Gen. Scott has gained several victories." "They have been guilty of such 
faults." " I have often read Virgil." 

? 299. That the act or state (begun in the past), and of course the 
subject with it, yet exist. 

Ex. — " This house has stood twelve years." "I have lived happily." "The boats 
have always landed here." " Priests have always claimed great powers." "Thus has it 
ever been " [and will continue to be]. — Rogers. " They have been married twenty years " 
[, and remain yet married]. 

? 300. That the result yet exists, though the actor and act are no more. 

Ex. — " Cicero has written orations." " Bonaparte has left his influence on the world." 
" This bridge has been built of granite." 

Note. — " He lias been a senator ; " i. e., he is not a senator now. " Many who have 
been saluted with the huzzas of a crowd one day, have received its execrations the next ; 
and many, who, by the popularity of their own times, have been held up as spotless 
patriots, have, nevertheless, appeared on the historian's page, when truth has triumphed 
over delusion, the assassins of liberty." — Lord Mansjield. " And where the Atlantic 
rolls, wide continents have bloomed." — Lord Byron. Are these two sentences correct ? 
and if so, are the verbs used in accordance with the general meaning of the perfect tense ? 
Both, I think ; and moreover, they are even elegant. Instead of an hour, a day, a week, 
a month, a year, or a lifetime being considered as one unbroken period, in which the 



136 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

speaker goes from the present point of time back to the act in past time, all time, or all 
conceivable duration, is considered by him as such an unbroken period. The first 
example is as much as to say, Things always were so, have ever been so, and will con- 
tinue to be so, so long as human nature remains what it is. The second, — In the great 
chain of all events, beginning with past duration and running through the present 
into the future, this remarkable one actually took place ; and who shall say what 
strange events may yet happen. Or the sentences may imply that these things have 
been handed clown historically or traditionally to even the present time. 

The verbs; the tense, and why : — 

The bird has been singing — has sung — may have sung. The river has risen. I have 
not done much to-day. He has just sold his horse. Some accident must have happened. 
Much of the land has been put into cultivation. Here have I been waiting for you 
ever so long. Have you learned your lesson ? I have been at school one session. 
Statesmen have made great improvements in the science of government. I have lived 
in the sunny South. The empire of the world has been given to man. He has plundered 
our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed our people. 



? SOL The future tense refers the act or state simply to 
future time. 

Ex. — "I shall be &t home this evening.'" "The mountain snows tvill soon melt/' 1 
" Will this republic endure forever ? " 

? This tense is to future time, what the imperfect tense is to past time. 

Ths verbs; the tense, and why : — 

I shall go home next summer. The dead shall be judged. Our projects will be con- 
founded, and we ourselves shall become a reproach. Shall we try argument ? We shall 
not fight our battles alone. We shall not fail ! the cause will raise up armies ; — the 
cause will create navies. The people will carry us, and will carry themselves, gloriously 
through this struggle. Read this Declaration at the head of the army ; — every sword will 
be drawn from its scabbard, and the solemn vow uttered to maintain it, or to perish on 
the bed of honor. 



? 302. The future-perfect tense represents something as 
finished or ended by a certain future time. 

Ex. — " I shall have been at school six months then." " If they do this, they will have 
done much." 

? This tense is to future time, what the pluperfect tense is to past time. 

The verbs ; the tense, and why : — 

A grain of musk will scent a room for 20 years, and will have lost but a small part of 
its weight. The house, when finished, will have cost a fortune. Thy worldly hopes, 
said the hermit, shall have faded, thy castles of ambition crumbled, and thy fiery pas- 
sions subdued, ere thou has reached the declivity of life. 

? 303. The present tense, the imperfect, and the future, sometimes 
represent the act or state, not as a particular one, or as happening but 
once, but as repeated or customary at the time alluded to. 

Ex. — " He gambles and drinks." " The good times, when the farmer entertained the 
traveler without pay, when he invitcdhlm to tarry and join in the chase, when Christmas 
and Fourth of July were seasons of general festivity, have passed away." — Benton. 
" Up yonder hill the village murmur rose" " The steer and lion at one crib shall meet." 

? 304. The present tense and'the perfect, when associated with words 
that carry the act or state forward in time, not unfrequently supplant 
the future tenses. In the indicative mood, when the act or state is 
regarded ascertain or highly probable, or as matter of fact. And of 
course in the subjunctive mood, in accordance with its usual import. 

Ex. — When the ice breaks up, boats will run again. When I have gazed on the 
" tremendous torrent," I will write to you. " When he has finished the work, I will pay 
him ; but not till then." " If he gets sick, wait on him." " Then if thou faW*t, thou falfst 
a blessed martyr." — " If the money be found there." " If a man plant a vineyard." 



VERBS. — TENSES. 137 

? 305. The imperfect tense and the future are sometimes employed to 
suggest that such is not the case now, or at the time referred to. Hence, 
the present must be used to express general truths. 

Ex. — He has teen wealthy. (is not now)— had been wealthy (was not then). "She 
was handsome." "Troy was." "I have been young." "But you will come to that 

yet." 

? The present tense, the imperfect, and the future, are sometimes termed 
the absolute tenses', and the perfect, the pluperfect, and the future-perfect, 
the relative tenses. The present, when used to express past events, is some- 
times called the historical present, because it is chiefly used in historical 
narrations. 

The explanations already given, apply chiefly to the indicative mood, which has all 
the tenses. Let us now notice some of the peculiarities of the tenses in the other 
moods. 



? 306. When a verb is in the potential mood or in the subjunctive, tense appears to be 
sometimes lost in mood, especially when the verb implies rather a state of mind than a 
matter of fact, — a permanent relation of things, a supposition, or an inference, rather 
than an actual occurrence ; for then the verb does not need tense. The position advanced, 
does not refer to any particular time ; or the time may be sufficiently shown by some 
other clause, or by the general tenor of the sentence. In other words, such is the char- 
acter of these moods in regard to tense, that, in some of their forms, they may almost 
be considered to have none ; the so-called tenses being certain forms of the verb, 
designed to express mood rather than tense, or to correspond to some other clause in the 
sentence. 

? The potential mood has but four tenses; the present, the perfect, the 
imperfect, and the pluperfect, and yet it may be so used as to refer to 
any time. 

? 307. It is most like the indicative mood in time, when associated with this mood ; 
less so, when alone, or when used with the subjunctive. 

A verb in the potential mood may be considered either in reference to the time of 
the possibility, liberty, power, &c. ; or in reference to the time of the act or state. — See 
Note under Potential Mood. 

? 308. Present potential (sign: may, can, or must) — present, sometimes 
future, in regard to the mood ; in regard to the act or state itself, 
generally subsequent to the time of speaking. 

Ex., — "You may \ go to school." " This house must \ be removed.'''' " I can \ pay you 
next Christmas." 

? 309. Perfect potential (sign: may have, can have, or must have) — pres- 
ent in regard to the mood, past in regard to the act or state. 

Ex. — "The child may \ have fallen into the well." " Can he | have accomplished so 
much." " It must | have been so." 

? 310. Imperfect potential (sign : might, could, would, or should) — past, 
present, or future, in regard to the mood; the act or state as not taking 
place, or as subsequent to the time of the auxiliary. 

Ex. — "When we had ascended the hill, we could \ see the whole city before us." 
" He would | act differently now, if he could." " If you should | buy this farm, you 
would | sell it again." 

. ? 311. Pluperfect potential (sign: might have, could have, would have, or 
should have ) — past, sometimes present, in regard to the mood ; the act or 
state previous to the time of the auxiliary, and as not taking place. 

Ex. — " While the enemy were on their march, he could j have attacked them." " You 
should | have written to me." " Could you | have done better ? " 

? 812. The pluperfect indicative represents something as ended by a 



138 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

certain past time ; the pluperfect potential merely refers to a certain 
past time. 

Ex. — "I had written my composition last evening.' 1 ' "I could have written my com- 
position last evening." 

The pluperfect and the imperfect tense of the subjunctive mood correspond to the 
same tenses of the potential. The tenses of the former mood are termed present, imper- 
fect, stud pluperfect, not from the time referred to, hut from their form, and correspon- 
dence to the same tenses of the potential. 



? Tense, in many instances, affects the verb as modified by mood, and 
not in reference to the time of the act or state. 

Ex. — "He writes." (Present occurrence.) "He can write." (Present ability.) 
""Write." (Present command.) 

Frequently, in mere suppositions, the imperfect tense implies present time, and the 
pluperfect tense, simply past time. — See Potential and Subjunctive Moods ; also Present 
Tense.) 

Ex. — "Were I in your condition." "Had I been in your condition." "You could 
certainly do better." 

Sometimes the prominent idea in the absolute tenses is, the existence of a certain act 
or state ; in the relative tenses, the completion of the act or state. 

If, in the absolute tenses, a passive verb implies completion, it is equivalent in time 
to the corresponding relative tenses of the active voice. 

Ex. — " My rose-bush is destroyed; " " Some one lias destroyed my rose-bush." "When 
my crop is gathered; " "When I have gathered my crop." "The fires were extinguished, 
and all was still;" " They had extinguished the tires, and all was still." " My coat will 
then be finished;" "The tailor will then have finished my coat." "The fleet must be 
captured," is ambiguous: it may mean, "It is now necessary to believe it has been 
captured," or, " It is necessary to capture it." So, " The lieet may be captured.' 1 ' 



The verbs; the mood, and why ; the tense, and why : — 

The rosemary nods on the grave. The lily lolls on the wave. Her high-born kins- 
men came from above, and took her to the skies. True valor protects the feeble, and 
humbles the oppressor. Men that are rich and avaricious, drown themselves in a 
spring that might have watered all around them. If Drydeu sometimes surpasses expec- 
tation, Pope never falls below it. Had the Turkish empire then risen in opposition, it 
could not at that moment have deterred them. The trees are bending with tropic 
fruits, and the ground is golden with oranges. The coffee-trees are in full bloom, and 
bees and humming-birds are everywhere. I may write. I might write. I might have 
written. Write. I write. I can write. I could write. I could have written. Could 
I have written, I would have sent you a letter. There 1 had fixed my eyes till now, had 
not a voice thus warned me. Such was our condition then, that if we went into a war 
with France, England would be against us. Tell them, finally, that you have restored 
the glorious doctrine of passive oledience and non-resistance; and, when you have told 
them this, if the people do not sweep you from your seats, I have yet to learn the char- 
acter of American freemen. The debate has been long. As soon as he hears of this, he 
will certainly come. The decree has gone forth. During all this time, the canvass was 
silently carried on against me as if I were dead. I had heard that Ihe spirit of discon- 
tent was very prevalent here ; but with pleasure I find that I have been grossly misin- 
formed. Young ladies, i.ut not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 

Change to the other tenses ; then to the other moods : — 

Mary sings. Our country is free. My roses bloom. The steamboat starts. It is. 

? 313. Almost the same sense may sometimes be expressed by using a 
different set of tenses. 

Ex. — " When you but saw his chariot appear, 

Have you not made a universal shout? " — ShaJc. 
When you had seen his chariot appear, 
Did you not make a universal shout ? 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 139 

24. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

? An auxiliary verb helps another verb to express its mean- 
ing in a certain manner or time. 

? The auxiliary verbs are do, did ; have, had; will, would ; shall, should ; 
can^ could; may, might; must, an! be with all its variations. 

? Every verb not used as an auxiliary, is termed a principal verb. 

? Be, do, have, will, would, and sometimes can, may be used as principal 
verbs. When so employed, their meaning is not combined with that of 
an other verb expressed or understood. 

? 314. Do, as a principal verb, usually signifies to perform, or to act in 
some manner; have, to own, or possess; will, to bequeath or determine; and 
would, to wish. 

Ex. — " It is easy to be idle." -'He does well whatever he undertakes." "He has 
done the work." " He is doing well." " The horse that I have, has a star in his fore- 
head." " He willed his property to his sister." "But, if Heaven wills that it shall be 
otherwise, I am content." " I would I could please you." " In evil, the hest condition 
is, not to will; the second, not to can.''' — Bacon. 

The verbs of our language admit hut few variations. Those who formed it, chose to 
express the properties essential to all verbs, rather by prefixing certain little verbs, than 
by modifying the form of the verb itself. Hence it is, that we have so many auxiliary 
verbs. 

Sometimes the auxiliary verb may be either inserted or omitted, without materially 
varying the sense ; sometimes it is absolutely necessary ; and sometimes it gives a pecu- 
liar elegance or force to the expression. 

As the auxiliary verbs are much used, and some of them frequently misapplied, it 
may be well to give a brief explanation of each. 

? 315. Be may be used, in all its forms, as an auxiliary, to express the 
verb in the passive voice or form; also, to express the act or state as 
unfinished or progressive. 

Ex. — " To be annoyed by muscpiitoes." " Being fatally bitten by a snake, he ivas carried 
home." " My hands were blistered, and the axe was not half ground.' 1 ' "I am writing." 
"I shall be writing." " The fortress was building.'" 

It shows how and when the subject exists in the state denoted by the rest of the verb. 
? 316. Bo serves to express the verb in the present tense; and did in 
the imperfect, with emphasis or greater earnestness. Also, negatively. 

Ex. — " I do really believe it." " 0, how I do love thee ! " " I did say so, and I am 
ready to prove what I said." " Never before did I laugh so much." " I do not ivant his 
company." " We did not inquire any further into the matter." 

? 317. Bo. in the imperative, seems to express the injunction less 
harshly, or with more earnest entreaty. 

Ex. — " Do you treat him well, nevertheless." " Do not be discouraged by obstacles." 
" Do you be careful how you speak." 

The usual meaning of do is, to assert of the subject action in general, while the rest 
of the verb limits the expression to some definite action. 

Do is therefore most frequently associated with active verbs, and may sometimes be 
used as a sort of pro-verb to represent an active verb already mentioned. 

Ex. — " They herd cattle and raise corn just as we used to do ;" i. e., — to herd cattle 
and raise corn. Mr. CI. Brown objects to this use of do; yet it is sometimes so conven- 
ient, in enabling us to avoid the repetition of long, tedious phrases, that I believe it 
will ever be retained. 

This use of do naturally grows out of another; as, "What have you done? " which 
may be said in reference to any act of yours, whatever it be ; so that do is naturally 
adapted to be a representative of other verbs. 

? Have, in its primitive meaning, asserts of the subject possession. 



140 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

As an auxiliary, it can be combined with the perfect participle only ; for this form of 
the verb expresses the act or state as completed, and when the doer has completed the 
act or state, it is properly his. He has then the benefit of it, or is responsible for it. 

Ex. — " The savage might say, "I have gathered this fruit; — it is mine." The 
German language would adopt this arrangement : " I have the fruit gathered." 
In the passive voice, the primitive meaning of have is not so obvious. 
? 318. Have, in all its forms, serves to express the act or state as fin- 
ished or ended. It is therefore found in every perfect tense, or other 
perfect. (Except the imperfect, better called the aorist.) 

Ex. — "John has plowed the field." " The furniture has been removed." " "When my 
friend shall have taken a more honorable position," &c. " He may have bought it." " I 
should have written." " Having dined." " Having been tried." " To have acted wisely." 

? 319. Can or could expresses ability or possibility, — physical, mental, 
or moral. 

Ex. — "I can help myself." " Can you write a composition ?" "I can not give you 
permission to do so." " It can not snow here in July." " What has been done*, can be 
done." "It can not be." " It could not be supposed that," &c. "Such a man could not 
live in our neighborhood." 

? 320. Mast expresses necessity, — physical, mental, or moral. 

Ex. — " Die I must." " But for a little tube of mercury, the whole crew must have 
sunk." " And flowers must perish at the north-wind's breath." " We must be born again." 
"He must have been a man of extraordinary talents." " There must have been a heavy 
rain in these parts." (It is necessary to believe there was.) " Your promise must be 
kept." " My vote must not be registered in favor of such a bill." (It ought not to be, and 
shall not be.) 
? 321. May or might expresses — 

1. Permission. " You may all go out to play." 

2. Possibility or probability. "It may rain this evening." " We may 
not live to see it." "It might be answered thus." 

3. Ability. " I might have bought this valuable lot then." 

4. Wishing. " May you prosper J : " May you be happy." " May 
every curse light on him." " 0, that he might return! 11 

Perhaps it would be better to say, that may or might always implies a contingency 
more or less uncertain; — something possible or uncertain so far, and so far on 1}-, as it 
depends on the permission or power of an other or of the speaker, or so far as it depends 
on the nature or condition of things, or on the course of events. 

Can signified originally to know ; and may, to be able: but as knowing how is often the 
same as being able, and as doing generally depends on ability, they were naturally 
extended in their application. 

Ex. — "I know how to read "=I can read. " I may buy this farm "=I can and 
perhaps will buy it ; or, I will perhaps buy it, if I can. 

? 322. The auxiliary sometimes occurs alone, when the rest of the verb 
can be easily inferred from what has been said. 

Ex. — " If man will not do justice, God will " [do justice]. 
? 223. Most questions must be asked by means of some auxiliary. 

When a question is thus asked, the auxiliary, or the first auxiliary, must be placed 
before the nominative. 

Ex. — " Do you know Lydia Flare ? " " Could he be so much deceived 9 " 



Mention the verb ; then the auxiliary, and state why it is used, or what it expresses : — 
Is the letter written ? Is he the man ? Was the horse fed ? Have you learned your 
lesson ? I do believe that we are lost. Do you whistle when you study ? He did say it. 
Did you see Dick ? Do not trouble him. While her mother did fret, and her father did 
fume. I have a knife just like that which you have described. He is sick. He is 
wounded. He has been sick. He has been wounded. A verb may have more than one 
auxiliary. He had been governor. He had been elected. He might have been elected. 
He could have been elected. What is he doing? Queen Elizabeth said, — " God may 
forgive you, but I never can." Was he at home ? Was he pursued ? Was he pursuing ? 
So many hours must I tend my flocks. Ho must have perished, had be not been rescued 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 141 

by his brother. This bottom must have been overflowed. You may go as soon as you 
please. May God preserve the Union, and advance the right. You might have been 
better qualified, had you been more studious. These lessons could have been learned 
long ago, so that you might now be returning home. I would it were otherwise. Our 
frontiers must be protected. He must be sleeping. He did not sleep much last night. 
Do we mean to submit ? 

WILL, WOULD," SHALL, SHOULD. 

? 324. Will or would sets forth the act or state as depending on the will 
or the nature of the subject of the verb. Frequently, it denotes the act 
or state as simply future or subsequent. 

Ex. — " If he will go to California in spite of remonstrance, I ivill furnish him an 
outfit ; but I fear he will find but little gold there, and will never bring back as much as 
he took with him." " This tree will make good shingles." " This would answer our 
purpose." " He would not go without his father's word." "He knew that this would 
have been wrong." " The cause will raise up armies." 

? 325. What proceeds from the inclination or the disposition of the 
doer, or from the nature of the object, is apt to occur frequently. 
Hence, these words sometimes imply repetition of the act. 

Ex. — " There will she sit and weep for hours." "There would she sit and weep for 
hours." " Sometimes a thousand twangling instruments will hum about mine ear." — Shah. 
" But still the house affairs would draw her thence." — Shale. 

? 326. Shall or should sets forth the act or state, not as depending on 
the doer's will, but on that of another: or as proceeding from authority, 
influence, or circumstances perhaps out of his control. . Hence, shall 
often implies compulsion ; and should, duty or obligation. Frequently, 
they denote something as simply future or subsequent, or an assertion 
modestly set forth as being somewhat a condition or inference. 

Ex. — " You shall stay at home to-day." "Thou shall love thy neighbor as thyself." 
" I shall be drowned, if you do not help me." " I was determined that he should go." 
" He vowed that I should repent of it." " Children should be obedient." " I trust I shall 
become independent of others." " Our children shall celebrate this day, with bonfires and 

illuminations." (It will come to pass that ) " Yes, my son ; you shall often find 

the richest men the meanest." (In your course through life, this will necessarily intrude 
itself upon your notice. — Somewhat obsolescent, but good.) "Go and see him, and you 
shcdl never want to see him again." " Should you find any papaws, hollo to us." "I 
should be .obliged to him, if he would gratify me." "I should be pleased to have his 
company " [, if he would condescend to wait upon me]. " Do you think my book will sell ? 
—I should think so " [Judging from its good qualities, and the public wants]. 

? 327. Shall appears to be sometimes preferred to will, to denote futu- 
rity with greater emphasis. — See the definition above. 

Ex. — " Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day 

When the Lowlands shall meet thee in battle array ! " — Campbell. 
" It [the Judgment Day] shall come with trump and thunder." — Croly. 



Since will, would, shall, and should, are so frequently misapplied, I shall endeavor to 
lay open their nature more fully. 

When we look into the world, we can readily observe, that the acts or states ascribed 
to objects, proceed either from their own will or nature, or else are caused, by other agents or 
things. The former province is chiefly that for will and would ; the latter, for shall and 
should. 

The primitive signification of will and shall, which is still a part of their present 
signification, may be most clearly discovered from the kindred words, " will " and " soil," 
of the German. 

" Ich will," implies proceeding from or according to my will. 

" Ich soil," that so it is determined, right, or proper, whether in accordance wiihmy WILL 
or not. 

Will and would usually imply, that the act or state is within the desire, determination, 
powar, control, or customary action of the subject : they are active. Shall and should 



142 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



imply that it comes rather from without : they are passive. Will and would rather 
grow out of our opinions, or the established but uncontrolled order of things ; shall and 
should, out of our clear knowledge or full assurance, our power or authority. 

Will speaks as a predicter ; Shall as a herald, a conqueror, or a dictator. Will may 
denote a future certainty depending on ability ; shall, a future certainty assuming the 
ability. (" Philip ivitl hang Astor, if he takes the city." — Ancient History. '• I shall then 
trample on all those forms in which wealth and dignity intrench themselves." — Chat- 
ham.) Would frequently implies inclination or habit ; and should, obligation or duty. 
Otherwise, they denote contingency: would often carrying with it the idea of conse- 
ouence : and should, of supposition. If one will not express the intended meaning, use 
the other. 

Further illustrations, to le read over carefully until understood : — 

" Shall I go ? " Is it your wish or determination ? Are you willing ? " Will I go ? ' ' 
Ordinarily absurd, unless taken up and repeated as another's question. "Shall you 
go ? " Is it so determined ? Will it take place ? " Will he go ? " Is he willing to go ? 
Is he likely to go? "Shall we be married? " Are you willing? Will it take place? 
(Where the plural is not given, it agrees with the corresponding singular.) "Shall I 
be elected ? " "S hall I suffer ? " Will it come to pass ? Is that" to be my late ? " Will 
you be elected ? " Are you willing ? More frequently : Will it come to pass ? "Shall 
you be elected ? " Will it come to pass? (Seldom so used in the West.) " Shall he be 
elected?" "Shall he suffer?" Is that the determination? "Will he be elected ? " 
" Will he suTer ? " Will it come to pass ? 

" I slall go." " I sh(dl be elected." " I shall suffer." It will come to pass ; — I fore- 
tell it. " I will go." " I wiU be elected." " I will suffer." I am willing ; I promise 
it ; I am resolved upon it. It is in my power, and I am determined to have it so. " You 
shall go." " You sfiall be elected." " You shall suffer," It is so determined. It is to 
be so in spite of your will or of obstacles. " He shall go." " He shall be elected." 
" He shall suffer." The same in sense as the preceding. "Yon will go." "YonwfB 
love him." "You?/ - /// come to this at last." It will come to pass, and probably be 
voluntary. "You?'.-/// be elected." "You mil suffer." It will come lo pass. "He 
will go." "He will assist you." " He wiU be elected." " He .will suffer." Same as 
the second person. " It will cost blood and treasure." Simple futurity. " It shall cost 
neither." Determination to prevent. " Hickory will make a good lire." It is adapted 
thereto. " This will do." " This will never do." Adaptation ; adequacy. 

" 1 wiU be pleased with his company." I will try to make it agreeable to myself, 
even if it should tend to be otherwise. "I shall be pleased with his company." It 
will be agreeable, whatever it be. 

" If any one shall subscribe." " Whoever shall subscribe." Simply, if it take place. 
"If any one will subscribe." "Whoever will subscribe." "If you will subscribe." 
" When you will subscribe." " Unless we will give our consent." To be willing and 

do so. I would say, " I promise that I will you shall he shall" ; "I resolved 

that I would you should he should'' / where I have or mean to use authority : 

" I believe that I shall yon will he wiU" ; "I believe that I should you 

would he would;" ; " I assured him that you would he would" ; where the 

matter is not in my control. And so in the other persons : " You are determined that I 

shall you will he ?hall" ;" You were determined that I should that you 

would that he should'" . " He is determined that I shall that you shall 

that he will" ; " He was determined that I should that you should that he 

would " . " You think I shall suffer you shall he will" ; " You thought that 

I should suffer that you should that he wou Id" . "He thinks that I shall be 

killed that you will that he shall or will that our friend will" . "He 

hoped that I should be sent that you sh-uld that he himself should or would 

that our friend would " . " He requested that our friend should be sent." 

" Do you think I shall go?" That it will come to pass. " Do you think I should 
go ? " That I ought to go ; or that my going would take place, if certain things should 
happen, whether I might be willing or not. " Did you think that I should go ? " That 
it would come to pass ; or, that it was my duty to go. " Do you think or did you think 
that I should have gone ? " That it would have happened ; or, that it was my duty to go. 
" Do you think I will? — I would?" " Did you think I would ? " refer to my will — my 
motives. " I am surprised that he will go." At his going under such circumstances. 
" I am surprised that he would go." From v. hat I know of his general character. " I 
am surprised that he thai! go." That it is so determined. " I am surprised that he 
should go." I am surprised at the mere occurrence of the act, without reference to any 
mothe> or necessity. " John was afraid that he would not succeed ; " "John was afraid 
that he should not succeed." The former implies a stronger reference to the adaptation 

of the means to the end ; the latter implies more of chance. " I, you, he, it, should " . 

It is a matter of duty, right, or propriety. " I, you, he, it, should .... if" . Some- 
thing to take place on condition ; or else, the same as the preceding. "Should I, you, 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 143 

he, it ... . then"— — ; " If I, you, he, it, should .... then " . If it were to take 

place .... then . "I, you, he, she, it, would'''' . Inclination, proneness, cus- 
tom, tendency ; or consequence, result. "If I would study." If I were willing. " If 
I should study." Were it to take place. " If I ivovld have written." I was unwilling, 
and did not. " Tf I should have written." Had I done so. " If I would betray him, he 
should forsake me," is very different from " If I should betray him, he would forsake me." 
So, "If he should leave you, you woidd suffer;" "If he would leave you, you should 
suffer." 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether might or coidd is preferable ; or whether 
might, could, or would, is preferable. Might may imply probability ; could never does. 
Should may denote the bare event or supposition ; the others always imply something 
else, or something more. " He was to remain until he could be sent for." Until well 
enough ; or, until adequate means be obtained. " He was to remain until he might be 
sent for." Until possible or proper to do so ; or, perhaps a little more of contingency 
or uncertainty is implied than shotdd would suggest. " He was to remain until he would 
be sent for." Until willing to go. "He was to remain until he should be sent for." 
Until ordered; or else, until the sending take place, with no reference whatever to any 
condition on which it may depend. "He said, ' If the soldiers could fight' — were able ; 
' If they mghl fight' — were cdlowed to fight; 'If they woxdd fight' — were willing to 
fight; ' If they should fight' " — if the fighting were to happen. " If it would rain." " 0, 
that the holidays would come ! " Volition ; something wished ; something depending 
on the operations or arrangements of nature. " If it should rain." " If the Indians 
should overtake us." " If he should recover." More of chance or contingency than the 
former ; something perhaps not wished. " He said that difficulties might arise." In his 
opinion — not impossible. " He said that difficulties shotdd arise." They ought to arise ; 
it is deserving. " He said that difficulties would arise." From the very nature of things, 

or from what he positively knew. "It may it might ; that it may that it 

might " . Something not impossible ; something to be rendered possible. In a 

moral sense, can is perhaps stronger than may. " I may not do so." I have no permis- 
sion. " These words may be called verbal nouns." It is allowable to call them so. There 
seems to be no impropriety in calling them so. "I can not violate my oath to support 
the Constitution." My conscience forbids it. " If they might retreat ; " " If they could 
retreat." The former may depend on permission only ; the latter, on moral obligation. 
" The house may be built," is ambiguous ; it may mean, " The house is perhaps already 
built ; " or, " The building of it is practicable, or likely to take place hereafter." (To 
express the latter sense, either can may be used, or will with a suitable adverb.) " The 
house must be burned," may refer to past time or to future time. (To express the latter 
sense, " should," " ought to be," " It is necessary," &c, may be used.) To sum up the 
matter comprehensively, we may add, — 

That most of the auxiliary verbs usually set forth the act or state as not absolutely 
certain ; but as tinged with allusion to the condition, time, or circumstances, on which 
it depends, and as expressing accordingly a corresponding degree of certainty. Hence, 
they may sometimes be used to express softened assertions. "You will not hurt him, 
will you ? " for, " Do not hurt him." " It would seem so," [if you should examine the 
evidence ; or rather, the evidence tends to persuade one to this belief,] for, " It seems 
so." " It should seem so," [from the deference naturally due to evidence of such author- 
ity,] for, " It seems so." " I should think not," [from what you tell me,] for, " I think 
not." "I should hardly believe if," [were it told to me ; or, scarcely anything is suffi- 
cient to cause such belief,] for, " I hardly believe it." "What may your name be ? " 
(common, though hardly proper ; as a different sense is more obvious than the one in- 
tended ;) " What shall I call your name ? " for, " What is your name? " " He knew 
not how far the ramifications of the conspiracy might extend." — D. Webster. ( — did 
extend.) When the time is sufficiently indicated without the auxiliary, then the auxil- 
iary must denote something else, or be superfluous. " When he will come ; " " When I 
shall have arrived." If will and shall were here inserted merely to express the time, the 
expressions would have been better without them. " When he comes ; " " When I have 
arrived." 



Mention the verb ; then the auxiliary, and observe or tell what it implies : — 
I will come if I can. I would come if I could. 1 should be ruined, if my house 
were set on fire. I will go if you desire it. I shall go, if you desire it. It should not 
be, and it shall not. It can and must be done. I will go if you will. You too shall 
go, if he shall. He will go, if it should be necessary. He shall go, if it should be nec- 
essary. We hoped he would come. We resolved that he should come. It should be 
denounced by every one. It would be denounced by every one. Can I have committed 
an error in solving this problem ? You may have made a blunder. May God protect 
the orphan ! I am the friend of those who have none. I should think it an error. But 



144 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

what, if some one should hear us ? We shall have but few friends, if we care only for 
ourselves. It will cost you something to become learned. Whoever shall desert shall 
be hanp-ed. Whoever would desert, should be hanged. These things to hear would 
Desdemcma seriously incline. Not he who will rebel, but he who shall rebel, can be 
tried for treason. Not he who would rebel, but he who should rebel, could be tried for 
treason. I may do that I shall be sorry for. We may die iguominiously, and on the 
scaffold. — Webster. 

A sanctuary where all might worship, and none might oppress. — Id. Joseph Knapp 
could explain it. Frank Knapp might explain it. — Id. Should the promise even be 
such, still would not the statute operate upon it. — Id. He tries a bunch of keys, till he 
finds one that will open it. — Id. '• How could the contract be enforced, as we all know 
that it might be, in another jurisdiction, which should have no regard to the law of the 
pl ace# " — id. Penalties were denounced on such as should cause any impediment. — Irving. 
They were to sail with Columbus, in whatever direction he should be sent by royal com- 
mand. — Id. I proposed to sail west until I should arrive at the Indies. — Id. All that I 
may do, will be seen hereafter.— Id. There was no shore where the crew might take refuge. 
— Id. For, what I will, I will, and there an end, my son. — Shak. 

Bj r oppression's woes and pains, 

We will drain our dearest veins, 
But they shall be free ! — Burns. 



Any one of the following rules may be a sufficient guide to the proper use of will, 
woidd, shall, and should. 

? 328. 1. Will or would excludes the volition or control of the speak- 
er over the act, unless he is also the subject of the verb. 

Shall or should leaves out or debars the volition or control of the 
subject of the verb, over the act or state. 

Or:— 
? 2. Observe whether will or would implies willingness, volition, or 
desire ; and if this is not the meaning intended, use shall or should. 

Observe whether shall or should implies compulsion, necessity, or 
duty ; and if this is not the meaning intended, use will or would. 

Or:— 
? 329. 3. Shall, in the first person of independent propositions, and 
will, in the second and third persons, foretell. 

Will in the first person, implies volition or promise; and shall, in 
the second and third persons, implies compulsion or force. 

Shall, in dependent propositions, foretells; and will implies volition. 

Note. — The last is, in substance, the rule usually given in grammars. It is simple, 
but inadequate. But one of the latest and greatest of British lexicographers, has a 
better: " Our own voluntary actions are denoted by will, and our contingent ones by 
shall; the contingent actions of others are expressed by will, and their compulsatory ones 
by shall. 

? 330. Should is generally preferable to would, where shall would be 
preferable to will; and vice versa. 



Correct the following sentences : — 

Said the drowning Irishman, " I will be drowned, nobody shall help me." I fear I 
will trouble you too much with my business. Shall you take tea to-night, and will I 
bring it in ? If I would be hanged, my friends should be avenged. I will break, unless 
you shall lend me some money. Will I find you at home? You shall find me there. 
Queen Isabella promised a pension to the first seaman that would discover land. _ (As if 
he could discover it at pleasure !) 1 left orders that every one would remain at his seat. 
Pa, what will I get when I marry ? I would be surprised if this marriage will take 
place, (—took, or should take—) I will be obliged to sell out. We will suffer after death, 
1f we are sinners now. Shall he find any gold there ? (As if it were in your power to 
grant the finding of it.) Will we find any ? Would we hear a good lecture, if we 
would go ? Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life, and I will 
dwell tn the house of the Lord forever. I will be much obliged to you, if you shall give 



VERBS. — INFINITIVE MOOD. 145 

*\e ray hat. I would have been much obliged to him, if he had have sent it ; or, if he 
nad ov sent it. ( — had sent, it.) He should be obliged to you, if you would assist him. 
Death was threatened to the first man that would rebel. lie would feel obliged for all 
the favors you have bestowed. Will we be able to swim to shore ? I am afraid we will 
not. On the other hand, would they consult their safety and turn back, who should blame 
them? Be it as it will. ( — may.) When danger comes, we will see who are the brave. 
They believed that the approaching night should be dark and rainy. I would be glad to 
hear from her. We would succeed if justice were victory. The chieftain assured Colum- 
bus that every thing he possessed, would be at the command of Columbus. We would 
be ruined, would they disappoint us. Whoever will marry that woman, will find her a 
Tartar. You may be sure that we will be paid, when it will be in his power. Yuu might 
have known that we would have been paid, if the treasurer should have allowed it. 

Earth will by angel feet be trod, 
One great garden of her God. 

Dare, let, and need, sufficiently resemble the principal verbs, and 
sufficiently differ from the auxiliary verbs, to be classed with the former, 
and not with the latter. 

25. INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The Infinitive and the Participle.* 

The infinitive and the participle seem to be two forms of the verb in its raw, unman- 
ufactured state ; not already endued with properties, and modeled for a particular and 
fixed place in the language, but ready and suitable to be turned to various uses. They 
enable us to use verbs not merely as one of the -principal parts of clauses, but as subordi- 
nate elements. They agree with finite verbs in general signification ; in denoting action, 
being, or some mode of being; in voice, and partly in construction: but they can not 
alone be affirmed of a nominative ; therefore they do not have person and number ; 
neither have they tense in that sense in which finite verbs have it. They merely 
present the act or state as completed or not completed, as active or passive ; and with 
great flexibility in their power of being combined with other words. They are there- 
fore adapted to ascribe the act or state to substantives without affirming it, and without 
hindering them in their structure with other words ; to form with finite verbs particular 
modes of expression ; and to allow the verb to> range in its signification into several 
other parts of speech,— especially into the noun until it becomes one, and into the 
adjective to the same extent. — Noun : "To die; to sleep." Adjective: " The roaring 
storm came on." Adverb: "It is freezing cold." Prepositions : concerning, during . 
Conjunctions : provided, notwithstanding. For further illustrations, observe the various 
examples that will be given in this section. 

? The infinitive and the participle are not absolute in time, but rela- 
tive. They denote the act or state as past, present, or future, in regard 
to something else that may itself be in present, past, or future 
time. 

Ex. — "He came j wounded; " "He came | wounding ;" "He came J to wound." "He 
comes wounded; " " He comes wounding; " " He comes to ivound ; " " He will come woun- 
ded ; " " He will come wounding;" "He will come to wound;" "He is gone; he is 
going ; he is to go ; he is about to go." 

? When they are not thus referred to something else, they express 
merely the act or state, or the completed act or state, without regard to 
time. 

Ex. — " To die is awful." (At any time.) " To have paid one's debts, is a great com- 
fort." (At any time.) 

* Why classed together. — 1. They are both without affirmation. 2. They are similarly 
combined with the auxiliary verbs to form the compound tenses. 3. They may both be 
used as substantives. 4. They are sometimes interchangeable. 5. The infinitive sup- 
plies the place of a future participle. 6. Other languages sometimes use one where 
we would use the other. 7. Their similarity is sufficient, and their dissimilarity is not 
too great, for two species of the same genus. 8. The remarks of eminent grammarians 
ou the subject. 

13 



146 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? Every verb has two participles and two infinitives. 
? The first participle ends always in ing. 

Ex. — Sweep, sweeping; fly, flying; deny, denying ; drive, driving ; blot, blotting.'" 

? The second participle ends in ed, or else is formed as shown 
in the list of the irregular verbs. 

Ex.— Eeap, reaped; blot, blotted; deny, denied ; fly, flown; sweep, sivept; drive, 
driven ; read, read. 

? The first infinitive begins with to; the second, with to 
have. 

Ex.— Write : to write, to have written ; to be writing, to have been writing ; to be 
written, to have been written. 

To is omitted when the infinitive is combined with an auxiliary 
verb, and usually after the verbs bid, make, need, hear, — let, see, feel, and 
dare; and sometimes after a conjunction or in colloquial expressions. 

Ex. — "He would go "=He would to go. "Let us [to] sing/' "I heard him [to] 
say it." "They learn to read and [to] write." "Please shut the door." Better: 
** Please to shut the door." And perhaps, [It is] " Better [to] lose than [to] be dis- 
graced." \ 

To denotes a closer connection between the two verbs than the phrase in order to, 
which usually implies something intermediate as the means. " Politicians endeavor to 
maJce themselves agreeable in order. to obtain as many votes as possible." Here to and 
in order to are not interchangeable. 



? 831. The participle or the infinitive is present, or imperfect, 
when it represents the act or state as continuing, or as not 
completed at the time rei erred to. 

Ex. — " He went on his way rejoicing.' 1 '' "He died, lamented by all." " The road 
being well guarded near Monterey, our soldiers marched along with some difficulty." 
" This corn seems to grow." "The country appeared to be cultivated.'" " I came to go 
with you on a hunt." " He ought to be hanged." " I am to go "=It is determined that 
I shall go (hereafter). "I am about to go "=I shall go presently. We can say in the 
morning, — "Are you going this evening? " but not, "Are you writing this evening ? " 
The former is perhaps a Grecism. — See Present Tense. 

? Observe that the present or imperfect participle nearly always 
denotes an act begun; tire present or imperfect infinitive, not always. 

? SS2. The participle or the infinitive is perfect, when it 
represents the act or state as completed at the time referred to. 

Ex. — "I saw her dressed for the coffin." "The soldiers, having arrived 'at a little 
creek, encamped." " Having learned all my lessons, I will now go to play." " All 
necessaries having been sent, I trust you will set out immediately." " He appears to have 
risen from a low station." " This land appears to have been overflowed.''' 1 " I will show 
you a coat made by the machine." " My business shall appear to have been well con- 
ducted." 
? 333. The first participle, when uncombined, is always present or 
imperfect, and very seldom passive. 

Ex. — " The boy, seeing the horse running away, became greatly alarmed." Passive : 
" Virgil describes some spirits as bleaching in the winds, others as cleansing under great 
falls of water, and others as purging in fire, to recover the primitive beauty and purity of 
their nature."— -Addison. 

? 334. The uncombined second participle of some verbs is perfect; but 
of others, sometimes present or imperfect; and when formed from transi- 
tive verbs, always passive. 



VERBS. — COMPOUND PARTICIPLES. 147 

Ex. — " He lives, loved by many and hated by few." " Bobbed of his money, he can 
not go much farther." " The orator spoke, seeing all and seen by all." " I see the sun 
just risen." 

? 335. The second infinitive is always perfect, and the first infinitive 
passive may sometimes be so regarded. 

Ex. — " My neighbor's corn appears to be gathered" is equivalent, in time, to " My 
neighbor appears to have gathered his corn ; " or, " My neighbor has gathered his corn." 
" He appeared to be stabbed" refers to the wound. " He appeared to have been stabbed," 
may refer to the scar. " Here corn appears to be planted " [, and it remains so]. " Here 
corn appears to have been planted" [, but the squirrels and birds have pulled it up]. The 
former refers to a present state ; the latter, to a past act or state that may not exist at 
the time referred to. 

Generally speaking, no passive participle and no infinitive should be parsed as perfect, 
that is not equivalent, in time, to some Relative tense of the indicative mood. 

? 336. Sometimes the mind dwells as strongly on an existing state from 
a, past act, as on the act itself. 

Ex. — " Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a soldier lay, 

Tom with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away." 

"When have or having occurs in a passive participle or infinitive, the expression often 
refers the completion or existence of the act to a previous point of time ; and it sometimes 
implies a denial of the present existence of the act. 

Ex. — " Santa Anna kept no prisoners; it having been decreed so " [when he left the 
city of Mexico], " You seem to have been drenched with rain." 

? 337. The first participle or infinitive denotes sometimes simply the 
act. 

Ex — " He received a letter apjpoinWwgr him captain." " You were foolish to buy such a 
thing." 

1. COMPOUND PARTICIPLES. 

? 338. The simple participles are often compounded with the 
auxiliary participles having, being, and having been. 

? 339. Having must be used to express the second participle of transi- 
tive verbs in the active voice. 

Ex. — Passive: " The old chief, warned by these few words, departed immediately." 
Active : " The old chief, having warned by these few words, departed immediately. 

? 340. Having been must be used to express as perfect those second 
participles which would otherwise be imperfect or present. 

Ex. — " He comes attended by his friends." " He comes, having been attended by his 
friends." 

? 341. Being implies cause or condition ; or it denotes more distinctly the 
present continuance of the state, or of the results of the act. 

Ex. — " The army did not march ill provided." " The army did not march, being ill 
provided." "The deer fled severely wounded into a large thicket." "The deer, being 
severely wounded, fled into a large thicket." " This being proved, the conclusion is 
irresistible." 

? 342. These auxiliary participles are sometimes used to distinguish 
the participle from the finite verb; or to mark more distinctly the 
relation of time, cause, or condition, which the participial phrase is 
designed to bear to the principal assertion. 

Ex. — " The war, begun injustly, lasted long and was with difficulty ended." "The 
war, being begun unjustly, lasted long and was with difficulty ended." " I saw the man 
admitted." is not equivalent to " I saw the man, being admitted." 

? 343. It is worthy of notice, that the compound participle is never 
restrictive. 

"Arna-n slcilled in the business, was appointed." "The man, being skilled in the 
business, was appointed." 



148 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

2. COMBINATIONS WITH THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

? Participle with participle to form a participle. 

Ex.— " Having been; being worn; having removed ; having been standing." 
? Participle with infinitive to form an infinitive. 

Ex. " To have ; to be ; to have struck ; to be striking ; to be struck ; to have been 

striking ; to have been struck." 

? The participles and the infinitives with the auxiliary verbs, to 
express all those modifications of the finite verb which it can not 
express by itself. 

Remember— that, in such combinations, only the compound participles can not be 
used, and the infinitives drop to. 

Ex. — " He is looking at mo." " TTe is seen." " He icas seen." " He has been 
seen." " The house is building." " The house is btiilt." " He does [to] study." *' He 
shall* study." " He shall [to] have studied." "He mayA see." "He shouldA have 
seen." " He might A have been studying." 

? The forms having an auxiliary, may be termed compound; the others, 
simple. 

A verb may consist of four words ; and these may be separated by intervening words. 
Ex. — "The robber might have been caught." "The robber might never have been 
caught." 

? 344. The first participle when combined with the auxiliary verb 6e, 
and the first infinitive, are sometimes passive contrary to their usual 
meaning. 

Ex. — "The fortress z's building." " I have some apples to cat." " There is no corn 
to sell. 

The participle has perhaps acquired this sense through the intransitive or reciprocal 
verb ; and the infinitive, by an ellipsis. 

Ex. — Transitive: "The wind is gathering the clouds." Intransitive: "The storm is 
gathering" (= Reciprocal : The storm m gathering itself together.) Transitive: "lam 
gathering my corn." Paeeive: " 31 y corn, is gathering." "I have apples [for me or us] 
to eat." 

? 345. The participle is used in this sense where the subject of the 
verb could not be considered the doer ; and to avoid a more clumsy and 
less proper expression for the progressive passive state of those verbs 
whose other passive forms would imply that the act is past and com- 
pleted. 

Ex. — "Anew party is forming." (The formation is going on.) " A new party is 
formed." (The formation is past and finished.) But, "I am loving" — present active; 
" I am loved" — present passive. " A person could see from one side of the river what 
was doing on the other side ; " not. — what teas being done. 

3. CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

? A participle expresses the act or state of its verb, with- 
out affirmation, and usually resembles an adjective. 

? An infinitive expresses the act or state of its verb, without 
affirmation ; and frequently resembles a noun. 

? Participle means partaking of, uarticipating. The participle has some- 
what the nature ot the adjective. It is modified by adverbs, adverbial- 
ized and construed like the adjective; and sometimes a participle 
becomes a mere adjective. 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 149 

Ex. — *' He is more studious and more respected than you." " A woman immoderately 
vain;" "A woman immoderately praised.'" "Wise, wisely; — glowing, glowingly; 
repeated, repeatedly." "A rich and beautiful valley;" "A cultivated and blooming 
valley." " He has been unfortunate ; he has been ruined." " He said few things indica- 
tive of wisdom ; " "He said few things indicating wisdom." 

? 346. As a mere participle, it is usually construed like those parti- 
ciples on which something depends ; or like those which follow their 
substantives. 

Ex. — " Cheerful in youth ; " " Befriended in youth." "He soon became modest and 
intelligent; " " He soon became corrupted, disheartened, and rebellious." 

? Many adjectives in our language are participles from other lan- 
guages. 

Ex. — " Dependent, refulgent, evanescent, rampant, triumphant." 

? 347. The participle imparts vigor to discourse, by giving it more 
brevity or vividness. 

Ex. — " Because he had been once disappointed, he ventured no more." More forcibly : 
" Disappointed once, he ventured no more." 

Vividness : " The rising sun, o'er Galston moors, 

With glorious light was glinting ; 
The hares were hirpling down the furr's, (furrows) 
The lav'rocks they were chanting." — Burns. 
Note. — The attention is drawn to the acts in their greatest freshness ; i. e., when 
they were going on. 

" Trembling, hoping, lingering, flying, 

0, the pain, the bliss, of dying ! " — Pope. 
" Exulting, trembling, raging, fainting, 
Possessed beyond the Muse's painting, 
By turns they felt the glowing mind 
Disturbed, delighted, raised, refined." — Collins, 

? Infinitive means unlimited, unrestricted. It is so called because it is 
perhaps better adapted than the participle, to be employed substantively 
without referring or limiting the act or state to any particular person 
or thing. 

Ex. — " Thou little knowest, that hast never tried, 

What hell it is, in suing long to bide: 

To lose good days that might be better spent ; 

To waste long nights in pensive discontent ; 

To speed to-day, to be put back to-morrow ; # # # 

To fret thy soul with crosses and with care ; 

To eat thy heart with comfortless despair ; 

To fawn, to crouch, to wait, to ride, to run ; 

To spend, to give, to want, to be undone." — Spenser. 
The participle may also be used, like the infinitive, to express the act substantively 
without referring it to any particular person ; as, " Dying for one's country is noble "=» 
To die for one's country is noble. But, in all languages, the participle leans more to the 
adjective, and the infinitive more to the noun : a, participle may become a noun ; an infin- 
itive, never an adjective. 

Though the participle and the infinitive do not affirm the act or state of any person 
or thing, yet they generally refer it to some one denoted by a substantive in the same 
sentence. They also variously modify the words with which they are construed ; most 
frequently, like adjectives, adverbs, or adjuncts. Hence, — 

? Rule XIV. — A participle or an infinitive relates to the 
substantive denoting the object to ivhich the act or state 
belongs; and it may besides modify the meaning , or complete the 
construction, of some other word or "part of the sentence. 

Ex. — " I saw the rose blooming." " Standing armies are necessary to sustain tyranny." 



150 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 348. Note XIV. — A participle or an infinitive is sometimes used 
independently. 

Ex. — [We,] " Considering their misfortunes, [must say that] they still deserve credit." 
" To tell the plain truth, [I must say that] he is not qualified for the office." Suitable 
words can generally be supplied, by which this Note can be avoided. 



Mention the verb, and tell whether it is a finite verb, an infinitive, or a participle; and 
whether it is a simple or a compound form : — 

To teach. Having taught. To be teaching. Having been taught. To have been 
taught. They fled. They might have fled. Is there no hand on high to shield the 
brave ? We had been running. Evils must be endured. Could you not have told it 
sooner ? I came, I saw, I conquered. They are said to be excellent. They are 
said to have been brought from the East. She may be singing. Then our troubles will 
have ended. To have acted wisely in every thing, is not to be expected. The people 
were going into church, and the bells had just been ringing. I should have written. 
He would have spoken. Do study. 

Give, in order, the first participle, the second, the compound participles, the first infinitives, 
and the second infinitives, of the following verbs : — 

Move, rise, spring, degrade, catch, growl, find, conclude, demonstrate, explain, 
undermine, reinstate, write, fly, flow, ascend, invigorate, tread, feed, need, overwhelm, 
drown, starve, accumulate, incorporate, sing, weave, see, hear, tell, circumnavigate. 

The participles and the infinitives, and why; whether transitive, passive, intransitive, or 
neuter, and why ; whether present or perfect, and why ; to what they relate: — 

The Indians fled, leaving their mules tied to the bushes. We saw the sun rising. 
We saw the sun rise. There sat the wretched mother weeping. George is anxious to go 
with you. He is to be punished. Here is an opportunity for us to learn. There was 
much curiosity excited by this event. This lesson is to be studied well. He delayed to 
confess, beguiling and pausing, and recommencing, and again hesitating, as if he hoped, 
by whiling away time, to give a chance for rescue. Columbus became wearied and dis- 
heartened by impediments thrown in his way. 

4. VERBAL NOUNS. 

? Any act or state may be expressed as a substantive, by means of the 
infinitive or the participle. Such substantives should be termed verbal 
nouns. 

? $49. A verbal noun is an infinitive or a participle used in 
the sense of a noun. 

Ex. — " To persevere is to succeed "=" Persevering is succeeding "=" Perseverance 
is success." 

? The infinitive and the participle do not become verbal nouns, unless 
they have passed so far out of the verb as to assume case. They may 
be used as nominatives or as objectives, but not as possessives. 

Ex. — " To love is natural." "George desires to learn." "Mary is learning to read 
and to ivrite" "-Cheating is dishonorable." " There is little glory in having been de- 
tected in a mean action." 

? The perfect or passive participle, when a noun, is always compound. 

The two verbal nouns do not perfectly agree in meaning and use. The participle, and 
not the infinitive, must be used in connection with the substantive to which the act or 
state belongs. We can say, " The struggling of the horse," or " The horse's struggling ; " 
but not, " The to struggle of the horse," or " The horse's to struggle." The participle 
may be used after any preposition ; the infinitive may seldom be' so used: thus, "Of 
playing; in playing; from playing ; against playing ; " — but not, "Of to play; in to 
play ; against to play." The participle may stray so far as to denote the art, science, or 
matter, pertaining to the act ; the infinitive, especially when used as an abstract noun, 
always adheres rigidly to the meaning of the verb. 

£■ " He studied reading and writing,' 1 '' is hardly equivalent to " He studied to read and to 
write." So, " It is better to suffer than to injure; " " It is better suffering than injuring." 



PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES 151 

The infinitive, even when it has no case, seems to be, in many instances, bat the re- 
mains of an adjunct that has lost its preposition, — a view fc us tained by abundant evi- 
dence in the Old English, the German, and the Greek. The infinitive muse have been 
preceded by such prepositions as /or, in, concerning, about, &c. ; but being very frequent- 
ly used with these in the same sense, it gradually absorbed their meaning, and they were 
dropped ; so that it now denotes purpose, determination, necessity, result, or respect wherein, 
without them. We still often hear for used in such improper expressions as "lwent 
for to get some water ; " and we still use about properly in such expressions as "He is 
about to go ; " for it is needed, since the meaning would be different if the word were 
omitted. 

? 350. By virtue of their verbal sense, verbal nouns may govern other 
substantives in the objective case; and by virtue of its substantive 
sense, the participle may govern another substantive in the possessive 
case.* 

Ex.— " To love our neighbors, is our duty." " His having written a letter to me, is no 
evidence of Mary's corresponding with him." 

The verbal meaning is sometimes so nearly lost, that the word becomes simply a 
noun. The participle with the before and of after it, is always a noun. 

Ex. — "The filings and sweepings." "Good lodgings." "Painting and sculpture." 
" In the arranging of his affairs "=In the arrangement of his affairs. "Avaunt all atti- 
tude, and stare, and start theatric." " 0, bliss beyond compare I " 
" No sooner does he peep into 
The world, than he has done his do" — Butler's Hudibras. 

From most verbs are also derived nouns ending in ion, ance, al, &c. 
Ex. — Attend, attendance, attention; propose, proposal, proposition, &c. Such are treated 
as mere nouns. 

4. PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 

? A participle sometimes resembles an adjective so much that it may 
be termed a participial adjective. 

? A participial adjective is a participle ascribing the act or 
state to its subject as a qualit}'. 

Ex. — " Whispering breezes; " "A blustering storm ; " " The quivering leaves ; " "A 
cool, sequestered spot." 

? 351. The participial adjective forms a species of the most vivid and 
beautiful epithets in the language. It usually implies permanence, habit, 
or custom; but not always. It is generally placed immediately before 
its noun. It is never a compound. 

Ex. — " The beaming sun ; " " The tolling bells ; " " Life's fleeting moments ; " "A 
clattering car ; " " Tumbling battlements ; " '* A shaded valley ; " "A moistened eye ; " 
" A shattered oak." 

" Where dancing sunbeams on the waters played, 
And verdant alders formed a quivering shade." — Pone. 

Sometimes the participle retains so little of its verbal meaning, that it should be 
parsed simply as an adjective. 

Ex. — "Boiling prairies " are hilly prairies. "She is very interesting "^agreeable. 
« This is surprising "^wonderful. 

Participial forms having a prefix that is not also combined with the simple form of 
the verb, are usually parsed as mere adjectives ; but I think when they plainly imply an 
act, or suppose an imagined verb, th^y should be parsed us participial adjectives. " Un- 
horsed" may imply something more than " not having a horse." " An unsaddled horse," 
rather denotes a horse deprived of his saddle, than a horse that has never been saddled. 

* Mr. G. Brown teaches differently ; but there is more than sufficient authority — the 
almost universal practice of authors — to overthrow his dictum. It is, however, general- 
ly better to use a clause beginning with thai. 



152 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

The verbal nouns, and why ; iheir case, and why : — 
The participial adjectives, and why ; to what they belong : — 

Columbus niefc with tli3 most injurious and discouraging delay in preparing the re- 
maining vessels. The air was warm and stifling. A waving willow was bending over 
the cru.nbiing monument. John likes to study. Now I will begin to write. To play 
is pleasant. Playing is pleasant. He was whipped for having whipped his brother. 
Dried peaches and smoked venison. A neglected house and a brawling woman. To 
think more and to talk less, would become you better. To dress, to visit, to gossip, and 
to thrum her piano, are the chief employments of the modern belle. His having been a 
brave soldier, caused his election. A crackling fire and a swept floor. The fire was 
crackling, and the floor was swept. It is a shame to have taken a part in wronging or 
oppressing the innocent. 

Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro ; 

And gathering tears, and tremblings of distress. — Byron. 

26. PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

The verb often undergoes certain changes in its form to suit the per- 
son and number of its nominative: thus, the verb be becomes (I) am, 
(thou) art, (he) is, (we) are, &c. ; love becomes lovest, loves, &c. 

? The person and number of a verb denote its form as suit- 
able to the person and number of its subject. 

Note. — The advantage of having person and number is this : By putting a mark upon 
the verb, they enable us to separate it from its subject without leaving it uncertain that 
the two belong to each other ; and thus room is made for all those various modifications 
which must clothe the principal parts to express full thought. Besides, we have then 
greater liberty to arrange all the parts so as to produce the best impression. 

? The subject of every finite verb, in regard to person and number, 
either is or may be represented by /, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they. 

? 351. T hou generally requires the verb or the first auxiliary to end 
in st or t. 

Ex. — "Thou sitst — wast — hast — Jcnowest." "Thou art the man." "Thou shalt not 
kill." 

? 352. He, she, or it, often requires the verb or the first auxiliary to 
end in s or th. 

Ex. — " He writes ; he writeth." " She controls ; she controlleth." " It does become 
you ; " " It doth become you." 

We, you, or they, never allows s or th to be annexed to the verb. In other words, — 

To a verb having a plural nominative, s or th can never be annexed. 

Ex. — " We learn," not learns. "They learn," not learns. " John, James, and Wil- 
liam, learn." 

? 3-53. In the plural, the verb has the same form for all the persons. 

Ex. — " We learn ; you learn ; they learn ; the boys learn." " We were ; you were ; 
they were." 

? 354. When the subject consists of nominatives of the third or the 
second person and the first, the verb is of the first person and plural 
number; for then the subject is equ'valent to we. 

Ex. — "John and I" — or, "Pom and I" — or, "You, Mary, and I, aee going"— We 
abe going. 

? 355. When the subject of the verb consists of nominatives of the sec- 
ond and third persons, the verb is of the second person and plural num- 
ber; for then the subject is equivalent to you or ye. 

Ex. — " You, Thomas, and his sister, are going to town "=You are all going to town. 

Note. — In parsing, the person and number of the verb can be most readily told by 
ascertaining the person and number of its subject. 



VERBS. — PERSONS AM) NUMBERS. 153 

? All verbs in the infinitive mood are said not to have person and 
number, because they are not affirmed, and undergo no changes indi- 
cating these properties. 

Ex. — " I am to go ; you are to go; he is to go" " He sees me coming." " I see them 
coming." 

? 356. Most verbs in the imperative mood are in the second person, 
agreeing with thou, you, or ye, understood, and sometimes expressed. 

Ex. — " Go where glory waits thee "=Go thou &c. " Strike — for your native land "=» 
Strike ye &c. "Guard thou the pass.' 1 " Girls, do you gather the strawberries." 

Verbs in this mood are sometimes found, especially in poetry, of the first or the third 
person. When thus used, the nominative is always expressed. — See page 131. 

? 357. A verb is sometimes made to agree with it, when it affirms a 
well-known act or state of something not easily named, or named by 
several words in the subsequent part of the sentence. 

Ex. — " It snows ; it rains ; it thunders ; it hailed ; it cleared off." " It behooves us to 
improve our time" " What shall it jjrofit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own 
soul?" 

When such words denote the operations of nature, the mind seems to be satisfied to 
know that such an act or state exists, without inquiring whence it proceeds ; for the im- 
mediate cause must always be the same. Such verbs are usually styled impersonal verbs ; 
but I can not see the propriety of calling them so in our language, in which they have a 
nominative and properly agree with it. If there is any difficulty in the matter, it lies in 
the import of the word it, and not in the agreement of the verb. 

Some grammarians term them unipersonal, yet there seems to be no better reason for 
calling them so than many other verbs. Unless speaking figuratively, we can not, with 
more propriety, say, " I graze," — " I crumble," — than, " I rain," — " I snow ; " and fig- 
uratively we can say, " I harangued, I thundered, against those measures." 

I think only such expressions as meseems, meseem,ed, methinks, methought, should be 
termed impersonal, or rather, anomalous ; because they have no nominative with ivhich they 
can properly agree. 

Meseems is derived from " To me it seems ; " methinlcs, from " To me it thinks ; " i. e., 

It causes me to think that 

Ex. — "Prince. Where shall we sojourne till our coronation ? 

Gloucester. Where it thinks best unto your royal self." 

Shakspeare : Old Edition. 
In the German, " dunken," to seem, and " denken," to thinJc, are from the same root. 

? Rule XIII. — Every finite verb must agree with its sub- 
ject, in person and number. 

? Note XIII. — In a few peculiar expressions, finite verbs are used 
without a suitable subject or without any subject. 

Ex. — " Methinks." 

" Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run 
By angels many and strong." — Milton's P. L., Book VI. 

The verb, and why ; its person and number, to agree with its subject ,according to uha* 

Rule : — 

I study. We were playing. You have hurt him. The girls sing. Mary sings. The 
lion roars. Horses neigh. The leaves are fluttering. The Bible teacheth many good 
things. I who am innocent. Thou who hast been punished. He who is elected. The 
candidate who is elected. We who are friends. They who have deceived us. The ani- 
mals which have served us, should be kindly treated. Fall he that must, and live the 
rest secure. Rise, and defend thyself. Suppose we a different case. It is useless to com- 
plain. To complain is useless. Know ye the land? Thou mightst have given us help. 
John, bring me soma water, and make a fire. The soul perceives, understands, remem- 
bers, imagines, reasons, feels, and wills. They perceive, understand, remember, im- 
agine, feel, and will. 

Change the form of the verb to suit its subject ;— 

They knows him. You was. Where was you ? We is. They doesn't care. He 
''on't care. I always learns my lesson before I goes to school. There is twenty cords of 



154 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

wood. There comes several deer. Circumstances alters cases. Such a man have uo re- 
gard for others. Such men lias no regard for others. Thou shall go. Will thou go ? 
You learns fast. She believe you. Thou heard the storm ; did thou not ? It is I who 
writes. It is thou who write. It is he who write. It is we who writes. It is they who 
writes. There is many men who knows no better. It am I who is to blame. 

26. CONJUGATION. 

? 358. To conjugate a verb fully, is to sliow the proper way 
of using it in all its forms, voices, moods, tenses, persons, and 
numbers ; in other words, it is to branch it out in all its parts. 

Note. — The word form is not used here in the same sense as in the preceding section. 
To conjugate verbs, it is necessary to know the auxiliary verbs, and the principa 
parts of the irregular verbs. — See pages 122-24, 

? S659. Some verbs can not be used in every mood and tense. 
They are therefore termed defective, 

Ex. — Ought, quoth, beware, wist, wit, wot, methinlcs, &c, and most of the words used as 
auxiliary verbs. — We cannot say, " I might have ought ; " " We shall have quoth ; " 
" They had quothed." 

Ought is said to be the past tense of owe ; but it is now so used that it 
should be considered as being in the present tense, when it refers to 
present time ; and in the imperfect, when it refers to past time. 

Ex. — Present : " I know he ought to go ; " "I know he ought to have gone." Past: 
*' I knew he ought to surrender" [then] ; " I knew that he ought to have surrendered." 

The same remark applies to must. " I know that he must surrender." 
"I knew that he must have surrendered: 7 "I know that Iiq can — knew 
that he could. 

That ought is in the present tense when followed by the present infinitive, and in the 
imperfect when followed by the perfect infinitive, is, in my opinion, unsound doctrine. 

? 360. Quoth is sometimes used in familiar or humorous language for 
said. 

Ex. — " * Not I,' quoth Sancho." " ' It is no more than just,' quoth the farmer, ' to be 
sure.' " 

? 361. Beware, derived from be and aware, may be used wherever be 
would occur in the conjugation of the verb be. 

Ex. — " Beware of pickpockets." 

" 'Tis wisdom to beware, 
And better to avoid the bait than struggle in the snare." — Dry den. 
If angels fell, why should not men beware." — Young. 

? Wist and wot from wis and wot are nearly obsolete, being sometimes 
used for knew. Wit occurs in the well-known infinitive to wit=namely. 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 

? Every verb except he, and those that are defective, may be 
conjugated in several different ways, termed its forms. 

? 362. The common form exhibits the verb in its simplest sense. It is 
the form most used in familiar discourse. By some grammarians it has 
been termed the weak form. 

Ex. — " I w r rote." " He writes." " We write." " They bounded ; they fought ; they 
screamed." 

? 363. The emphatic form suggests the additional idea of emphasis, or 
greater earnestness on the part of the speaker. It assumes an auxiliary 



FORMS OF THE VERB. 155 

where the verb has none in the simple form ; and where it already has 
one, it requires greater stress upon it. 

Ex. — "I did write."' 1 "He does write.'''' " We no write." "DOfefmego." "He 
has befriended you, and he will befriend you again." 

This form of the verb often implies an opposite opinion, which it aims to remove. 
? 364. The progressive form represents the actor state as unfinished and 
progressing. Hence it sometimes presents an act more vividly and for- 
cibly ; and has therefore been called, by some grammarians, the stronger 
form. It is formed by combining the first participle with the verb be in 
all its changes. 

Ex. — " The wind is blowing." " The sun was rising.'''' " I am reading.' 1 '' " Youshould 
have been watching the horses." " While the ceremony was performing. ." 

? 365. The passive form generally denotes the act in the passive voice. 
It is formed by combining the second participle with the verb be in all 
its changes. 

Ex. — " The letter is written." " I am wounded." " The brush should have been burned." 

? 366. The ancient form, or solemn style, has thou and ye in the 2nd 
person, and th or eth, in stead of s or es, as the termination of the 3rd 
person singular. 

Ex. — " Paul, thou art beside thyself." " Ye are the salt of the earth." " Ho, every 
one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters." 

This form is more common in old than in modern English. It is still retained in the 
Bible, and in style designed to imitate it ; in poetry, in burlesque, and sometimes in ex- 
pressions of great earnestness. 

In old English, be was often used where other parts of this verb are now used. 

Ex. — " In other pleasures, there is satiety ; and soon after they be used, their verdure 
fadeth." — Bacon . 

QUESTION AND NEGATION. 

? 367. Any verb in the indicative or the potential mood, can be used 
interrogatively. The subject must be placed after the verb or after the 
first auxiliary. When the auxiliary do or did is used interrogatively, it 
does not express emphasis unless it is emphasized. 

Ex.— "Are we?" "Were they?" " Does he love ? " " Am I deceived ? " " Lovest 
thou me?" " Art thou he ? " " Shall we go ? " " Must I go ? " " Could I have come 
sooner?" "Would you believe him?" " Saw you the man?" " Did you see the 
man ? " 

" 0, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war ? " — W. Scott. 

? 368. Any verb can be expressed negatively, by placing not after it 
or after the first auxiliary. 

Ex. — " Touch not ; taste not; handle not." "Do not disturb me." "They knew 
him not." " I was not there." " We should be indolent." " It should not have been 
left there." 

? 369. Not is placed before the infinitive or the participle. 

Ex. — " Not to love ; not to have loved ; not to have been loved." " Not loving ; not 
loved." " Not being heard of afterwards, they supposed he was killed." 

? 370. In interrogative sentences, not may either precede or follow the 
subject, but with a difference of signification. 

Query. — What is the difference between an affirmative and a negative 
question? and how should a negative question be answered? 

? 371. A negative question usually implies that the speaker believes or 
had believed the affirmative proposition. It implies opposition to his 
own belief or opinion. 



156 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



Ex. — " Have you not brought the water yet ? " (I was sure you had brought it.) 
" What did he not do? " (He did every thing.) 

? 372. When the speaker supposes an affirmative answer in his hearers, 
he is apt. to put his question, or series of questions, in the negative. 

Ex. — " Is not Philip master of Thermopylae, and of all the passes of Greece, and does 
he not hold these posts by his garrisons and foreign troops ? Does he not place govern- 
ors over Thessaly at his pleasure ? Has he not wrested Echinus from the Thebans ? Is 
he not, at this moment, on his inarch against Byzantium — Byzantium, the ally of 
Athens ? " — Demosthenes. 

? 373. When the speaker supposes a negative answer in his hearers, 
he is apt to put his question, or series of questions, in the affirmative. 

Ex. — " Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction ? Shall we acquire the 
means of effectual resistance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive 
phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot ? Is life so dear, 
or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? " — P. Henry. 

? 374. I believe the general custom is, to answer affirmative questions 
and negative ones alike. 

Ex. — " Did you go to the fair ? — No." " Did you not go to the fair ? — No. I could 
not." " You were not at the fair then ? — No. Ma could not very well spare me." 

Formerly, negative questions were answered by yea or nay ; affirmative ones, by yes 
or no ; but this distinction is not now observed. 

? The auxiliary verb seldom denotes emphasis in a negative proposi- 
tion ; for such propositions generally take their emphasis on the nega- 
tive word. 

Ex. — " He said so." " He did say so." " He did not say so." " He did not say so." 
Note. — Since the above was written, I have seen Mr. Mandeville's views on this sub- 
ject. He very pithily says, that affirmative questions ask for information, and negative 
questions for confirmation. 

He also divides questions into definite, which begin with verbs or auxiliaries, and can 
be answered by yes or no ; indefinite, which begin with adverbs or relatives, and can not 
be answered by yes or no ; and indirect, which are declarative in form. " Were you 
there ? " " Who was there ? " " You were there ? " 



27. CONJUGATION EXEMPLIFIED. 



Be. Love. 

Principal Parts. 
Present. Imperfect Tense, or Preterit. 

Be, was, 

Love, loved, 

Take, took, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

ABSOLUTE TENSES. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 
First Person. Second Person. Third Person. 1st Pers. 
I You He, She, or It, We 



Take. 

Perfect Participle. 

been. 

loved. 

taken. 





am, 


are, 


is ; 


Com. form. love, 


love, 


loves ; 


Emph. 


do love, 


do love, 


does love ; 


Prog. 


am loving, 


are loving, 


is loving ; 


Pass. 


am loved, 


are loved, 


is loved ; 


Com. 


take, 


take, 


takes ; 


Emph. 


do take, 


do take, 


does take 


Prog. 


am taking, 


are taking, 


is taking ; 


Pass. 


am taken, 


are taken, 


is taken ; 



Plural. 
2nd Pers. 3rd Pers. 

You They 

are, are, are. 

love, love, love, 

do love, do love, do love, 

are loving, are loving, are loving, 

are loved, are loved, are loved, 

take, take, take, 

do take, do take, do take, 

are taking, are taking, are taking, 

are taken, are taken, are taken. 



VERBS. — CONJUGATION EXEMPLIFIED. 



157 



Imperfect Tense. 



Singular. 






Plural. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


I 


You He, She, or It, 


We 


You 


They 


was, 


were, 


was; 


were, 


were, 


were. 


Com. loved, 


loved, 


loved ; 


loved, 


loved, 


loved. 


Ernph. did love, 


did love, 


did love ; 


did love, 


did love, 


did love. 


Jh-og. was loving, 


were loving, was loving ; 


; were loving 


, were loving 


, were loving. 


Pas. was loved, 


were loved 


, was loved ; 


were loved, 


were loved, 


were loved. 


Com. took, 


took, 


took ; 


took, 


took, 


took. 


ISmph. did take, 


did take, 


did take ; 


did take, 


did take, 


did take. 


Prog, was taking, 


were takin 


g, was taking ; 


; were taking, were taking 


, were taking 


Pas. was taken, 


were takan 


, was taken ; 


were taken, 


were taken, 


were taken.. 






Future Tense. 1 






Singular. 






Plural. 


1. 


2, 


3. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


I 


You He, She, or It, 


We 


You 


They 






shall or 


will — 






be, 


be, 


be; 


be, 


be, 


bo. 


Com. love, 


love, 


love ; 


love, 


love, 


love. 


Prog, be loving, 


be loving, 


be loving ; 


be loving, 


be loving, 


be loving. 


Pas. be loved, 


be loved, 


be loved ; 


be loved, 


be loved, 


be loved. 


Com. take, 


take, 


take ; 


take, 


take, 


take. 


JFVo<7. be taking, 


be taking, 


be taking ; 


be taking, 


be taking, 


be taking. 


Pas. be taken, 


be taken, 


be taken ; 


be taken, 


be taken, 


be taken. 






RELATIVE TENSES. 








; 


Perfect Tense. 






Singular. 






Plural. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


I 


You Hi 


:, She, or It, 


We 


You 


They 


have — ■ 


have — 


has — 


have — 


have — 


have — 


been, 


been, 


been; 


been, 


been, 


been. 


Com. loved, 


loved, 


loved ; 


loved, 


loved, 


loved. 


Prog, been loving, 


been loving, 


been loving ; 


been loving, 


been loving, 


been loving. 


Pas. been loved, 


been loved, 


been loved ; 


been loved, 


been loved, 


been loved. 


Com. taken, 


taken, 


taken ; 


taken, 


taken, 


taken. 


Prog, been taking, 


been taking. 


, been taking ; 


been taking, 


been taking, 


been taking. 


Pas. been taken, 


been taken, 


been taken ; 


been taken, 


been taken, 


been takeu. 



Singular. 
1. 2. 

You 



Pluperfect Tense. 



been, 
Com. loved, 
Prog, been loving 
Pas. been loved, 
Com. taken, 
Prog, been taking 
Pas. been taken, 



been, 
loved, 

been loving, 
been loved, 
taken, 



He, She, or It, 

had— 
been ; 
loved ; 
been loving ; 
been loved ; 
taken ; 



We 



You 



Plural. 
2. 3. 

They 



been taking, been taking ; 
been taken, been taken ; 



been, been, 

loved, loved, 

been loving, been loving, 
been loved, been loved, 
taken, taken, 

been taking, been taking, 
been taken, been taken, 



been, 
loved. 

been loving, 
been loved, 
taken. 

been taking, 
been taken. 3 



Singular. 

2. 
You 



Future-perfect Tense. 



been, 
Com. loved, 



3. 1. 

He, She, or It, We You 

shall or will have — 
been, been; been, been, 

loved, loved ; loved, loved, 



Plural. 
2. 3. 

They 



been, 
loved. 



Prog, been loving, been loving, been loving; been loving, been loving, been loving. 



158 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



Pas. been loved, been loved, been loved ; been loved, 

Com. takeD, taken, taken ; taken, 

Prog, been taking, been taking, been taking , been taking, 

Pas. been taken, been taken, been taken ; been taken, 



been loved, been loved, 
taken, taken, 

been taking, been taking, 
been taken, been taken. ^ 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, 



Singular. 
1. 2. 3. 


1. 


Plurai 
2. 


I. 
3. 


If I 


If you If he, she, or it, 


If we 


If you 


If they 


be, 
Com. love, 
Emph.do love, 
Prog, be loving, 
Pas. be loved, 
Com. take, 
JSmph.&o take, 
Prog, be taking, 
Pas. be taken, 


be, be ; 
love, love ; 
do love, do love ; 
be loving, be loving ; 
be loved, be loved ; 
take, take ; 
do take, do take ; 
be taking, be taking ; 
be taken, be taken ; 


be, 
love, 
do love, 
be loving, 
be loved, 
take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken, 


be, 
love, 
do love, 
be loving, 
be loved, 
take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken. 


be. 
love, 
do love, 
be loving, 
be loved, 
take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken. 


Singul 
1. 


Imperfect Tense, 

ar. 

2. 3. 1. 


Plural. 
2. 3. 


If I 


If you If he, she, or it, 


If we 


If you 


If they 


were, 
Com. loved, 
Emph.did love, 
Prog, were loving, 
Pas. were loved, 
Com. took, 
Emph.did take, 
Prog, were taking 
Pas. were taken, 


were, were ; 

loved, loved ; 

did love, did love ; 
i were loving, were loving ; 

were loved, were loved ; 

took, took ; 

did take, did take ; 
, were taking, were taking; 

were taken, were taken ; 


were, 
loved, 
did love, 
were loving, 
were loved, 
took, 
did take, 
were taking 
were taken, 


were, 

loved, 

did love, 
were loving, 
were loved, 
took, 
did take, 
, were taking, 
were taken, 


were, 
loved, 
did love, 
were loving. 
wer« loved, 
took, 
did take. 
i were taking, 
were taken. 


Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 
1. 2. 3. 1. 


Pliers 

2. 


1. 
3. 


If I 


If you If he, she, or it, 


If we 


If you 


If they 



been, been, 

Com. loved, loved, 

Prog, been loving, been loving. 

Pas. been loved, been loved, 

Com. taken, taken, 



been; been, been, been. 

loved ; loved, loved, loved. 

been loving ; been loving, been loving, been loving. 

been loved ; been loved, been loved, been loved. 

taken ; taken, taken, taken. 

Prog, been taking, been taking, been taking ; been taking, been taking, been taking. 

Pas. been taken, been taken, been taken; been taken, been taken, been taken. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 5 
Present Tense. 





Singular. 






Plural 






1. 


2. 


3. 


1. 


2. 


3. 




I 


You He, 


She, or It, 


We 


You 


Thiy 








may, can, or must — 








be, 


be, 


be; 


be, 


be, 


be. 


Com. 


love, 


love, 


love ; 


love, 


love, 


love. 


Prog. 


be loving, 


be loving, 


be loving ; 


be loving, 


be loving, 


be loving. 


Pas. 


be loved, 


be loved, 


be loved ; 


be loved, 


be loved, 


be loved. 


Com. 


take, 


take, 


take; 


take, 


take, 


take. 


Prog. 


be taking, 


be taking, 


be taking ; 


1 be taking, 


be taking, 


be taking. 


Pa*. 


be taken, 


be taken, 


be taken ; 


be taken, 


be taken, 


be taken. 



VEBBS. CONJUGATION EXEMPLIFIED. 



159 



Singular. 
1. 2. 

You 



Perfect Tense. 



3. 



Plural. 



He, She, or It, 
may, can, or m\ 
been, been ; 

loved, loved ; 

been loving, been loving ; 
been loved, been loved ; 
taken, taken ; 

Prog, been taking, been taking, been taking ; 
Pas. been taken, been taken, been taken ; 



been, 
Com. loved, 
Prog, been loving, 
Pas. been loved, 
Com. taken, 



1. 


2. 


3. 


We 


You 


They 


st have — 






been, 


been, 


been. 


loved, 


loved, 


loved. 


been loving, 


been loving, 


been loving, 


been loved, 


been loved, 


been loved. 


taken, 


taken , 


taken. 


been taking, 


been taking, 


been taking. 


been taken, 


been taken, 


been taken. 



Imperfect Tense. 





Singular. 






Plural 






1. 


2. 


3. 


1. 


2. 


3. 




I 


You He 


, She, or It, 


We 


You 


They 






might, could, would, 


or should — 






Com. 
Prog. 
Pas. 

Com. 
Prog. 
Pas. 


be, 

love, 

be loving, 

be loved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


be, 

love, 

be loving, 

be loved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


be; 

love ; 

be loving ; 

be loved ; 

take ; 

be taking ; 

be taken ; 


be, 

love, 

be loving, 

be loved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


be, 

love, 

be loving, 

be loved, 

take, 

be taking, 

be taken, 


be. 

love. 

be loving. 

be loved. 

take. 

be taking. 

be taken. 






Pluperfect 


Tense. 








Singular, 






Plural 






1. 


2. 


3, 


i. 


2. 


3. 



You He, She, or It, We 

might, could, would, or should have— 



You 



They 



been, been, been ; 
loved, loved, loved ; 
been loving, been loving, been loving- 
been loved, been loved, been loved ; 

Com. taken, taken, taken ; 

Prog, been taking, been taking, been taking ; been taking, been taking, been taking. 

Pas. been taken, been taken, been taken ; been taken, been taken, been taken. 



Com. 
Prog. 
Pas. 



been, been, been, 

loved, loved, loved, 

been loving, been loving, been loving, 

been loved, been krved, been loved, 

taken, taken, taken. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

2. 

Com. Be, or be thou ; 

Emph. Do be, or do thou be ; 

Com. Love, or love thou ; 

Emph. Do love, or do thou love ; 

Prog. Be loving, or be thou loving ; 

Pas. Be loved, or be thou loved ; 

Com. Take, or take thou ; 

Emph. Do take, or do thou take ; 

Prog. Be taking, or be thou taking ; 

Pas. Be taken, or be thou taken ; 



Plural. 
2. 

be, or be ye. 

do be, or do ye be. 

love, or love ye. 

do love, or do ye love. 

be loving, or be ye loving. 

be loved, or be ye loved. 

take, or take ye. 

do take, or do ye take. 

be taking, or be ye taking. 

be taken, or be ye taken. 



You is used in the singular as well as thou; and in the plural, it is quite as common 
as ye. When the imperative is to denote gentleness and entreaty rather than harshness 
and authority, you is perhaps preferable to thou. 



160 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



First Infinitive. 



Com. 

Prog. 

Pas. 

Com. 

Prog. 

Pas. 



To be. 

To love. 

To be loving. 

To be loved. 

To take. 

To be taking. 

To be taken. 



First Participle. 

Being. 

Loving. 

Taking. 



Second Infinitive. 

To have been. 

To have loved. 

To have been loving. 

To have been loved. 

To have taken. 

To have been taking. 

To have been taken. 

Second Participle. 

Been. 
Loved 
Taken. 



Compound Participle. 

Having been. 
Being loved. 
Having loved. 
Having been loved. 
Being taken. 
Having taken. 
Having been taken. 

ANCIENT FORM, OR SOLEMN STYLE.— THOU. 6 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. Imperfect. Future. Perfect. Pluperfect. Future-perfect 



Thou 
art ; 

Com. loves r, 
Em])h.do$t love, 
Prog, art loving, 
Pus. art loved ; 
Com. takest, 
EmjphAost take, 
Prog, art taking 
Pus. art taken. 



Thou Thou Tuou 

wast, or wert* ; shall or uilt — hast— 



Thou 
hadst — 



Thou 
shalt or icilt have- 



lovedst, be; 

didst love, love, 

wast loving, be loving, 

wast loved ; be loved ; 

tookst, 

didst take, 

wast taking, 

wast taken. 



take, 



been ; been ; 

loved, loved, 

been loving, been loving, 

been loved ; been loved ; 



taken, 



be taking, been taking 
betaken, been taken. 



taken, 

been taking, 
been taken. 



been ; 
loved, 

been loving, 
been loved ; 
taken, 

been taking, 
been taken. 



Present. 

If thou 

be; 
love, 
do love, 
be loving, 
be loved ; 
take, 
do take, 
be taking, 
be taken. 
We can also say, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Imperfect. 

If thou 
wert, or were ; 
loved, 

did love, or didst love, 8 
wert loving, 
wert loved ; 
took, 

did take, or didst take, 
wert taking, 
wert taken. 



Pluperfect. 

If thou 
hadst — 
l>een ; 
loved, 

been loving, 
been loved ; 
taken, 
been taking, 
been taken. 



thou loved ; " for, " If thou wert," &c. 



Wert thou ; " " Wert thou loved ; " " Hadst thou been ; " " Hadst 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present. 

Thou 

mayst, canst. 

or must — 

be; 

love, 



Perfect. 

Thou 

mayst, canst, 

or must have — 

been ; 

loved, 



Imperfect. Pluperfect. 

Thou Thou 

mightst, conldst, mightst, couldst, wouldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst — or shouldst have — 

be ; been ; 

love, loved, 



VERBS. — CONJUGATION EXEMPLIFIED. 



161 



be loving, 
be loved ; 
take, 

be taking, 
be taken. 



been loving, 
been loved ; 
taken, 

been taking, 
been taken. 



be loving, 
be loved ; 
take, 

be taking, 
be taken. 



been loving, 
been loved ; 
taken, 

been taking, 
been taken. 



The Termination Th. — He loveth, He taketli, He doth love, He doth take, He hath, 
He hath been, He hath loved, He hath been loved. "Go when the morning shineth * * * 
Go when the eve declimth." "Who chooseth me, must give and hazard all he hath." — 
Shah. " Bailie oiveth me a thousand pounds." — Ealeigh. "Learning taketh away th.8 
wildness, and barbarism, and fierceness of men's minds." — Bacon. 

Ye. — Ye love, Ye take, Ye are, Ye were, Ye may have been. " Know ye the land of 
the cypress and myrtle ? " " Heard ye those loud contending notes ? " " Ye know not 
what ye say." 

As the termination required by thou is sometimes harsh, there is some tendency to 
drop it, especially in poetry. I have also heard some well-educated preachers omit it 
occasionally in prayer. 

" thou, my voice inspire, 
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire." — Pope. 
" Perhaps 
Thou noticed on thy way a little orb 
Attended by one moon — her lamp by night." — Polloh. 
"But thou * * * * * * shall bind" — Sprague. 
Conjugate the verbs rule, permit, bury, strike, see. 

NOTES, OK ADDITIONAL AND SUBORDINATE OBSERVATONS. 

1. Future Tense. — Simfle Futurity. 



junction, an adverb, or a relative. 
Singular. 



I. 

(If) I 



You 



He, She, or It, 

shall — 



hen, whoever. 


, &c, — a conditional con- 




Plural. 




1. 


2. 


3. 


We 


You 


They 


be, 


be, 


be. 


love, 


love, 


love. 


be loving, 
be loved, 


be loving, 
be loved, 


be loving, 
be loved. 


take, 


take, 


take. 


be taking, 
be taken, 


be taking, 
be taken, 


be taking, 
be taken. 



be, be, be ; 

Com,, love, love, love ; 

Prog, be loving, be loving, be loving ; 
Pas. be loved, be loved, be loved ; 
Com. take, take, take; 

Prog, be taking, be taking, be taking ; 
Pas. be taken, be taken, be taken ; 

Let the pupil use if or when in conjugating the foregoing form of the verb ; and, in 
the 3rd pers. sing., say, If he shall be, or whoever shall be, &c. 

2. Future-perfect Tense. — Simple Futurity. 
Dependent propositions beginning with if, ivhen, whoever, &c, — a conditional con- 
junction, an adverb, or a relative. 

Singular. Plural. 



1. 

(If) I 

been, 
Com. loved, 



2. 
You 



You 



3. 

They 



been, 
loved. 

been loving, 
been loved, 
taken. 



3. 1. 

He, She, or It, We 

shall have — 
been, been ; been, 

loved, loved ; loved, 

Prog, been loving, been loving, been loving ; been loving, 
Pas. been loved, been loved, been loved ; been loved, 
Com. taken, taken, taken; taken, 

Prog, been taking, been taking, been taking; been taking, 
Pas. been taken, been taken, been taken; been taken, 

Dependent propositions, especially those beginning with words denoting time, do not 
always require shall to denote the act or state in future time. 

3. 
Observe the difference: "He is gone;" "They are come;" "He is fallen." 
(Passive inform, but not in sense.) "He is loved;" "They are respected;" "The 

14 



been, 

loved, 

been loving, 

been loved, 

taken, 

been taking, been taking. 

been taken, been taken. : 



162 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

house is building ; " " The taxes are collecting." (The present receiving of the act.) 
4 « He is killed ; " " We are elected ; " " The house is built ; " " The taxes are collected." 
(Past reception of the act. Present state.) " Is building"=Lat. cedificat or cedifi- 

catur ; " is built "=(Domus) cedificata est ; " has been built "^cedificata fuit ; " was \>u\\c\- 
ing "=cedificabat or cedificabatur ; "was built "=cedificata erat; "had been built "«= 
cedificata fuerat. 

4. Subjunctive mood. 

Present Tense. — The conjunction may often be omitted, by placing the subject 
before the verb. 

Ex. — " Be it ever so fine, I will not buy it"*=Jf— or, Though it be ever so fine, I 
will not buy it. 

Imperfect Tense. — The conjunction may be omitted, but then were or the first 
auxiliary must precede the nominative. 

Ex. — " Were I, were you, were he, were we, were they." " Were he satisfied." " Did 
I but know him." " Did you love me, you would not vex me." 

Pluperfect Tense. — The conjunction may be omitted, but then had must precede 
the nominative. 

Ex. — "Had I been." " Had he taken my advice." "Had they invited him, he 
would have come." 

Responsive and relative clauses are usually without the conjunction. 

Ex. — " If it were useless to apologize, I would not." " It were folly to apologize, 
therefore do not." "Whatever it be, I will go to it." "Whatever means were in my 
power, I would give him." 

The relative itself suggests that its clause is dependent, and hence it needs not the 
conjunction. 

5. Potential Mood. 

Observe that such expressions as may be loved, may be taken, must be loved, must be 
taken, am taught, is taught, &c, may be ambiguous in time. " He is well taught "=He is 
well educated, or, He is now receiving good instruction. 

In the perfect tense, may and can usually imply present possibility, and must present 
necessity of belief, in regard to a past act or state. 

Ex. — "Can he have missed his way?" "He may have missed his way." "He 
must have missed his road." 

I believe that must should sometimes be classed with might, could, ivould, and should, 
as well as with may and can. It is natural that a slight variation in its sense should 
have been always overlooked, since its form is never changed. It may denote past 

necessity as well as could denotes past ability; us, "I believe he corn" , "I 

believe he must'' 1 ; "I believed he could'" , "I believed he must" . 

" My horse must have swum over the river" (perfect) =It is necessary now to believe that 
he did swim over the river. " My horse must have drowned if we had not rescued him " 
(pluperfect)=(in time) " He would have drowned if we had not rescued him." The 
German language confirms this opinion. 

When the prominent meaning of shall and will is not time, then they properly 
deserve to be classed with may, can, and must, of the potential mood ; but as this dis- 
tinction is not always obvious, they may, in all cases, be referred to the indicative 
mood. 

6. 
How hard are grammarians striving, in their Conjugations, to restore the fallen 
dynasty of Thou! Whether politeness, euphony, or accident, first led to the substitu- 
tion of You for Thou, I know not ; but I believe the harsh forms of the verb required 
with Thou, have been, and ever will be, the principal cause of keeping it banished. 
There is, however, some tendency to restore it without the peculiar terminations of the 
verb. 

7- 
There is good authority for using, in the indicative, wert as well as wast. Also 
analogy : Are, were ; art, wert. 

Ex. — " That riches rarely purchase friends, thou didst soon discover, when thou wert 
left to stand thy trial uncountenanced and alone." — Dr. Johnson. 

" How wert thou handled, being prisoner." — Shaksjpeare. 
" Thou wert an honest lad ; 
Wert generous, grateful, not without ambition." — Eogers. 
" To her who site where thou wert laid."— Bryant. 



VERBS. — ILLUSTRATIONS. 163 

" Thou that wert a father, and art now alone."-— JWVs. Hemans. 
" 'Tis all too late — thou wert, thou art, 
The cherished madness of my heart." — Byron. 

S. 

The purely subjunctive emphatic forms of the imperfect tense, as required with 
thou, I have either never seen or never noticed in standard English. The following, 
however, from a man that studied his language with the utmost care, seems to favor the 
inflecting of did : — 

" Thine was a dangerous gift, the gift of Beauty ; 

Would thou hadst [didst have] less, or wert as once thou wast." — Rogers. 

A general view of the Verb, showing its various proper uses; especially 
with reference to those points, in regard to which we are most liable to use 
it erroneously. 

Voice ; Transitive verbs, Intransitive, Passive, and Neuter. — The whole tribo 
has perished ; not, is perished. The rain had ceased, and the sun again was shining ; not, 
was ceased. The mail has arrived. He had departid. He has retired from business. 
They had come. Not many students have entered as yet. He has grown but little. 
They have all expired. A few have deserted. He has fallen from power. She has returned. 
The senator had returned to his seat. The senator was returned to his seat, by his con- 
stituents. Corn is raised in every part of the state ; not, Cora is grown in every part of 
the state. The young lady is grown, and competent to judge for herself; i. e., she i3 of 
age. (So used in the West, but perhaps not elegantly.) The peaches have ripened. 
Having retired to his room ; not, Being retired. Having got rid of his sickness, he left us. 
We shall premise a few observations. He repented of his rashness. She got into the ear- 
riage. He got himself appointed. They enlarged on the subject. Corn is selling at a 
good price ; not, is being sold. While the commissioners were laying out these lands ; not , 
While these lands were being laid out. He then told me of all the books that are now 
writing or printing in the several parts of Europe. — Addison. The court was then hold- 
ing. His goods are selling off below cost. Gold is now found in California. A strange 
report is circulated. While these things were preparing. The whole row of buildings is 
either consumed or now consuming by fire. He presented me a fine horse. A fine horse 
was presented me ; or, to me. The government allowed him a pension. A pension was 
allowed him. The young lady paid you a high compliment. A high compliment loas paid 
you. The President offered him a good situation. A good situation was offered him by 
the President. They showed us a neat room. A neat room was shown to us. He prom- 
ised me the book. The book was promised me ; or, to me ; i. e., to me, and not to any 
other person. The book lies on the shelf. It has lain there ever since you laid it there. 
Pick up what lies in your way ; not, lays. A writ lies to some higher court. I sat down 
on the -sofa beside her; not, set. We had just sat down to breakfast. Set your heart on 
things above. Setting aside this consideration, what next ? The hen, while setting, broke 
some of her eggs. (So used in the West.) The legislature, while sitting, passed some 
good laws. 

Mood and Tense. — I am writing. I write every day. Now swell the woods, their 
ev'ry music wakes. — Thompson. Nations, like other things, rise, flourish, and decay. The 
moment thou eatest thereof, thou diest. I have written your letter ; here it is. I have 
known him a long time. I have writ/en to him frequently. I have read Homer ; yet it is 
so long ago, that I have forgotten much about him. We have been at this fair five days. 
It is now five days since Ave came to this fair. Many a good man has been killed in war. 
I have been young. He had been rich. I tvas writing at the time. I wrote to him yester- 
day. I wrote this morning. Solomon built the temple of Jerusalem. God existed long 
before the creation of this world ; and there never was a time when he did not exist. 
Bonaparte wore a gray surtout and a three-cornered hat. The Indians had set fire to 
every house. The poor woman looked like one that had enjoyed happier days. He was 
now deserted by those who had been supp<-rted by him. The very rats instinctively had 
quit it. He said he had just now been examining what other papers say on the subject. — 
Addison. And those who had been dead, sat up, and began to speak. I will tarry no longer. 
Spring will soon be here. Father has said that you shall stay at home. I have ever been, 
and I hope I shall ever be, your friend. Whatsoever shall have been planted there, will be 
destroyed. But how the peace is to be kept when you have neither the popular assent nor 
the military force, I do not understand. When I have completed it, I will send it to you. 
When I have learned my lesson, I will go with you. A person who shall have invented a 
new machine, may procure a patent. I said I would go with you when I had learned my 
lesson. He may write. He may be writing. I can write. I could write. I may have erred 



164 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

in this matter. I may have written the letter, when you come again. Resolve to be virtu- 
ous. Be cheerful. He is to be rewarded. He is to go. He is about to go. He came to see 
you. It were better for us to keep in action, than to rest in such a condition. 



I see what has happened. I saw what had happened. I saw what happened. He 
studies that he may improve. He studied that lie might improve. If he /tad studied, 
he might have improved. He studies to improve. He studied to improve. I £&£»£ 
he w*/Z if he caw. I thought he would if he could. I l/mtft — I thought — he would 
have succeeded, if he cotdd have got the means — if he had applied himself. Ye will 
not come that ye may have life. Ye would not cowie that ye might have life. Ye would not 
7iat<e come, if I had offered you life. If you know better, you should do better. If you 
knew better, you should have done better. I know he will pay you, if he has the money — 
has obtained his money. I knew he would pay you, if he had the money — obtained the 
money — had obtained the money. I knew he would have paid you, if he had had the 
money — had obtained the money. You may write if you mil. You might write if you 
would. You might have written, if you had obeyed me. Who would not be wise ? When 
you ftave wade your Constitution as you would have it, you should keep it so. He may 
write, if he can find a pen. He might write, if he coidd find a pen. He might have written, 
if he could have found a pen. He may have written, if he found a pen. I wrasfc he ??za?/ 
prosper. I wished he might prosper. I wisfc he ?m-e well. I wished he 7>ad feeew well. I 
s7<«77 fee obliged to him if he i«77 gratify me. I should be obliged to him, if he would gratify 
me. I should have been obliged to him, if he would have, gratified me — if he had gratified 
me. Our work may perish, yet his name .sfea/7 endure. Though our work should parish, 
his name would endure. Tell him, if he goes I s7/a/7 go with him. I fo7d him, if he w«i< 
I should go with him. A nation would be condemned by the impartial voice of mankind, 
if it should go to war on a claim of which it doubts the legality. We ic*7Z jpicfc up the 
apples that fall to the ground. We wi7Z ptc.fc up the apples that have fallen to the ground. 
We will pick up the apples that may fall to the ground. We wi7Z picA: up the apples that 
may have fallen to the ground. I icas in Cuba, before I went to Mexico. I had been in 
Cuba, before 1 went to Me: 

They sold before we bought. They had sold before we bought. They sold before we 
had bought. They /md sold before we had bought. They sold alter v. e bought. Those that 
Tiud been rich, were now poor. They who might have houses to rent, now live in rented 
houses. They who might have had houses to rent, now lived in rented houses. I expected 
he would say something on the question ; not, would have taid. I hope he will go if he 
can. I hoped be would go if be could. I heard he would have gone, if he co?dd 7/m?e oo* a 
horse — if yon had sent him a horse ; not, had have sent. We hoped to meit you ; not, to 
have met. lie appeared to have talked with yon on the subject. I think it will appear 
that he 7/a,s not violated the law. I thought it wowZd opjpear that he 7/«d not violated the 
law. I thought he would appear not to ftave violated the law. I thought it would have ap- 
peared that he Tiad not violated the law. Protect the innocent, and relieve tbe distressed. 
May y on protect tbe innocent, and relieve the distressed. Study, that y<m may improve. 
He studies, that he ???a// imj>rove. He studies to improve. He ce.we that he might go with 
us. He came to ao with us. If I were. If I should be. It zme useless. It woidd be 
useless. If I were to wrfte. If I should write. It were proper for you *o do this in char- 
ity. It were proper you did this in charity. It would fee ] roper, that you should do this 
in charity. What were wealth and glory without thee? What ?c 4f7d wealth and glory 
fee without thee ? I itrere fo blame, were I to do so. I should be to blame, if I should do so. 
My conduct fead feeen different, 7*ad you treated me differently. My conduct would have 
been different, if you 7md treated me differently. JFere every man <o acZ thus — If every 
man acted thus — If every man should act thus, what would be the consequences? Had 
every man acted thus — If every man should have acted thus, what would have been the 
consequences ? 



If he is at home (now). If he fee at home (when you get to his house). If I was in 
danger, I did not know it. If I were in danger, I would try to get out of it. If he had 
sold his farm, he ought to have said so. If he had sold his farm, he would buy another. 
.Had I ever been, or were 1 even now, to blame, what then ? If this is the lady, I am 
much mistaken. If she fee at home, I will mil for her. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin 
surprise thee. Be quick lest he escape. Beware lest thou fall. If he ever was in my 
situation, he will know how to sympathize with me. If he were in my situation, he ivould 
know how to sympathize with me. He talked to me as if I were his cousin. (I am not.) 
He talked to me as if he thought I loved him — Zore him [even now]. (Ostensibly no love ; 
though there is no positive denial.) If he is guilty, he should be hanged. If ho were 
guilty, he ivould be hanged. If he fee convicted, he will be hanged. If he is convicted, ho 
will be hanged to-morrow. Though he often reproves me, I still Zore him. Though he 
reprove me, I ivill continue to love him. If a man have a hundred sheep, and lose one, will 
he not leave the ninety-nine to seek it ? If James has a hundred marbles, why doe* he 



YERBS. — ILLUSTRATIONS. 165 

never show us any ? If thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee. If 
your hand is hurt, bind it up. If it is necessary [now], I will go [now]. If it be necessary 
[hereafter], I will go. If there is any thing new in this book, I can not find it. 
If there be any thing new in this boolr, I shall be apt to find it. If there was any thing 
new at the fair — If there is any thing new in this hook, I did not find it. If there had 
been any thing new at the fair— If there were any thing new in this book, I should have 
found it. If the place is sold, he is, or will be, obliged \ to remove. If the place be sold, he 
will be obliged to remove. When the place is sold, he will be obliged to remove. If he learn 
no better, I shall take hi m from school. Did he learn no faster, I would take him from 
school. If there be a fish on the hook, do not trouble him. If the fish on your hook is 
large, pull gently. If the marble is dropped into the tumbler, it must be full. If the 
marble be dropped into the fall tumbler, the water will overflow. When the marble is 
dropped into the full tumbler, the water will overflow — overflows. I can not tell whether 
he learns fast or not. I can not tell whether he will learn fast or not. I can not tell whether 
he would learn fast or not. If there be but one body in the legislature, it will be no better 
than tyranny. If there is but one body in the legislature, it is no better than tyranny. 
If there were but one body in the legislature, it would be no better than tyranny. If he be 
elected, woe to our liberties ! Suppose I was there, and what can you make of it ? Suppose 
I were there, what would you do ? He trembled as if he had been frightened. He ran as if 
he were running for life. If thou find him, seize him. I wish I were at home. If this is 
charity, pray, let us have no more of it. If this be treason, make the most of it. 
(If judicial inquiry shall prove it treason : I hardly think it is.) " Wa3 he there to aid, 
if aid were necessary? " — D. Webster. (Not, was; the sense is nearly, though not quite, 
should be or might be.) " If I should use the clause, ' When Spring returns,' you would 
perceive that something more was wanting to make a statement." Say, "is wanting," 
unless there is reference to the imperfect statement of another person. (See an error of 
this kind on the first page of Mr. Greene's First Lessons.) 

Judge Sfcory decided that such a law is unconstitutional; not, was. He declared he 
would never abandon what is right. It was maintained, that poetry is beneficial to 
society. He showed that heat expands metals. The doctor said, that fever always 
produces thirst. It vias held in this court, that a tenant who has erected buildings on the 
estate, is not entitled to remove them. He said the lion [a particular one] was a native of 
Africa. He said the lion [all lions] is a native of Africa. I showed him what the proper 
meaning of the word is; not, was. I thought — I was informed, that the young man 
is a German; not, was. Murray said, that a verb * signifies to be, to do, or to 
suffer. Cicero believed that nothing is useful that is not honest. Hiving supposed that 
water may be compressed, he made an experiment. The court decided that the contract is 
valid and binding. He insisted, that the laws of nations prohibit this, and give no such 
power. She told me that Bryant is one of our living poets. The speaker maintained that 
Congress has the right to legislate over territories. He showed what evils may arise if 
Congress can not legislate over them— might arise — could not legislate. I would rather be 
wise than.rich. I would rather have been Shakspeare than Bonaparte. (These forms are 
more elegant than, " I had rather be," iC I had rather been ; " though the latter are not 
without good authority.) 



There was little to enjoy and much to endure, nothing to gain and allfo lose. Th e 
whole assembly was full of singing, dancing, tossing, ogling, squeaking, smiling, fanning* 
frowning, and all those irresistible arts which women put in practice to captivate the 
hearts of reasonable creatures. — Tattler. The river appears to rise. The river appears to 
have risen. He intends to go. He intended to go ; not, to have gone. They were presumed 
to have intended to confer the legacy thus. I found him better than I expected to find him ; 
not, to have found him. They were then disposed to yield. It ivas our duty to dismiss 
him. It was impossible to make a better sale ; not, to have made. It was difficult to 
account for the matter otherwise. You look too hearty to have been sick. They did no 
more than it was their duty to do. It must grieve a good heart to have injured another. 
They were to be sold yesterday. The child ivas thought to have been saved by a large dog. 
He appeared to have been well raised., and ivas brought there to be educated. *The bear was 
said to be in the field. The bear was said to have been in the field. He was able to crush 
you. It was your business to watch and prevent the danger. I will try to requite the 
tavor ; not, I will try and requite the favor. It is useless for me to go. It is useless that 
I should go. My going ivould be useless. It is an honor to you to have assisted your 
parents. It is an honor to you that you have assisted your parents. Having said this, he 
departed ; not, Saying this. When he had said this, he departed. Knowing that you are 
fond of reading-, I have sent you these books. I have sent you these books, because I know 
you are fond of reading. The lion instantly devoured the poor kid put into his dungeon. 
The lion instantly devoured the poor kid which had been put into his dungeon. After 
having been highly honored, h& made a speech. After he had been highlv honored, he 



166 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

made a speech. The electing of a new governor. The election of a new governor. I 
became a better man from the reading cf the Pilgrim's Progress. I became a better man 
from reading the Pilgrim's Progress. In writing his letter, he made some mistakes. In 
the writing of his letter, he made some mistakes. This was converting the deposits to his 
own use. This was a converting of the deposits to bis own use. " He said this in hearing 
his father," differs from " He said this in the hearing of his father." He was killed by 
galloping a horse. (He himself rede the horse.) He icas tolled by the galloping of a 
horse. (Some other person may have been the rider ; or no person.) What think you 
of my planting corn ? (Is it proper ? You being a farmer, as well as I, would you plant ?) 
What do you think of me planting corn ? (Am I not out of my proper line of business ? 
What sort of farmer do I, or would I, make ?) 

Person and Number. — You were. Were you? Ducks swim well. The duck swims 
well. If thou hast made a good choice. Thou darest not and shalt not. He needs not. 
He dares not. It needs not. They were in the wrong. A revenue of a thousand dollars 
is here. A thousand dollars of revenue are here. The Pleasures of Hope is a fine poem. 
The house with all its furniture was destroyed. I, as well as he, am to blame. lie, as 
well as I, is to blame. He or I am. You or he is. William or Thomas is going. Wil- 
liam and Thomas are going. Neither William nor Thomas is going. William and Thomas 
are not going. William, and not Thomas, is going. Every boy and every girl is going. 
All the boys and girls are going. There comes the flock of partridges that were whistling 
in the stubble-field. There come the partridges that were whistling in the stubble-field. 
Many rt man is his own enemy. Of sheep, a hundred head were sold. The public are 
respectfully invited. The " Public " means people in general. The " Times " is a good 
paper. The times are hard. It is / who have befriended you. I am he who has befriended 
you. 

Note. — The teacher may go with his class over the foregoing examples, and make 
such observations upon them as he may deem must to their advantage. 



? 375. Punctuation. — 1. When the entire subject is a clause, or con- 
tains one; when it is a long participial or infinitive phrase; when its 
nominative is modified by a long adjunct or other similar phrase; or 
when a comma is required after the first nominative, — a comma should 
be placed immediately before the finite verb or the predicate. 

Ex. — " That one bad example spoils many good precepts, is well known." " A tree whose 
trunk has been injured, seldom recovers." " For me to furnish him so large and expensive 
an outfit, is utterly impossible." " 3Tan alone of all the dwellers upon earth, is made in God's 
image." "Family feuds, violated friendships, and litigation with neighbors, are the banes 
of society." " The mind, not the act, makes the man guilty." " Nece^ity, that great 
excuse for human frailty, breaks through all law." 

? 376. 2. The verbs of a series construed alike, or two such verbs 
without a connective, or differently modified, are separated by the 
comma ; and if the modifications are long, sometimes by the semicolon. 

Ex, — " The sun illuminates, warms, and vivifies the earth." " Here the cataract leap% 
plunges, into the abyss below." "Kate saw his confusion , and smiled." The Doctor 
received them cordially, and had a kind word for each. 

? 377. 3. A participial or an infinitive phrase, when not restrictive, 
or when not closely joined to what it modifies, is set off by the comma. 

Ex. — "Having entered a carriage, we were soon out of the city." "The rapturous 
music died away', thrilling through all my pulses." "Col. Hamilton invited Col. Smith 
and his wile, who was the only daughter of John Adams, to dine with him." 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

l. 

A fierce dog caught* the robber. A cloud is b passing over us. The 
place was covered with a profusion of flowers. Washington defeated 
Cornwallis. Cornwallis was defeated by Washington. That loathsome 
marsh is now draining. Man becomes indolent in a warm climate. 
Thou didst create this wondrous world. 



VERBS. — EXERCISES. 167 



You do not comprehend me. Here is the old sehoolhouse : on that 
green spot we played at noon. We have learned our lessons. The 
hunters had killed a bear. I shall remain at home when it rains. 
When I have completed this grammar, I will visit you. The turkeys 
will have left the field, before you can get there. I will not beg favors 
of you, as others have done. u Will you walk into my parlor ? " said 
a spider to a fly. 

3. 
You may walk c into the garden, but you must not pull c the flowers. 
Our friends may forsake us. The storm may have broken down the 
old apple-tree. I could not carry the trunk. A good resolution should 
not be broken. If a horse could have been procured, we would have 
sent him. If you should write to her, it might appear that I had 
requested it. Have not your troops served you faithfully and effec- 
tually. 

4. 
Who would refuse to reward d & 8 them 8 ? Does any man believe that 
this harmonious aggregate of states can be preserved by force? Shall 
we submit to chains and slavery ? Did he not rob the Treasury ? If 
he be chosen, he will become insolent. I would I were with him. If 
he valued it highly, he would not sell it so cheap. He smiled as if he 
knew me. He was spoken of for Congress. The victory had been ours, 
had they fought more bravely. 

5. 
Revere thyself, and yet thyself despise. Do not give a poor man a 
stone, after he died for want of bread. Go, wash your face and prepare 
for school. Seek we now some deeper shade. Lead he the way who 
knows the spot. Hallowed be thy name; thy kingdom come. 

6. 

He was born to be e great. I came here to work f , not to play. The 
poem was to be published. The poem deserves to be published. We 
like to please our teacher. You behave too badly to go into company. 
The house is estimated to have cost fifty thousand dollars. To work 4 is 
better than to starve 4 . I am afraid, methinkss, to hear you tell it. 
There let the laurel spread, the cypress wave. I had rather 15 [to] read 
than cipher. 

7. 

James ran fast, pursuing John, and pursued by us. The machinery, 
being oiled, runs well. Having written his letter, he sealed it. The 
priest came clad 14 in his robe pontifical. Truth crushed to earth, shall 
rise again. A word can send the crimson color hurrying to the cheek 
with many meanings. The falling leaves remind us of declining 2 years. 
There kings uncrowned 14 , unepitaphed 2 , shall rot. 

8. 

Considering his age, he is far advanced. To conclude, I shall oppose 
the sending of the navy there. By fearing to attempt something, you 
will do nothing. There is much to do. She was punished for having 
burned her book. The friends who in our summer live, When winter 
comes, are flown. I wept a last adieu. 



168 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

The sun hath set in folded clouds, — 
Its twilight rays are gone; 

And, gathered in the shades of night, 
The storm is rolling on. 
9. 
Mark how the foaming spray, 
Tinged by the sunbeams with reflected dyes, 

Mimics the bow of day 
Arching in majesty the vaulted skies. 
I passed, methought, the melancholy flood, 
With that grim ferryman whom poets write of. 
We ought not to sacrifice the sentiments of the soul, to gratify the 
appetites of the body. From reading the report, you ought to have 
known this. I spend my time in conversation, reading.and writing. 
The conclusion, that this river must be the outpouring of a continent, 
was acute and striking. Here will I plant whatever* 2 the soil is capable 
of producing. The argument is founded on a supposed assent to legis- 
lative authority, without considering whether that exercise be legal or 
illegal. — D. Webster. Observe also the effect on the mind of Richard, 
of Palmers being arrested and committed to prison. — D. Webster. 

(a.) " Caught" is a verb, it affirms something of a subject ; transitive, it has an object ; 
principal parts, — pres. catch, preterit caught, pert", part, caught; irregular, it does not take 
the inflection ed ; in licativ • mood, it declares something as an actual occurrence or fact ; 
imperfect tense, it refers the act simply to past time ; and of the 3rd perton sing, number, to 
agree with its nominative, or subject, " dog," according to Bale XIII. (Repeat it.) 
(6.) " Is" is an auxiliary veil), a verb that helps another to express the act in a certain 
manner or time ; it here expresses the affirmation, indicative mood, and present tense, of 

the verb is passing. " Is passing " is a verb, etc. (c.) Say, potential mood, it expresses 

the permission to walk. potential mood, it expresses the necessity of pulling. 

(d.) " To reward" is a present transitive infinitive, from the verb reward, rewarded, 
rewarded. It is here used as a noun of the neuter gender, third person, singular number ; and 
in the objective case — being the object of the verb would refuse — according to Rule VIII. 
(e.) " To be " is an infinitive, — a form of the verb, that expresses the state without person 
and number, or abstractedly, and frequently resembles a noun ; neuter, it does not imply 
action ; present, it does not express completion at the time referred to ; and it relates to 

" he," and modifies " was born," according to Rule XIV. (/.) it relates to " J," and 

modifies " came " by expressing the purpose, according to Rule XIV. (g.) principal 

parts, methinks, methought ; defective, it has not all the parts of a full verb ; * * * 

and impersonal, being used only in the ?>rd pcrs. sing., without an obvious subject, 

according to Note XIII. (h.) "Pursuing" is a participle, it merely assumes the act of 
its subject, and also resembles an adjective ; transitive, it has an object ; present, it 
expresses the continuance of the act at the time referred to; and it relates to " James," 
according to Rule XIV. (/.) "Being oiled" is a participle, * * * compound, it 
is composed of the auxiliar}' participle being, and the perfect participle oiled; passive it 
assumes the act of the object acted upon ; &c. (/.) "that this river must be the out- 
pouring of a continent," is a substantive, or noun, etc. (Then parse the words separately.) 

28. ANALYSIS EXEMPLIFIED. 

Note. — It is generally best, in analyzing, to take up sentences, however long or com- 
plex, by simple clauses ; omitting their dependent clauses, unless these stand first, to bo 
analyzed afterwards. 

" There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig politicians, 
who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, the laws against 
political offences, but who could not, without incurring the charge of 
inconsistency, declare themselves adverse to relaxation, had received 
a hope that they might, by fomenting the dispute about the court of 
the lord high Stewart, defer for at least a year the passing of a bill 
which they disliked, and yet could not decently oppose." — Macaulay. 



ANALYSIS EXEMPLIFIED. — ADVERBS. 169 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence, or a compound declarative sen- 
tence of which some of the clauses are dependent. "There is strong reason to suspect" 
is the principal clause, of which " strong reason to suspect," is the entire subject; and 
" There is" the entire predicate: "reason''' is the subject-nominative, modified by the 
adjective " strong," and the infinitive "to suspect " performing the office of an adjective ; 
"in " is the predicate-verb, modified by " There" 

" That some able Whig politicians had conceived a hope" is the next simple declarative 
clause, performing the office of a substantive in the objective case governed by "to 
suspect" to which it is connected by "that" : "some able Whig politicians" is the 
entire subject ; and " had conceived a hope" is the entire predicate ; "politicians" is the 
subject-nominative, modified by the adjectives "some" "able" and " Whig" — and 
" had conceived" is the predicate-verb, modified by the objective hope, which is itself 
modified by the article "a." 

"Who thought it dangerous" &c., ( read to "but") is a subordinate relative clause, 
connected to " politicians " by " who" and performing the office of an adjective : " who " 
is the entire subject and subject-nominative ; " thought it dangerous " &c, is the entire predi- 
cate, of which "thought" is the predicate-verb, modified by the objective "it" which 
is modified by "dangerous" and the appositive " to relax" &c, of which "to relax" 
is modified by the adjunct "at that moment," an adverbial element whose principal 
word is "moment" modified by "that," and connected to the verb by " at" 
"to relax " is further modified by the objective " the laws," and "laws " is modified by the 
adjunct "against political offences," performing the office of an adjective. 

"But who could not, ivithout" &c. (to "had"), is a relative clause also modifying 
"politicians," and connected as a coordinate clause to the clause before it, by the 
adversative conjunction "but": "who" is the entire subject and subject-nominative, 
" could not, without incurring " &c, is the entire predicate, of which ".could declare" is 
the predicate-verb, modified by the negative adverb "not," the adverbial adjunct 
"without incurring the charge of inconsistency," the objective "themselves," which is 
modified by the adjective " adverse," which is modified by the adverbial adjunct "to 
relaxation." 

"That they might" &c. (to " which"), is the next simple clause, — dependent, con- 
nected to hope by "that," and performing the office of an adjective: "they" is the 
entire subject and subject-nominative; "might defer" &c, is the entire predicate, of 
which "might defer" is the predicate-verb, modified by the adverbial elements "by 
fomenting the dispute about the court of the lord high steioart" (means), "for a year " (time), 
and the objective element "the passing of a bill," — "fomenting" is attached by " by" 
and modified by "dispute," "dispute" is modified by "the" and " about the court" 
" court " is attached by " about " and modified by "the" and " of the lord high stewart," 
"lord" is attached by "of" and modified by "the" and the appositive "high Stew- 
art;" "for a year" is modified by the adverbial phrase "at least," — "passing" is 
modified by "the," and the adjunct "of a bill." 

" Which they disliked" &c. (to the end), is a relative clause, — declarative, dependent, 
connected to " bill " by " which" and performing the office of an adjective : " They " is 
the entire subject and subject-nominative, " disliked " and " could oppose " are the predi- 
cate-verbs, connected by " and yet," and modified both by the objective " which," and 
the latter verb by the adverb "decently," which is itself modified by the negative adverb 
"not." 

The sentence consists of six clauses, very finely bound together, of which the subject 
of the principal clause is branched out into a cluster of dependent clauses. 

29. ADVERBS. 

? An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

? 378. An adverb modifies by expressing manner, degree, time, place, or 
some other circumstance. 

Ex. — " She is homely, but she sings beautifully." " The lake is very deep." " Yonder 
lies your book." " I will write to-morrow." " He speaks tolerably well." 

? 379. Some adverbs may be used to modify substantives, 
phrases, or sentences. 

Ex. — " Also, too, likewise, chiefly, especially, solely, entirely, not, even, extra, 
merely, only." "They were sound only in part." "Not only he, but you too." "The 
immateriality of the soul, has, I think, been evinced to almost a demonstration." — 

15 



170 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

Addison. " He was so young — so intelligent — so every thing that we are apt to like in a 
young man." — Irving. (Here all the sentence from every to the end, seems to be used as 
an adjective.) " Here the word study has an object, namely, lesson." 

? Such adverbs often imply exclusion or addition ; and they have a 
slight reference to the rest of the sentence, to something already said, 
or to something implied. 

Ex.—" The horses only were sold " [; but nothing else was sold]. " John only | bor- 
rowed the horse." No other person assisted. " John j only borrowed the horse." He 
did not buy him. " John borrowed the horse only." He borrowed nothing more. 

? An adverb sometimes relates to a substantive or a sentence, but still 
modifies the verb in its own clause. 

Ex. — The cheat wherein the money was deposited.'''' Wherein, though relating to 
chest, modifies was deposited. " The reason why it has been neglected." " And leavt 
the world for me to bustle in." — See below. 

? Some adverbs are often used to connect two clauses and 
modify their verbs. When so used, they are termed conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

? 380. A conjunctive adverb connects and modifies. It shows how two 
verbs are related in time, place, manner, or some other circumstance. 

? It joins its own phrase or clause to something else, in the 
sense of an adverb, an adjective, or a noun. 

Ex. — " Where, while, when, whence, whither, as, how, till, after, before." "Make 
hay while the sun shines." " He rode the horse before he bought him." ( When?) " You 
speak of it AS you understand it." (How?) " Go | where glory waite thee." " I was 
there | where it happened." " In the grave | where our hero was buried." In what 
grave? (Adjective.) " I saio | how a pin is made." I saw what? (Noun.) 

? 881. A few adverbs are sometimes so disconnected from 
the rest of the sentence, that it would not seem improper to 
say they are used independently. 

Ix. — " Nay, yea, no, yes, further, furthermore, besides, consequently, accordingly, 

thus, so, why, well, amen, otherwise." " Nay, such was the general clamor, that " 

" Why, you must be crazy." " Well, I hardly know what to say." " Furthermore, 
there is no alternative." "So, so, and this is the way you have spent your time." 
" There were three in all ; namely, John, James, and Joseph." " Secondly, he could go 
there, if he would." " There is none righteous, no, not one." " Thus, in France, com- 
mon carriers are not liable for robbery." — Kent. 

? But such adverbs may be parsed as relating to the entire sentence, 
or to the preceding or following sentence or discourse, or to something 
understood; and some of them may sufficiently resemble conjunctions 
to be parsed as such. 

? 882. Not only single words, but sometimes entire phrases, 
are used in the sense of adverbs. Such are termed adverbial 
phrases, and parsed like adverbs. 

Ex. — "In general" ^generally ; "at last "=lastly ; "by and by"=-soon, shortly; 
" at all "=in any degree. " At least ; in short ; on high ; in fine ; at present ; as yet ; on 
the contrary ; at random ; to and fro ; out and out ; through and through ; all over ; at 
once ; at most ; at the most ; for the most part ; three times ; four times ; " &c. ; " man 
byman"=La<. viritim ; (or apply Rule XI;) "foot by foot ; glass to glass; inch by 
inch ; no more ; sooner or later ; " " the best "=best, most. " Whose brisk awakening 
tound he loved the best." " Representation and taxation should go hand hi hand." 
" The argument was carried against him all hollow." — Irvine, 



ADVERBS. 171 

? An adverbial phrase consists of two or more words habitually associ- 
ated, and conveying together a fixed, peculiar, and sometimes idiomatic 
meaning. 

A phrase should not be parsed as a whole, when its words can be parsed separately 
with as much propriety. 

? Adverbs promote brevity. They are not absolutely necessary to 
convey our thoughts. Perhaps we could dispense with all of them 
except not. 

? 383. The sense of almost every adverb can be conveyed by 
an adjunct or some other expression. 

Ex. — Wisely=in a wise manner, with wisdom ; haughtily=in a haughty manner ; 
rapidly==^with rapidity ; inattentively=without attention ; now=&t this time ; 7iere— at or 
in this place ; then— at that place ; thence=from that place ; first=in the first place ; 
secondly=m the second place ; thus=in this manner ; very— in a high degree ; ever=&t 
any time ; wever=at no time ; why=for what reason ; whereby=by which means ; hereto- 
fore=uj) to this time ; wo=It is not so, I will or shall not. " When [At what time] will 
you go ? " " Whence [From what place] is he ? " 

But it should not be inferred, as some grammarians seem to have done, that a word 
is an adverb whenever it is equivalent to an adjunct. 

? 384. A conjunctive adverb is nearly always equivalent to 
two adjuncts. 

Ex. — " She was buried whenthe sun was setting "=She was buried at the time in which 
the sun was setting. " The seed grew up where it fell ; " i. ©., from the place on which it 
fell. vls=in the manner in which, or, at the time at which. When may stand for then 
when; where-, for there where; as, for so as. 

? Observe the correspondence: Here, there, where; hence, thence, 
whence; hither, thither, whither; there, where; then, when; whenever, 
wherever. Also the resemblance which these words bear to this, that; 
which, what, whatever. "I will go where you board; " "I will take what 
you send : " " Go whenever you please ; " " Take xohaiever you want." 

? 38a. Adjuncts are still in use as well as their adverbs, and 
sometimes they are preferable. 

Ex.— " In a silly way," "in a silly manner," is better than sillily; "in a holy 
manner," than holily ;" in a small way or degree," than smally ; "in concord," than 
concordantly ; "by which," " with which," than wherewith. 

? Most adverbial phrases and some adverbs are but imperfect 
adjuncts. 

Ex. — At present=a,t the present time ; yesterday~~(m yesterday ; in vatn=in a vain 
manner ; long ago=a,t a time long gone by. 

The adverbs may be divided into several classes. — See Book First. 

? 386. The same word, when differently applied, may be referred to a different class, 
sometimes the same word expresses time as well as place ; as, generally, before. Fre- 
quently a word denotes manner when it modifies a verb, and degree when it modifies an 
adjective or an adverb : as, " He writes so," " He thinks so ; " " He writes so awkwardly." 
" How did you work the sum ? " "I know not how deep it is." 



? 387- Most adverbs are formed by annexing ly to adjec- 
tives or participles. 

Ex. — " Firm, firmly ; noble, nobly ; agreeable, agreeably ; consistent, consistently ; con- 
formable, conformably; united, unitedly ; sparing, sparingly." 
£? Ly is a contraction of like; or rather, of lie, Saxon, — German, lich. 



172 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? Some adverbs are compounded of two or more words. 

Ex. — Indeed, /orever, hereupon, whereip^ihal, aboard=on board, ahead, anew, hereaf- 
ter, whenever, foret'ermore, whithersoever, everso, helter-skelter. 

? §88- Many adverbs may be compared like adjectives; but 
derivative adverbs ending in ly, are nearly always compared 
by more and most. 

Ex. — " Soon, sooner, soonest ; early, earlier, earliest ; wisely, more wisely, most 
wisely." 

Time, space, manner, degree, negation, affirmation, and most objects or conceptions 
in regard to which adverbs are used, are universal ; or so general that adverbs often 
intrench upon the ground occupied by other parts of speech. Usually, they assist them, 
and sometimes they even pass into their ranks ; but more frequently they force them 
into their own service. The difficulty is generally greatest in distinguishing them 

from adjectives and conjunctions. 

? 389. Adverbs assist the tenses, generally rendering the time more 
definite. 

Ex. — "I will study presently — by and by — to-morrow — henceforth." 

? 390. There is also an affinity, if we may so term it, between them 
and the moods. 

Adverbs of affirmation resemble the indicative mood ; (certainly, surely ;) some other 
adverbs, the potential or the subjunctive ; as, " Perhaps he will come"=He may come. 
Some adverbs of space need not the verb, to express a powerful imperative. " On, ye 
brave ! "=March on &c. " Up, warder, ho ! " " On, Stanley, on." " Away with it." 
" Down with tyranny ! " " Out with him." " Hence, or thou diest." — Participles : " He 
came puffing and blowing." (He came how?) 

? 391. Adverbs have also some affinity to nouns and pronouns. 

" The grav* where our hero was buried "=The grave in which &c. Adverbs sometimes 
become nouns : as, " For once ; " " By far the best ; " " And closed for aye the sparkling 
glance." Adverb: " We have played enough." Noun: "We have caught enough." Such 
words as much, more, enough, little, are nouns when used after transitive verbs. 

? 392. Some adverbs connect like conjunctions. But adverbs resem- 
ble adjectives more than they resemble any other part of speech. 

Adverbs and Adjectives. 

? 393. Frequently, the same word may serve as an adjective or as an 

adverb. 

Ex. — " No, well, better, best, much, more, most, very, wide, long, first, all, even, 
just, like, right, wrong, else, next, pretty (=tolerably), little, less, least, still, ill, worse, 
worst, enough, full, only, hard, fast, late, yonder, alone, early, likely, daily, weakly, 
weekly, monthly, yearly, gentlemanly, manly, comely, princely, deadly, kingly, 
nightly ; " no man," adj. ; "«o deeper," adv. 

? 394. Usually, the adverb is distinguished from the adjective by end- 
ing in ly or s. 

Ex. — Adj. : " Brave, witty, beautiful, able ; inward, outward, upward." 

Adv. : " Bravely, wittily, beautifully, ably ; inwards, outwards, upwardi." 
? 395. In poetry and in compound words, the adjective form of the 
word, or the adjective mode of comparison, is allowed to a greater extent 
than elsewhere. 

Ex. — "High-colored, high-finished, smooth-gliding." "The swallow sings sweet 
from her nest in the wall." " Drink deep or touch not the Pierian spring." " Though 
thou wert firmlier fastened than a rock." For highly, smoothly, sweetly, deeply, more 
firmly. Yet, even in most such compounds, the reference is still to a noun rather than to 
a verb ; as, sweet-scented=of sweet scent ; high-6oaring=high in soaring ; and we can not 
say high-polished, but must say highly polished. 



ADVERBS. 173 

? 396. A word having the form of an adjective, should not be need- 
lessly treated as an adverb. In most instances,* the verb merely shows 
how the quality is acquired or made known. The quality may often be 
conceived as belonging to the subject, regardless of the verb; or else as 
belonging to it in the way shown by the verb. 

Ex. — " The apples boil softy " The clay burns white." " The waves dashed high." 
" The fields look pleasant." " I feel cold." " I feel very bad." " The rose smells sweet." 
"Mary appears neat." She is always so, she is so in respect to every thing ; — neatness 
is a trait in her character. "Mary dresses neatly." She is neat so far as dressing is 
concerned. "The apple tastes sour." " He stood firm." -'We arrived safe." "Soft 
blows the breeze." ("Soft is the breeze that blows o'er Ceylon's isle.") " Velvet feels 
smooth." " His hammock swung loose at the sport of the wind.'"* " The wind blew the 
colder, the longer it blew." " Unjustly he bleeds," is the reverse of—" Unjust he 
bleeds "=Being unjust, he now suffers for it. 

? 397. So, when the word expresses the state or condition of the 
subject, rather than the manner, place, or time of the verb, it is an 
adjective. 

Ex. — Athirst; and usually, asleep, alone, alike, ablaze, afoot, afloat, adrift. 

? Generally speaking, the adverb approaches the adjective as the 
verb approaches a neuter signification, or that of the verb be. 
Ex. — " He spoke better; " adv. " He seemed better; " "He felt better; " adj. 

? The adverbs that may be treated as conjunctions, are usually such 
as stand at or near the beginning of a sentence, to connect it to the 
preceding discourse. 

? 398. Words from almost every other part of speech are occasionally 
used as adverbs, to express manner, degree, or place. 

Ex. — " Freezing cold ; " " scalding hot ; " " carnation red ; " " velvet soft ; " " marble 
cold;" "dripping wet;" "passing strange;" "somewhat better;" "none the worse." 
"Walkiw." " Sit down." "Above, around, beneath, within, the lurid fires gleamed." 
" You have paid dear for the whistle." " Smack went the whip, round went the wheels." 
" Tramp, tramp, across the land they speed ; Splash, splash, across the sea." 

? 399. The is sometimes an adverb. Lat., eo quo,' Germ., wie 

( how ) wie (how) . 

Ex. — " The more, the merrier." " The fewer, the better cheer." " The stronger the 
mind, the greater its ambition." " The deeper the well, the cooler the water." 

? 400. So and thus sometimes represent a preceding or a following 
word, phrase, or sentence. No and yes are each equivalent to a sen- 
tence. 

Ex. — " Thus has it ever been." " He is a great scholar. — So I was told." " She is 
high-tempered, and so are you." " Nay, let me describe it ; — it was so." " Did you see 
the elephant? — No; [=] I did not see him." 

? 401. An adverb is sometimes varied from its usual meaning, to give 
a peculiar or elegant turn to the sentence. Thus, the word there does 
not always denote place, but sometimes elegantly introduces the sen- 
tence; as, "There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin ; " "There 
was nothing there that I wanted." Then may imply condition rather 
than time ; as, " Suppose your parents were dead, how would you make 
a living then?"=in that condition? 

Other instances : "Well, to be sure." " Why, what a fidget you are in." " Noiv, 
really, I had not thought of that." 

? 402. " Now now "=Sometimes sometimes. 

Ex. — "Now loud, now low; now swift, now slow; 

O'er hill and vale they winding go." 



174 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 403. Adverbs are used very extensively to form compound words, 
especially adjectives. The common prefix un, and its equivalents, are 
adverbial, signifying not. 

Ex. — " Well-bred, inborn, far-fetched, downtrodden ; wnpunished, tmtrue, impure." 

Kule XV. — Adverbs belong to the words, phrases, or sen- 
tences, which they modify. 

Note XV. — A conjunctive adverb joins its phrase or clause to some- 
thing else, in the sense of an adverb, an adjective, or a noun. 

Tell of what Tcind, and compare those that may be compared: — 

Now, soon, late, here, early, already, yesterday, yonder, most, very, little, ill, badly, 
enough, too, awfully, heroically, wickedly, proudly, dearly, when, whence, fully, scarcely, 
far, long, perhaps, well, .always, ever, everywhere, almost, nearly, not, headlong, down- 
wards, backwards, thus, extempore',' only, zealously, doubtless, carelessly, how, so, as. 

Mention the corresponding adverb : — 

True, new, sure, rich, evident, good, clear, bright, light, glaring, tripping, curious, 
furious, studious, famous, glorious, humorous, jealous, wondrous, victorious, ardent, 
patient, ancient, anxious, cautious, humble, simple, idle, noble, gentle, little, terrible, 
horrible, imperishable, lazy, easy, pretty, hearty, ruddy, merry, weary, necessary, moral, 
general, equal, final, radical, mean, plain, vain, common, certain, useful, shameful, 
woful, sorrowful, playful, strict, correct, direct, exact, mild, wild, bold, cold, free, safe, 
neat, knowing, glaring, fresh, deep, late, thick, profuse, slavish, knavish ; richer, richest, 
fairer, profoundest, intenser, plainer, clearest, severest, readiest, gentlest, abler, ablest ; 
judicial, critic, graphic, music, poetic, order, instant, grammar, geography, history, 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry. 

With vigor ; in a careless manner ; without care ; without hope ; without art ; with 
pride ; with scorn ; in what place ; from what place ; from what source ; from what 
cause ; in this place ; at this place ; in this manner ; in such a manner ; in that place ; 
to that place ; at all times ; in all places ; at the present time ; as occasion requires ; to 
such a degree ; in a higher degree ; in the lowest degree ; to or in some place ; in any 
degree whatever (=at all) ; into equal parts ; in truth ; without doubt ; it may be that ; 
in an instant ; at that time ; at what time ; one time ; in the first place ; in the second 
place ; at whatever time ; in whatever place ; from instinct ; for the future ; by the day ; 
by the year. 

What phrases correspond to the following adverbs : — 

Modestly, properly, angrily, heavily, disdainfully, here, there, where, hither, thither, 
whither, hence, thence, whence, now, then, when, yet, monthly, successively, successfully, 
twice, foolishly, justly, whereby, thereby, generally, mostly, certainly, amen, more 
forcibly, most harmoniously. 

Correct the following sentence s, most of which have adverbs erroneous either in form or in 
position : — 

" I never studied grammar, but I can talk just as good as them that talk grammat- 
ical." " Hindostan is a remarkable fine country." — Lord Jeffrey. "The North has 
pursued an entire different course." " Would the South act wise, to sell her country and 
inheritance ? " " He treated me very hospitable." " It is awful warm." " They lived 
extravagant." " An improper triphthong is one in which all the vowels are not sounded." 
( — not all — ) " The two main pillars which can only support the Republic." " I am no 
patient, sir, nor do I want no physician." (Avoid two negatives to express negation.) 
" I don't want nothing. " 

Mention the adverbs ; of what kind, and what they modify : — 

The horse runs swiftly. He speaks grammatically. Never before did I see her look 
so pale. God is everywhere. These things have always been so. You do not know him 
as well as I do. I just now saw him here. He read aloud. The hall was brilliantly 
illuminated, and densely crowded with hearers. Perhaps you have not noticed quite all 
the adverbs in the sentence which I have just read. The women especially were well 
provided for. Your book is more beautiful, but mine is more useful. Not to us, not to 
us, but to thy name be all the praise. I have been too idle heretofore ; but henceforth I 
will study more diligently. However cold it may be, we can tarry no longer. The 
cooler the water, the better I like it. 

You may use my horse when and as you please. Secondly, there is no honorable way 



PREPOSITIONS. 175 

of retreating. Why, off again ? I consulted him once or twice ; not oftener. Did you 
ever tell a falsehood ? No, indeed. The flowers are no more. The monkey at once 
took up the violin and tried it all over, but could not find where the tune lay. 

And thou hast hob-a-nobbed with Pharaoh, glass to glass.— JBT, Smith. 

Now slowly move your fiddle-stick ; 

Now tantan, tantantivi, quick. — Dean Swift. 

EXERCISE FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

I. 

The clouds move slowly. Now came still evening on. She gazed 
long upon the clouds in the west, while they were slowly passing away. 
As the year blooms and fades, so does human life. So great a man 
could not be always kept in obscurity. Having duly arranged his 
affairs, he departed immediately. You are yet young enough to learn 
the French language very easily. The most worthless things are some- 
times most esteemed. Where was there ever an army that had served 
their country more faithfully ? 

2. 

The sun stands tiptoe on the misty mountain's top. In vain we seek for 
perfect happiness. We lived there long ago. The more I study grammar, 
the better I like it. Man by man, and foot by foot, did the soldiers pro- 
ceed over the Alps. It was not at all strange, that he should at last de- 
fend himself. Only the young men were sent to war. The field had only 
been plowed. The wretched fugitives were pursued even to the churches. 
Briefly, we rely on you alone. Finally, the war is already begun, and 
we must either conquer or perish. Shall this colossal Union be broken 
asunder? No; never, never ! They are most firmly good that best 
know why. 

3. 

Friends, but few on earth, and therefore dear ; 
Sought oft, and sought almost as oft in vain. — Pollok. 
Peace, break thou off, — -look, where it comes again ! — Shah. : Hamlet. 
Now they wax, and now they dwindle, 
Whirling with the whirling spindle ; 
Twist ye, twine ye ! even so 

Mingle human bliss and woe. — W. Scott. 
The piper loud and louder blew, 
The dancers quick and quicker flew.— Burns. 

30. PREPOSITIONS. 

? 404. A preposition is a word used to show some relation 
between different things. 

Ex. — " A rabbit in a hollow tree.' n (What in what ?) " How sweetly bloom the vio- 
lets on yonder bank ! " " The wind glides in waves over the bristling barley.' 1 '' 

Note, — The student can readily observe, that prepositions do not denote objects, acts, 
or qualities, but serve as connecting links. 

? 405. The same preposition may serve to express several different but 
analogous relations. 

Ex. — " To live in & forest in the winter^ in sickness and in sorrow" 



176 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

? 406. Prepositions subjoin the place, time, doer, possessor, cause, source, 
purpose, means, manner, condition, or some other circumstance. They 
show where, whither, whence, when, hoiv long 7 by ivhat, to what extent, in 
what way, of what kind, &c. 

Ex. — " The fox was caught under a bluff, in the morning, before sunrise, by the dogs 
of our neighbor." " To he punished fob mischief.' 1 '' " The light of the sun." " To work 
von pay." " To chop with an axe." " To write with elegance." " To he in poverty.'" 
" Done against law." 

? The preposition with its objective, or with the words re- 
quired after it to complete the sense, forms what is termed an 
adjunct. 

Ex. — "He was shot | in his cabin, | on Wednesday, | with an arrow, | by an Indian \ of 
the Comanche tribe." " The same man that I came with ;" i. e., with whom. " His elec- 
tion depends on how his friends conduct the canvass." " The ship was about to be ivrecked." 

? A series of adjuncts depending on one another, may be termed a 
compound adjunct. 

Ex. — "The gold in apiece of quartz from the mines of California." 

? Some adjuncts may be inverted or parted, especially in poetry. 

Ex. — " Wliom was it given to f " better, To whom was it given ? " Erom crag to crag, 
the rattling peaks among"=among the rattling peaks. " Come, walk with me the jungle 
through." 

? An adjunct may relate to an object, an act or a state, or a 
quality. 

Ex. — " Caves in the mountains." " The river rises in the mountains." " The river 
is clear in the mountains." 

In other words, adjuncts may modify substantives, adjectives, verbs, or 
adverbs. 

? 407. Adjuncts may sometimes be used in stead of adjectives, and 
generally in stead of adverbs. Besides, they supply the deficiency of 
adjectives and adverbs. 

Ex. — "A man of ivisdom and virtue "= A ivise and virtuous man. " A ship without 
motion "=A motionless ship. " To stand here "=To stand in this place. " A land of lib- 
erty." (No adj.) " To stand on the shores of New England." (No adv.) 

Remark. — When there is no adjective corresponding to the adjunct, the noun itself 
may sometimes he used as an adjective ; and why, then, may not this principle be ex- 
tended by analogy to the adverb ? — See Rule X. 

Ex. — " A floor of marble "=A marble floor ; adj. "Much dearer ; by five dollars dearer ; 
five dollars dearer ; five times dearer ; nothing better ; acme better ; "adv. 

? 408. Adjuncts having of, and a few other adjuncts, extend over all 
the ground occupied by the possessive case. 

Ex.—" The beauty of Absalom "=Absalom , s beauty. " The rays from the sun "*=* 
The sun's rays. _ 

The substantive following the preposition or governed by it, is sometimes called the 
subsequent term ; and the other word or words to which it refers, are called the antecedent 
term. 

Ex. — " This large melon grew on a slender vine." " The general of our army spoke." 
" The general spoke of our army." 

? 409, The subsequent term may be even an infinitive, a 
phrase, or a whole clause. 

Ex.—" He is about to start" " Anxious for him to be caught." " The labor of clear- 
ing land depends on how much timber there is growing on it.' " Reason and justice have 
been jurymen since before Noah was a sailor." — Shah. 

? 410. More than one preposition may govern the same sub- 



PREPOSITIONS. 177 

stantive, and more than one substantive may be governed by 
the same preposition. 

Ex, — " He walked up and down the hall.'''' " He approved of, and voted for, the meas- 
ure;" better, He approved of the measure, and voted for it. " A battle between the 
Sioux and the Comanches." " He bequeathed his estate to his wife, children, and friends.'''' 

? 411. When a preposition has no word to govern, it becomes 
an adverb. 

Ex. — " He sleeps above, but keeps his office below." (Where?) "The eagle flew up, 
then around, then down again." " The old chief walked before, and his squaw behind." 

When such words are adverbs, they usually refer to the opposite preposition or ad- 
verb, rather than to a noun. Below to above, up to down, &c. 

? 412. Sometimes the objective is merely omitted ; sometimes 
the antecedent term is omitted, or there is none. 

Ex. — " The man you spoke of; " i. e., of whom you spoke. " Vengeance on whoever 

has killed him;" i. e., on him who " Industrious all, from the youngest to the 

oldest;" i. e., reckoning from " As for riches, they are not worth so much care 

and anxiety." " Sold at the rate of from fifty cents to a dollar ; " i. e., of prices varying 
from fifty cents to a dollar : or, when but one indefinite thing is meant, the first prepo- 
sition may be parsed as governing all the rest of the phrase, and the second as having 
no antecedent term. "Between six and seven hundred persons were there." Here, 
" Between six and seven hundred," may be parsed as one numeral ; denoting a particular 
number, though indefinitely known : or the word number, as a plural collective noun, 
may be supplied before between. 

? 413. The preposition itself is sometimes omitted; especially for, to, 
or unto. These prepositions are usually omitted after like, unlike, near, 
nigh, opposite, or such verbs as may be followed in the active voice by 
two objectives; the one governed by the verb, and the other denoting 
the person to whom the act refers, — sometimes called, for distinction, 
the direct object, and the indirect. 

Ex. — " The house was near [to] the river — nearer [to] the river — next to ours." 
" The son is like [to or unto] his father." " Opposite [to] the market." " Lend him 
your knife "=Lend your knife to him. " He played me some odd tricks ; " i. e., for 
me, — for my diversion ; or, tricks for which I suffered, or was held responsible. 

^^Eor the list of prepositions, see Book Eirst. 
? A word evidently used in the sense of a preposition, should be parsed 
as such. 

Ex. — " He found his purse minus the cash." " The case of Stiles versus Stokes." 
'* Via St. Louis." " England can spare such men as [spare men like] him." — Brougham. 

? 414. When a phrase is used in the sense of a preposition, or when 
two prepositions unite to express one complex relation, the whole may 
be parsed as a compound or a complex preposition, & prepositional phrase, 
or simply a preposition. 

Ex.— " According to ; as to ; as for ; " &c. "He went as far as Natchez." (N. B. 
Any supplied word would change the sense of the foregoing sentence.) " To remain as 
long as Christmas ; " better, till or until. " The lady sits genteelly, the more because of 
company." " The train from out the castle drew." " The river flowed from under the 
palaces." " Over against the church stood the hospital." 

In fact, all languages contain phrases constantly used like single 
words. 
? 415. But, in the sense of except, is a preposition, when it is followed 
by an objective. 

Ex. — " The boy stood on the burning deck, whence all but him had fled." — Hemam. 
? 416. A conjunction, when followed by a nominative. 



178 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

Ex. — " Should ail the race of mortals die, And none be left but he and I." — Scott. 
? 417. Except and save were originally verbs in the imperative mood. 
Ex. — " All save one escaped ; " " All except him were taken ; " i. e., omit, take out one. 
Note. — Save belongs rather to poetry ; and except is simply a stronger term than but. 

? According, abating, concerning, during, excepting, respecting, regarding^ 
pending, and touching, are, in their primitive sense, participles, and may 
sometimes be parsed as such. 

Ex. — " He spoke concerning virtue ; " prep. " A law concerning bankruptcy ; " prep. 
or part. 

When a word has emigrated, and made its home in a different part of speech, citizen- 
ship should be allowed to it in its new home. Many of our undisputed prepositions were 
originally formed from different words, readily suggesting, however, their present mean- 
ing: thus, through is allied to door; between, to twain, or two; among, to many ; amid, to 
middle ; beyond, to yonder. 

Before, beside, behind, <fcc, are former] from by and fore, side, hind, Sec. 

" The above description ; " " The off horse ; " adjectives. " It fell from above ; " " It 

came from within from without;'' 1 nouns, differing from other nouns of place, only in 

being more general or abstract : or, the two words may be parsed as an adverbial phrase. 
— See preposition without objective. 

? 418. Prepositions, as modifying or qualifying words, serve to form 
hundreds of our most expressive compound words. 

Ex. — Overshoot, overspread, overhang, overthrow; undermine, underbrush, under- 
strapper; uphold, upheave ; fo/-stander; a/terthought ; implant {in-). 

Observations to be carefully read by the Student. 

I have somewhere seen the statement (made by a masterly critic), that good writers 
are distinguished from bad ones, chiefly by their superior skill in the management of 
particles and other small words ; and that, in this respect particularly, the British au- 
thors surpass the American. 

The prepositions have been too superficially treated by most of our grammarians. 
There is no other part of speech that deserves more investigation. 

The correctness, clearness, and vigor of discourse, depend not a little upon them ; and 
the uncertain meaning of many a disputed passage, rests on some preposition which it 
contains. Adjuncts may be used not only in place of almost all other modifying 
words, but even beyond them. There is no object, act, quality, or condition, not ex- 
clusively expressed by other words, which they can not express in any conceivable way. 
Let the student ever bear in mind that language is made to suit the world. We ma} T accord- 
ingly observe, that there are certain properties or conceptions, based on the nature of 
things, which control or limit the mind in its acquisitions, encompass and pervade all 
its other knowledge, and tincture speech universally. Among these are space, time, cause, 
means, manner, purpose, &c. 

Space and time contain all things. Space, occupied by something, at once suggests 
place. Place may be viewed in a variety of ways. Time, only as a succession of mo- 
ments, — as present, past, and future. Cause, purpose, means, manner, arise only from cer- 
tain relations of objects in space and time. Hence, nearly all the prepositions may ex- 
press relations of place ; a smaller number may bo applied to time ; and a still smaller 
number to cause, purpose, means, manner, &c. 

Many relations are those of the external world ; as, "A river between hills ; " " The 
fishes in the sea ; " many others lie in the judgments or views taken by the mind ; as, 
" A soul bowed in sorrow — bowed by afflictions — wnder afflictions. " " To be above another 
in dignity ; " " To have dominion over the brutes — over a nation ; " "To rely on a person's 
word." " Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear.'" 

Prepositions are generally extended figuratively from relations of place to relations of 
time, cause, means, manner, &c. Thus, "At the door" — nearness in place; "At nine 
o'clock" — nearness in time; " At the election " — nearness in both or either; " He took of- 
fence at what I said — nearness, in time, of the offence and the saying ; thence, cause. 
" Corn sold at a dollar per bushel ; " " To estimate at a certain price," — nearness in 
thought, the corn or the estimate and the price being brought together in thought. So, 
"About,' n but less precise ; as, "About the well ; about noon ; engaged about one's busi- 
ness ; angry about something ; costs about so much ; " "About to be hanged " — nearness to 
an act not yet done. 



PREPOSITIONS. 179 

" Through the woods " — place; " Through many ages " — time : " To escape through a 
crevice ; " " To see through the eyes," — place a,n& means; thence, cause; as, " To fly through 
fear." Hence, through approaches by and with so nearly as to be often used to suggest 
the intermediate or appointed channel for effecting something : as, " I can send you the 
money through the bank ; " " He obtained the office, through his friend, Senator Green." 

" A flower by a rivulet ; " " To pass by a house," — nearness in place : " To come by sea 
— by land — by railroad," — place and means: " Related by marriage ; achieved by valor," — 
means. " To work by day ; " " To be ready by morning," — time. " To take by the 
hand " — place and manner ; hence, " To demolish by cities : " " One by one ; by pairs ; by 
degrees ; by little and little," — manner. " To hew a log by a line ; " "To travel by moon- 
light ; " " To prove by the Scriptures," — nearness to something for judging or sanction ; 
hence, " To try by law ; " " To live by rules ; " "By far the best ; " " Too heavy by six 
pounds." An act received, is naturally ascribed to something near : hence, the agent; as, 
" I was kicked by a horse." " The trees were broken down by the wind." " By-path," 
" by-stander," — nearness ; "To stand by " — to be near, thence, to assist, to defend ; " " By- 
laws " — laws to accompany and aid superior or constitutional laws. " To pass by, — not to 
stop near, to disregard; " Gone by; " " To be over," — at an end: what passes over us or 
by us, naturally disappears. 

A preposition having several different meanings, will sometimes suggest a meaning 
different from the one intended. When this happens, some other preposition must be 
used. Thus, For may look to the past or to the future: " She wept for joy" — at some- 
thing obtained, cause; " The child cried for bread" — something to be obtained, purpose. 
" Baptized for the remission of sins," doubtless has the former sense. " She died for 
thirst," might mean, u for the sake of thirst ; " therefore we should say, " She died of 
thirst." " He walks by a staff with moonlight," should be, " He walks with a staff by 
moonlight." 

Derivative words generally require the same prepositions after them as their prim- 
tives ; as, " Relate to, relative to, relation to : " but this is not always the case ; as, " Dero- 
gate from, derogatory to." 

One preposition may sometimes be used in the place of another, but seldom with equal 
propriety. In doubtful cases, a view should be taken of the general meaning of the 
words, and the selection made accordingly. Thus : " By the stream " does not denote so 
close a union as " with the stream; " by also implies authority, (" condemned by the law,") 
with does not ; — therefore it is better to say, "By these [swords] we gained our liberties, 

and with these we will defend them," than, "With these and by these " &c. With 

relates to something that accompanies the agent, — that is instrumental ; by relates to the 
agent himself, or to what supplies his place. " Killed with a limb," implies an agent not 
mentioned ; " Killed by a limb," implies no other agent, unless it denotes place merely : 
" Struck with thunder" [by the Almighty — so conceived by our ancestors] ; " Struck with 
a palsy." When with would not express the means, by must be used : " To burst with 
violence" — manner; "To burst by violence" — means. Our school geographies have, 
" distinguished for," which is the same as to say, The following things cause the distinc- 
tion : but Macaulay writes, with more propriety, "distinguished by;" that is, The dis- 
tinction lies in the following particulars. 

Some prepositions show where: In, on, under, over, above, before, behind, below, 
around, between, among, by, beyond, at. Some show whither : To, towards, into, up, 
down, for. Some show whence : Out of, from, of. Some show when : At, in, on, after, 
before. Some show how long : During, for, till. Some imply contact or union : On, 
upon, with. Some refer to inner parts : In, into, within, among, amid, through. Some, 
to outer parts : On, around, about, over, to. Some have opposites : To — from ; over, on 
— under ; above — below, beneath ; with — without ; up — clown ; for — against ; along — 
across; through — around; before — behind; on— off; before — after, since {time) ; till — 
after; within — without. Some are allied in meaning : Over, above ; on, upon ; under, 
below, beneath ; from, of, out of ; behind, after ; across, athwart ; about, around ; in, 
within ; at, by {place) ; by, with {means) ; to, for. 

ADDITIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Observe that a meaning apparently different from the primitive, generally resembles 
it, is readily suggested by it, or can be traced to it. 

A {prep.), said to be from at, on, or of, is now rarely used as a separate word, except 
sometimes before a participial noun ; as, " Towards evening we went a fishing." " Aboard 
the ship." " The room above us ; the stars above us ; " "A city above another on the 
same river ; " "A tree growing above the house ; " " Above a year ago ; " " Above twenty ; " 
" To be above another in rank ; " " So proud as to feel himself above other people — above 
labor;" " To be above doing a mean action — above suspicion;" "To be above reach — 
above comprehension." " According to weight ; according to reason ; according to the dic- 
tates of conscience." " A tree lying across the road ; " "A boat passing across the river." 
" Who art thou, That dar'st so grim and terribly advance Thy miscreated front athwart 



180 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

my way?" — Milton. (ylcro$s-}-opposition.) "To come after another — a day after the 
feast;" "After much debate;" "After a tedious journey over the Alps ; " " Dogs after 
a fox ; " "A hankering after pleasure ; " "To write after a copy ; " "To make after a pat- 
tern." " A ladder against a wall ; " " Right against the eastern gate" — {Milton) — -place 
only ; " To sit over against another ; " "Be ready against to-morrow morning ; " " Ants 
provide against winter ; " "To set one account against another ; " "To tug against the 
stream;" "Against nature;" " Against law; laws against crime." "Fringed along the 
edge ; " " Trees along the river ; " "To drive cattle along the road." 

Between has a twofold reference ; among, a manifold reference. " The boats running 
between St. Louis and New Orleans ; " " Between one and the rest ; " " Between hope and 
fear;" " Partnerships may exist between lawyers." — Kent. Proper; if he means that 
there are seldom more than two lawyers in one firm. " The narrow channel betwixt 
England and France." — Addison. "Flowers among weeds;" "There are many fools 
among men." " The fox fell amidst the dogs ; " " Oranges gleaming amidst leaves and 
blossoms ; " or, among : " Undaunted amid insults and mockeries ; " " Firm amidst the 
storm ; " not, among. Amid usually implies quantity; and among, number, ^midimplies 
something more overwhelming than in: as, "In the flames;" "Amid the flames." 
" To divide between one and another," is correct ; but, " To divide among one another"*** 
one among another ; therefore say, "To divide among themselves;" "To divide between 
themselves ; " not each other. " The combat between twenty English against forty French," 
should be, — "between twenty English and forty French;" or, — " of twenty English 
against forty French." 

Around usually signifies to encompass either like a ring or like a globe ; and it is 
always local, and more precise than about. In fact, it is worthy of notice, that words 
referring to inner parts, may often imply either a surface or circular surrounding, or a 
globular surrounding or complete envelopment ; as, "A tree standing in a meadow ; " 
" The apple in the dumpling." " At the gate ; at home ; at two miles distant ; at far- 
thest ; — at one o'clock ; at present ; — at work ; at war ; at rest ; at. best ; at most ; — " To 
come at a wink ; " "To laugh at some one ; " — " This produced a great sensation not only 
in England, but also at Paris, at Vienna, and at the Hague." — Macaiday. 

In implies something around ; at does not, but often refers to a point or to the bor- 
der : " In the trap ; at the trap : " " To touch, arrive, or land — at Boston ; " " To live 
in St. Louis — in New York — at Saratoga — at the next farm, or — on the next farm ; " "To 
stay at the tavern ; " " To stop at the next town, or — in the next town ; " " To have a 
store on Main Street at No. 120." The word street is often so extended in sense, as to in- 
clude the houses on each side of the street ; hence we say, " To pass through the street ; " 
" To have a store in the street at No. 40. 

" Before the house "—place; " Before night " — time; " Before the war " — action; " To 
appear before a court ; " " To lay documents before a committee," — place and something 
more. "A garden behind the house" — place; "To be behind the curtains "—place-}- ; 
" To be behind in excellence "—place and inferiority ; " The ministry behind the throne " 
—place and inferiority or influence. " The wall needs repairing below the second story ; " 
"A town below another on the same river," not beneath ; " A yawning gulf beneath', " 
" Below fifty," not beneath ; " Below another in rank." "To be below consideration," 
differs from " To be under consideration." " A tree beside the river ; " " There are more 
besides this;" "A woman's education requires something besides accomplishments." 
" The states beyond Missouri ; " " All beyond a hundred ; " "Beyond reach ; " " Beyond 
comprehension." 

" Muddy for several miles ; " " In jail for life ; " " To give money for provisions ; " 
11 To send for a guide ; " " Sent for a guide " — better, as ; " Wise for his age ; " " Fit for 
service — use — trust;" " Honored for his services " — cause, (past time); " Equipped for 
battle" — purpose, (future time); " As for me,"&c. ; " For me to go "<fec. ; " A man's a 
man for all that" — notwithstanding; " Some were for the law, and others against it" — 
in favor of. " A part from the whole ; " " A wind from the mountains ; " " From day to 
day;" "From morning till night ; " " To judge from the description ; " " Secure from 
winds and waves " — out of their reach ; " Secure against winds and waves " — able to with- 
stand them ; "Disabled from voting" (prospective); " Disheartened from seeing the ob- 
stacle " — on account of (retrospective). 

" In the garden ; " " In the world ; ". " In the morning ; " "In debt ; " " In haste ; " 
" In pairs ; " "In reach ; " " Pleasure in studying ; " "A name cut in a rock — painted 
on a rock " (place where) ; " To cut into a rock " (place whither) ; " Warms in the sun, 
refreshes in the breeze" — [Pope) — by means of, — a Grecism. The natural order is, to, 
into, in: " To step into a carriage, and then to ride in it;" "The river flows into the 
bay ; " "Wool is made into cloth ; " " Driven into opposition." To or in alone appears 
to be sometimes used for into : "To crush to atoms ; " "To cut in two ; " "To cut into 
three parts." 

Of is used nearly as much as all the other prepositions together. It generally serves 
to limit the antecedent term, by a subsequent term whose meaning is not already ex- 



PREPOSITIONS. 181 

hausted or expressed by the former. It is the most general word for showing whence 
something comes, or else to what it belongs or pertains. " The rivers of North Ameri- 
ca" (not any rivers) ; " The first month of the year ; " " The house of my father"=* 
My father 1 s house ; " The leg of the table ; " "A pitcher made of silver ; " " The brother 
of the senator ; " " The exploits of Don Quixote ; " " The pains and pleasures of think- 
ing ; " — " The city of London ; " " That head of yours ; " (allowable). But " A friend 
of yours " may not be " A friend of your friends." " The passion of anger " — better, 
Anger; "Of all vices, that' of lying is the meanest" — better, Of all vices, lying is 
the meanest. 

" On the floor ; " " On the wall ; " " On the ceiling ; " " On New Year's Day ; " " On 
a sudden;" "To stand on pillars;" "To pay on sight;" " To play on the flute;" 
" The bill was laid on the table ; " " Chitty on Contracts ;" " To live on fruits— by sewing ;" 
" She wept on hearing of his death." Upon is often equivalent to on, or denotes merely a 
closer connection. It usually implies elevation, sometimes with motion. " He leaped 

upon his horse ; " " The boy stood on the wagon, and threw a stone upon the house in 

the street, and threw it into the garden ; " " Upon my honor;" " Upon hearing the 
report ; " " The work grew upon his hands ; " " His afflictions pressed heavily upon 
him." On, in comparison with over, denotes a point; over, a surface: "On the 
ceiling ; " " Over the ceiling." Over often implies a covering, or else an obstacle : " To 
pass over logs and creeks ; " "To get over a spell of sickness ; " i. e., — an obstacle, as it 
were, in the journey of life ; " A tree bending over a grave ; " " To look over a book ; " 
"To grieve over calamities;" "To rule over a nation." A higher position generally 
gives advantage, — hence superiority is often compared to hight, and inferiority to lowness. 
(See " above,' 1 '' "under.") " Over and above ; " " From and after " ( ; phrases to express 
greater fullness than over and from)." 

Till reckons to a point of time ; since, from a point of time : " Till next Christmas ; " 
" Since last Christmas." " Water drawn out of a well ; " "To go out of danger ; " "To 
go out of curiosity ' ' (not elegant). " A cool breeze came off the sea ; " " The islands off 
the coast of Chili." Uhto=to, but is less elegant. " This road leads to town ; " "A 
garden to every house ; " " To rise to sight ; " " To dance to the violin ; " " Agreeable to 
another;" "Amounting to a dozen;" "To dash to pieces." "Towards town;" 
" Towards noon ; " "To contribute towards a sufficient fund." 

To, towards, and into, have something in view ; along, up, and down, do not. Through- 
out is perhaps a little more forcible than through : it signifies through in every part, through 
to the very end, or through and passing out. " Throughout the entire process — the day — my 
whole life." " To trample under foot," not below ; " " Under the roof; " " They crept 
along under the walls of the fort;" "Under a dozen;" "To pass under inspection ; " 
"To groan under a burden;" hence, power over, — "To be under restraint — under 
afflictions." 

With usually implies accompaniment or union, — or something subordinate, instrumen- 
tal, or dependent. Care should be taken not to confound it with in or by. " The man 
with his wife ; " " The ship with its cargo ; " " Meadows enameled with flowers ; " " The 
little girls with their sparkling eyes and sunny faces ; " " With modesty, with grace, with 
fastidiousness ; " " The mower with his scythe ; " " Or, with one stroke of this dart, 
Strange horrors seize thee, and pangs unfelt before." — Milton. " The horse was sold, and 
the saddle," differs from — " The horse was sold ivith the saddle." " To dwell in security," 
not with; "To grow rich by working," not with. "Without money — friends — hope." 
Within sometimes implies stronger opposition to a boundary than in. " Performed in six 
years," may mean all the time ; " Performed within six years," means less. " Within a 
year ago ; " not, in. 



A. — Abandoned to; abatement of; abhorrent to, from ; abhorrence of; 
abide in, at, with; abominable to; abound in, with ; abridge from; abridg- 
ment of; absent from; abstain from; abut on, upon; accede to; accepta- 
ble to; access to; accommodated, with lodgings; accord with, a thing 
to ; accordance with ; accountable to a person, for a thing ; accuse of; 
acquaint with; acquiesce in; acquit of; adapted to; add to; address to; 
adhere to ; adjacent to; adjourn to; adjudge to; adjust to ; admonish of; 
admission to (access), into (entrance); advantage over, of; advise of, to; 
advocate for; affection for ; affinity to, with, between; affection for; 
agree with a person, to what is proposed, upon something determined ; 
agreeable to ; alienate, alien, from ; allude to ; alter to, alteration in ; 
amenable to; amerce in; analogous to; analogy to, between; angry 
with a person, at a thing; annex to; animadvert on, upon; answer for, 



182 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

to ; antecedent to ; antipathy to, against ; anxious about, for ; apology, 
apologize, for; appeal to; apply, applicable, to; apprehensive of; appro- 
priate to ; approve of; argue with, against ; array with, in ; arrive at ; ask 
of a person, for what is wanted; aspire to; assent to; assimilate to ; 
associate with; assure of; atone for ; attach to ; attain to ; attend, atten- 
tive, to; averse, aversion, to, from. B. — Ballot for; banish from one 
place — to another; bare of; bargain for; based on, upon; beguile of, 
with (the means); believe, belief, in, on; bereave of; bestow upon, on; 
betray to a person, into a thing; betroth to ; bigoted to; bind to, in, upon; 
blame for ; blush at; boast, brag, of; border on, upon. C. — Call on or 
upon a person, at a house, for something; capable of; capacity for; 
careless, careful, of, in, about; carp at; catch at; caution against; certify 
to ; certified of; change for, to, into ; charge on or against a person, with 
a thing; clear of; coalesce with; coincide with; commune with; com- 
mute (a punishment) to, for; commit to; communicate to, with; 
compare to ( to liken unto ), with (to view in connection with) ; com- 
pelled to ; comply, compliance, with; conceded; conceive of; concur 
with a person, in a measure, to an effect ; condemned for a crime, to a 
punishment; condescend to; conduce to; confer on, upon; confide in; 
conform, conformable, to, with; congenial to, with; congratulate upon, 
on; consecrate to; consent to; consign to; consist of (composed of ), 
in (comprised in), with (to agree); consistent with; consonant with', 
contend with, against ; contest with ; contiguous with, to ; contrast with ; 
contrary fo; conversant with persons, in things, [about and among are 
inelegant) ; convert into, to ; convict of; convince of; copy after actions, 
from things ; correspond with (consistent), to (answering); correspond- 
ence with, to; cured of. J), — Deal in, by, with; debar from, of; decide 
on, upon; defend (others) from, (ourselves) against; deficient in; 
defraud of; demand of; denounce against a person ; depend, dependent, 
upon, on; deprive of ; derogation from, of, to; descended from ; deserv- 
ing of; desirous of; desist from; despair of; despoil of; destined to; 
destitute of; detach from; detract from; deviate from; devolve on, 
upon; devote to; dictated; die of a disease, by an instrument or by 
violence, for another ; differ with a person in opinion ; differ, different, 
from ; difficulty in ; diminish from ; diminution of; disagree with, to 
something proposed ; disagreeable to ; disabled from ; disappointed 
of what I failed to get, in something obtained; disapprove of; discour- 
age from ; discouragement to ; disengaged from ; disgusted at, with ; 
dislike to ; dismission from ; disparagement to ; dispense with ; dispose 
of; disposed to ( inclined) , for ; dispossess of; disqualify for, from ; 
dispute with; dissatisfied with; dissent from ; distinct, in distinction, 
from; distinguish from, between; distrustful of; divested of; divide 
between two, among more; dote on; doubt of, about; dwell in, at, on. 
E. — Eager in, for, after; embark in, for; embellished with; emerged 
from; employ in, on, about; enamored with, of ; encounter with; encour- 
agement to ; encroach upon, on ; endeared to ; endeavor after a thing ; 
endowed, endued, with ; engaged in work, with, for ; enjoin upon, on ; 
enter into, on, upon; entrance into ; envious of, at; equal to, with; 
equivalent to ; espouse to ; estimated at ; estranged from; exception 
from, to, against; exclude, exclusion, from; exclusive of; expelled from ; 
expert at (before a participial noun), in; extracted from ; exposed to; 



PREPOSITIONS, 183 

expressive of. J?. — Fall under notice &c. ; familiar to me, I am familiar 
with] fawn upon, on) feed upon, on) fight with, against, for) filled with) 
followed by, fond of) fondness for; foreign to, from; formed from 
(another word); founded upon, on, in) free from) friendly to, towards) 
frown at, upon) fruitful in, of) full of G.— Glad of, at — applied some- 
times to what concerns another ; glance at, upon ; glow with ; grapple 
with) grateful to a person, for a favor; grieve at, for) guard against. 
H. — Hanker after) happen to, on, upon) healed of; hinder from) hiss 
at) hold on, of, in. I. — Immersed in) impatient at, for, of) impenetra- 
ble to, by; impervious to-, impose upon, on) inaccessible to) incapable 
of) incentive to) incorporate with, into) inconsistent with) inculcate 
on, upon) independent, independently, of) indulge with occasionally, in 
habitually, — indulgent to ; influence over, on, with ; inform of, about, con- 
cerning ) initiate into, in, an act ; inquire of, after, for, into ; inroad 
into ; insensible to, of; inseparable from ; insinuate into ; insist upon, 
on) inspection into, over ; instructs; intent upon, on) interfere, inter - 
meddle with; intervene between) introduce into a place, to a person; 
intrude on, upon, into something enclosed ; inured to ; invested with, in. 
J". — Jealous of; jeer at; join with, to. K. — Knock at, on) known, 
unknown, to. Jj, — Laden with) lame of) lean on, upon, against ; level 
with) liberal of, to; liken to ; live in, at, with, on, upon) long for, after) 
look on (in order to see), for (in order to find), after — to follow with 
the eye. M. — Mode of) marry to ; meddle with ; mediate between) 
meditate on, upon ; martyr/or ; militate against ; mingle with) minister to ; 
mistrustful of) mix with. "N. — Necessary to, for) need of) neglectful 
of) negotiate with. O. — Obedient to ; object to, against) observant, 
observation, of) obtrude upon, on) offend against ; offensive to) operate 
on, upon ; offer, give, allow, to ; opposition to. P. — Partake of; partic- 
ipate in, of) partial to, partiality to, for) patient in, with, of) pay for, 
to, with; peculiar to) penetrate into ; persevere in) pertain to) pitch 
upon, on) pleasant to; pleased with) plunge into ; possessed of) predis- 
I>osed to) prefer to, before, above; preferable to) preference to, over, 
before, above; prefix to) prejudice against) preserve from ; preside over) 
press on, upon) presume on, upon; present things to a person; pretend 
to; prevail with, upon, on, (to persuade), over or against (to overcome); 
prevent from) -prey on, upon; prior to; productive of) profit by ; profit- 
able to ) prone to ; pronounce against a person, on a thing ; protect others 
from, ourselves against) protest against) proud of) provide with, for, 
against ; purge of, from. Q. — Quarrel with ; quarter on, upon, among ; 
questioned on, upon, by. H. — Reckon on, upon, with) recline on, upon) 
reconcile to (friendship), with (consistency) ; recover from) reduce to, 
under (subjection) ; reflect upon, on ; refrain from) to have regard for, 
to pay regard to) rejoice at, in) relish of, for; (see taste)) release, 
relieve, from) rely on, upon; remark on, upon) remit to) rempve from; 
repent of; replete with) reproached for) resemblance to, betiveen) 
resolve on, upon ; rest in, at, on, upon ; respect to, in respect to ; restore 
to ) restrain from ; retire from ; return to ; rise above ; rich, poor, in ; 
rid of) rob of) rove about, over) rub against) rule over. S. — Satiate, 
saturate, with) save from; seek for, after) share in, of, with another; 
send to, for) sensible of) sick of; significant of) similar to) sink 
into, in, beneath ; sit on, upon, in ; skillful in or at (before a participial 



184 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

noun), in; smile at, on, upon; snap, snatch, sneer, at; solicitude about, 
for; sorry for] stay in, at, with', stick to, by; strip of; strive with, 
against; subject to; submit, submissive, to; substitute for; subtract 
from ; subside into ; suitabl-e to, for ; surprised at ; suspected of, by ; 
swerve from ; sympathize with. T. — Taste of something enjoyed, 
taste (=desire or capacity) for ; tax with something done, for some- 
thing in view ; tend to, towards ; thankful of, about, upon, on ; touch 
at, on, upon; transmit to; troublesome to; true to; trust in, to. \J. — 
Unite with, something to; unison with; useful for, to. V- — Value 
upon, on ; variation in a plan ; vest in a person, with, in, a thing ; void 
of. W- — Wait on, upon; want of; weary of; weep at, for; witness 
of; worthy, unworthy, of. Y". — Yield to. 

? 419. Punctuation. — When an adjunct or an adverb is not closely 
joined to some word which it modifies, or when it breaks the con- 
nection of other words, it is usually set off by the comma. 

Ex. — "By prudent management, our neighbor has become wealthy." " Our neighbor, 
by prudent management, has become wealthy." " Our neighbor has become wealthy by 
prudent management." " Unquestionably, he is the ablest man on the floor." "He is, 
unquestionably, the ablest man on the floor." 

The prepositions, and between what they show the relation: — 

The wind sweeps through the rustling poplars. The bear was attacked by the dogs, 
and chased through the cane-brake into the river. The boat went down the river, to 
New Orleans. After a painful struggle, I yielded to my fate. I yielded,, after a painful 
struggle, to my fate. He came from beyond Jordan. The punishment must be deter- 
mined by how far the man is found guilty. " Upon the highest corner of a window, there 
dwelt a certain spider, swollen up to the first magnitude by the destruction of infinite 
numbers of flies, whose spoils lay scattered before the gates of his palace, like human 
bones before the cave of somo giant." — Swift. 

Substitute the proper preposition : — 

He died with the typhoid fever. This has no relation with the other. I am sorry of 
it. He brought a different book than the one I sent for. Tom always brags on his 
pony. Throw it in the fire. I always walk out of a fine day. (That is, — " leave it 
behind me!") He bears some prejudices to the other party. Storms are always fol- 
lowed with sunshine. I subtracted it of the number above. He lives in Frankfort at 
Kentucky. I went down in the cellar. Martha was disappointed in catching a beau. 
The property was divided between six children. Allow me to present you with this 
book. 

Correct the following sentences, according to Rule IX: — 
To who did you speak ? Who do you speak to? Who did you come with ? For who 
did you send ? John will go with you and I. There is little difference between him and 
I. Do you know who these books are for ? This is the field of — I don't remember who* 
Boys like you and he, ought to learn fast. 
Change the adjuncts to adjectives: — 

These are productions of nature. A man of honesty and industry. This is a garden 
for the use of the kitchen. A fellow without worth. The orphan without friends. 
The gate of the prison. The men in poverty and the men of riches. 

Change the relative clauses to adjuncts, then the adjuncts to adjectives : — 

The man who is temperate, will live long. The horse which ran most swiftly, fell 
over a precipice that is very high. The trees which bloom earliest, are generally the 
first that die. 

Change the adjuncts to adverbs : — 

They advanced with caution. Arrayed in splendor. Fast in a moderate degree. 
Collecting with rapidity. At this time, let me tell you for what reason. 

Expand into adjuncts : — 

Worldly cares. Ethereal realms. A hazel thicket. Skillfully performed. Neatly 
dressed. Spread profusely. Flashing clouds thundered afar. 

Rule XVI. — A preposition shows the relation of a sub- 
stantive or an attributive word, to an objective. 



PARSING. — CONJUNCTIONS. 185 

Rule IX.— A substantive used as the object of a prepo- 
sition, must be in the objective case. 

EXERCISES FOB ANALYSIS AID PARSING. 

The waters issued from a a cave, and spread into a liquid plain. The 
stars retire at the approach of day. We searched for violets on yonder 
hill. A plain path leads through the bottom, between the river and the 
bluffs. The Rhone flows out 15 from b among the Alps. — Colton. As to 
the expenses, we will help to defray them. From virtue to vice, the 
progress is gradual. Washington died at his residence, on the 19th of 
December, 1797, and was buried near the Potomac, among his relatives. 
The robin and the wren are flown, and from the shrub the jay. From 
crag to crag the rattling peaks among, leaps the live thunder. Hold 
upi 5 the flag. Turn over 15 an other leaf. 

The window jingled in its crumbled frame, 

And through its many gaps of destitution, 
Dolorous moans and hollow sighings came, 
Like those of dissolution. — Hood. 
Overhead, the dismal hiss 
Of fiery darts, in flaming volleys flew. — Milton. 

(a.) Ques. What from ? Am. Issued from. Ques. From what? Am. From a 
cave. Etc. 

(&.) " From among " is a complex preposition, it consists of two prepositions com- 
bined and used to show the complex relation between "flows " and " u47ps." 

31. CONJUNCTIONS. 

? 420. A conjunction is a word that joins something to 
another part of the discourse, and shows how the parts so 
connected are viewed with respect to each other. 

Ex. — " The chain will gall, though wreathed with roses." " If you would enjoy the 
fruit, pluck not the blossom." " Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." 
" You can not learn, unless you will study." " John and James are happy, because they 
are good." 

J3®"* For a list of conjunctions, and their classification, see Book First. 

By means of conjunctions, the speaker or writer intimates that his discourse is to be 
continued, and generally how he means what he is about to say to be regarded with 
reference to what he has already said. They serve to unite, or bind together, the 
several parts of sentences, or to attach additional sentences to the preceding discourse. 
It has been said that they are to other parts of language, what nails and mortar are to 
other building materials. In making a brief remark, we seldom use conjunctions ; but 
in all continued discourse, such as writings or speeches, we are obliged to use them, and 
sometimes frequently. When employed with strict propriety, they add not a little to the 
accuracy and elegant structure of language ; but most people use them with very little 
reflection on their effect. In listening to a dull speaker, we often hear him name his 
conjunction, or rather some conjunction. — his ands, ors, and huts, — and then keep the 
audience in suspense, until he can find something to say. 

The Universe is like a great open book spread out before the mind, from all parts of 
which it may gain knowledge, and from the whole period of past time. But so soon as 
the mind is in possession of knowledge, or has a picture of the world, it can then exam- 
ine it, separate it into pieces, judge of its parts, and contrast, compare, or combine them, 
though under certain limitations still in myriads of different ways, according to its 
design. A thought formed in youth, may be in the same sentence with one formed in 
old age ; and one gained at the frigid zone, side by side with one gained at the torrid. 

16 



18§ BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

" ' Alas ! ' exclaimed tlie old sinner, ' my youth passed like a golden dream, but my old 
age is full of pain and sorrow.'" "At the equator it is much warmer than at the 
poles." It is in this after-work, or combination of thoughts, that the conjunctions find 
a place in language, and are particularly needed. 

Hence, they depend perhaps more on the mind than on the external world, or less on 
the outward world than most other words, especially the prepositions ; so that the con- 
junctions of one language can never be all precisely translated by those of another. If 
I say to you, " Our tea is brought from China, and our coffee from the Indies," I bring 
together, into one sentence, things not necessarily connected by nature : if I suspect that 
you believe both are brought from China, I would be apt to say, " Our tea is brought 
from China, but our coffee is brought from the Indies ; " or, " Though our tea is brought 
from China, yet our coffee is brought from the Indies." The speaker or writer has al- 
ways something in view, or supposes a certain tendency in the minds of those whom he 
addresses ; and he selects his conjunctions, as well as the parts connected by them, ac- 
cordingly. As the number of conjunctions is comparatively small for all the windings and 
labyrinths of thought, we may easily infer that conjunctions are used with consider- 
able vagueness, and have various shades of meaning, which must often be inferred rather 
from the parts connected, than from any definition that can be given. One great dis- 
tinction, however, should be ever kept in mind ; namely, their meaning as depending on 
tilings themselves, or as depending on the mind which views the things. " The trees are 
large, because the soil is rich." This made them large — cause. " The soil is rich, because 
the trees are large." This is why I know it — reason. The trees did not make it rich. 
So, " It rained, therefore the river has risen" — cause. Eeverse the sentence: " The river 
has risen, therefore it rained" — reason. In reasoning, especially, the effect of the con- 
junctions, and the meaning of the parts connected, should be carefully observed. 

? 421. Sometimes the mind can connect the parts and see their de- 
pendence, without the aid of a conjunction. 

Ex.—'* 'Twas certain [that] he could write, and cipher too." 

" The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ; 
[For] The Tories own no argument but force." 

? 422. Some conjunctions may be used when there is a very slight con- 
nection, but some always imply a very close connection, between the 
parts joined together. 

Ex. — "I never regretted it; nor do I now." "That dog will bite him if he pulls 
his tail." 

? 423. One conjunction may sometimes be used in the place of another; 
but never when a meaning different from the one intended, can be in- 
ferred. 

" I know him, for I went to school with him "==I know him, because I went to school 
with him. " God bids the ocean roar, or bids its roaring cease ; " " God bids the ocean 
roar, and bids its roaring cease." " He sowed little and reaped much ; " "He sowed lit- 
tle, but reaped much." " Conjunctions connect words ami sentences together," should be, 
" Conjunctions connect words or sentences together." 

? 424. And, or. and nor, are the conjunctions most frequently used for 
connecting single words. And takes all together ; nor, one at a time ; 
or, one at a time, or else any one to the exclusion of the rest. 

Ex. — " The house has neither doors nor windows." " Bring your book, slate, and 
ruler." "Bring your book, slate, or ruler." "Wood and coal make a good fire." 
" Wood or coal makes a good fire." " God bids the ocean roar, or bids its roaring cease." 

? 425. It should be observed, that and sometimes connects two parts 
which can not be referred separately to the other words, but must be re- 
ferred as a whole. 

Ex. — " He went to St. Louis and Chicago "=He went to St. Louis, and he went to 
Chicago. " John and James study "=John studies, and James studies. But we can not 
say, " He passed between St. Louis, and he passed between Chicago ; " for, " He passed 
between St. Louis and Chicago." " I gave a mule for a horse and a cow ; " "I gave a 
mule for a horse, and I gave a mule for a cow." " John and Kate are a smiling couple ; " 
" John is a smiling couple, and Kate Is a smiling couple." 



CONJUNCTIONS. 187 

? 4267 Or may imply a difference in things, or a difference in names or 

words only. 

Ex. — " He went to China to buy tea on s»2&." " We saw some black Africans, OB, 
negroes." 

? 427. To avoid this ambiguity, the lawyers generally use alias to show 
that the words are merely different names of the same person. 

Ex. — " The trial of one Aaron Smith, alias Andrew Jones, alias Thomas Brown." 

? 428. Nor, and not or, is generally required to continue a negative 
sentence ; especially when the latter phrase contains or, or is not closely 
dependent on the preceding clause, or is separated from the negative by 
several words. 

Ex. — " I affirm, Romans, that Appius Claudius is the only man not entitled to a 
participation in the laws, nor to the common privileges of civil or human society." 
" Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Day, or the sweet approach of even or morn, 

Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 

Or hocks, or herds, or human face divine." — Milton. 
Perhaps better: Seasons return, but not to me returns 

Pay, nor the sweet approach of even or morn, 

Nor sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose, 

Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine. — Mr. Brown's Emendation. 

? 429. That joins on the purpose, consequence, or respect wherein. 
Sometimes it shows that the group of words after it denote but one 
thing, — being often but an expanded explanation in reference to some 
other word in the sentence. 

Ex. — " He lived frugally, that he might not be obliged to borrow.'''' " There was such a 
noise that we could not study." " The general was now convinced that his detachment had 
been defeated.'''' " That Cortes should have been able to take Mexico with so small an army, is 
almost marvellous." "It is strange that we never hear from him." 

? 430. A conjunction that assists another in some other part 
of the sentence to express but one connection, is a correspond- 
ing conjunction. The two form a pair answering to each other, 
and the corresponding one may sometimes be omitted without 
injuring the sense. 

Ex. — " Reproof either hardens or softens its object "=Reproof hardens or softens its 
object. " The place afforded neither wood nor water." " Though he is poor, yet he al- 
ways pays his debts." " I would not choose him, nor the other one neither " {colloquial). 

? 431. Either can not be used, unless different things are meant; as, 
u There stood a wigwam, or Indian hut;" not, " either a wigwam or an 
Indian hut." 

? 482. In stead of the corresponding conjunctions either and neither, the 
poets sometimes use or and nor, 

Ex.— "Or floating loose, or stiff with mazy gold." "Nor in sheet nor in shroud we 
wound him." 

? 433. A short phrase used in the sense of a conjunction, or two con- 
secutive conjunctions blended in meaning, may be parsed as a compound 
or complex conjunction, or simply as a conjunction. 

Ex.—" John, as well as Arthur, must be punished, inasmuch as they have both been 
disobedient." "And yet I would not get riches thus, even if I were a beggar." 

? 434. But when the words of a phrase can be parsed as well according 
to their literal meaning, or when the conjunctions have each a separate 
influence over the sentence, they should be parsed separately. 



188 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Ex. — " A man's a man for all tliat' ^nevertheless. "Bui, if he fails, all is lost "*=But 
all is lost, if he fails. 

? 435. For the sake of brevity and vigor, some conjunctions are fre- 
quently omitted. 

Ex. — " Had I been at home, you should have staid "=.£f I had been at home, you 
should have staid. 

" The woods are hushed, [and] the waters rest, 
[And] The lake is dark and still." — Mrs. Henians. 

? 436. Conjunctions are usually first omitted, and then expressed; 
other words are usually first expressed, and then omitted. 

Ex. — " John, [and] James, [and] William, and Thomas, were drowned." "You may 
go or [you may] stay." 

? The conjunction is sometimes used where it is usually omitted. 
? 438. 1. At the beginning of a sentence, to make its introduction less 
abrupt. 

" And tell me, I charge you, ye clan of my spouse, 
Why fold ye your mantles, why cloud ye your brows." — Campbell. 

? 439. 2. In the body of a sentence, when the speaker means to dwell 
on particulars, in order that the hearer may duly appreciate what he 
says. 

Ex. — " Italy teems with recollections of every kind ; for courage, and wisdom, and 
' power, and arts, and science, and beauty, and music, and desolation, have all made it 
their dwelling-place." — See also a quotation from Milton, page 187. 

EXTENT OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Since adverbs sometimes and prepositions always connect as well as conjunctions, it 
may not always be easy for the student to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs or 
prepositions, especially as there are some words that may be used in any one of these 
capacities. 

The preposition attaches something that limits the meaning of another word, and it is 
followed by an objective which it governs; as, "I have uot seen you since last year." 
" Will you wait/or me ? " 

The conjunction is followed by a clause, or by a word having the same construction as 
some other word or part of the sentence ; as, " /Since you are unwell, I will stay at home." 
" He did not take the horse, but [he took] the saddle." "1 

? 440. Except, and but and save in the sense of except, are sometimes 
followed by nominatives, and thus used as conjunctions ; but the better 
usage is, to convert them into prepositions, by putting the substantives 
used after them, in the objective case. 

Adverbs, even when they connect, also modify, by expressing time, place, or 
manner, &c. ; as, " I will go ichen you return." But when a conjunction is placed before 
a word, or a group of words, it at once refers it, without modifying it, to some other part 
of the sentence ; or if it modifies, it modifies not in the same way as the adverb, and only 
with reference to some other part of the sentence or discourse. "They marched." 
(Complete in sense.) " Slowly they marched. 1 ' (Complete in sense.) " If they marched ; " 
•'Because they marched;" "But they marched;" "And they marched," — evidently 
refer to something else already said, or about to be said. 

? 441. Again, also, however, now, nay, even, further, furthermore, namely, 
therefore, wherefore, otherwise, likewise, so, still, thus, else, accordingly, 
consequently, and a few other such words, are considered by many gram- 
marians conjunctions when they stand near the beginning of a clause or 
sentence, or when they introduce something. The pupil should consider 
whether they modify according to their usual meaning, or connect like 
conjunctions, and then parse them accordingly. It may sometimes be 
a matter of little consequence to which class they are referred, provided 
their meaning, or force in the sentence, is fully understood. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 189 

? 442. Some of these words are occasionally used to avoid a too fre- 
quent repetition of some very common conjunction; such as and, but, or. 

Ex. — " He has a laborious profession ; but it is very lucrative ; " — " He has a laborious 
profession ; however, it is very lucrative." " Send him relief, or he must perish ; " " Send 
him relief, else he must perish ; " " Send him relief, otherwise he must perish." 

? 443. Sometimes they merely assist or strengthen the conjunction. 
Ex. — "The corn was sold, and also delivered, before we saw it, or even heard of it." 

? 444. The two last remarks apply also to some entire phrases ; as, " on 
the contrary ;" "on the other hand." 

? Most of the conjunctions have evidently emigrated, or been com- 
pounded, from other parts of speech. 

Ex. — Provided, seeing, since, notwithstanding, both, either, nevertheless, because, 
since, therefore, &c. 

FURTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. 

And=&M. " On this stream we found cedars, magnolias, and cane-brakes." Both— 
and ; i. e., the one as well as the other ; not only the one, but also the other. " He is both a 
fool and a knave." " He is either a fool or a knave." "He is neither a fool nor & 
knave." " I know not whether he is a fool or a knave." 

Either and neither, as conjunctions, are sometimes applied to more than two. " The 
horse is neither young, strong, nor active.'''' Neither corresponds sometimes to other nega- 
tives than to nor, and sometimes it is used as an independent conjunction. " My brows 
become nothing else, nor that. well neither.'''' — Shah. " Be not too tame neither.''* — Shah. 
" He had no money, neither could he find any employment." 

" The water is cool, because I put ice into the pitcher." " The water is cool, because 
there is moisture on the pitcher." " A man should not be despised because he is poor." 
For and since resemble because in meaning. The cause or motive always precedes in 
time ; hence, since may be used as a conjunction. " Since you have brought your hounds, 
we will take a hunt." As you have brought your hounds, we will take a hunt." 
" You are welcome as flowers in May [are]. " A letter represents an elementary sound ; 
as, a, b, c ; " i. e., "such a sound as a, b, or c, represents." "This is your duty as an 
instructor." "He behaved so badly as to be expelled "=He behaved so badly that he 
was expelled. " I have selected this book as containing enough forme to learn "=I 
have selected this book, because it contains" &c. "The soldiers were unprovided, a* 
were also the officers." ( — and so — ) 

" Wide will wear, but narrow will tear." ( — on the contrary — ) " He never could 
have got the office but by my exertions in his behalf." ( — except — ) " I could not but 
notice how much he was confused "=I could not do otherwise than notice &c. " He took 
no further notice of him, except when he happened to meet him." " Except ye be born 
again, ye can not enter the kingdom of heaven "=Unless ye &c. 

2/=give, grant, allow. " If it continues to rain, the river will rise. (A natural con- 
sequence.) " If Virgil was the better artist, Homer was the greater genius." (This does 
not follow as a natural consequence. — See 1st page under Conjunction.) " It has not been 
decided if the war is to continue or not ; " better, It has not been decided whether the 
the war &c. " If Aeschines joined in the public rejoicing, he is inconsistent; if he did 
not, he is unpatriotic ; but he either joined or did not join, therefore he is either inconsistent 
or unpatriotic." — Demosthenes. If the condition is granted, the inference is established : 
thus, If A=B, C=D ; A=B, therefore C=D. " If there is no fuel, we can have no fire." 
" There is no fuel, therefore we can have no fire." 

"Afraid lesV — Johnson; " Fearful Zestf" — Prescott; better, that. "I will write to 
him, lest he neglect my business." ( — that not — ) " Cain's apprehensions were excited, 
lest he should meet the retribution of his crime." {—for fear that — ) " Great quantities of 
grain are raised, notwithstanding the soil is so poor." " It is true that Homer sometimes 
nods, nevertheless he is still the greatest of the ancient poets." 

"Henry, Albert, or Mary, may go with us." (Not all — anyone.) "Conjunctions 
connect words, phrases, or sentences." (All — but not at once.) " The shrubbery, or 
underbrush, was very thick." " At the father's death, the property is divided equally, 
provided there is no testament to the contrary." " He appears, moreover, to have been a 
man of liberal and enlightened views." "The Spaniards pushed on, although the 
barbarians clambered, up and broke in upon their ranks." ( — notwithstanding — ) 
"Though their homes were laid waste, still the spirit of the people was invincible." 
( — yet even then — ) " Though resistance to the tyrant spread desolation over our lands, 
yet future industry may repair them," (—future industry, however, may &c). 



190 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

That is sometimes improperly supplanted by but, but that, but what; as, " I do not 
doubt but ivhat you will be disappointed ; " better, " I do not doubt that you will be dis- 
appointed." " Kaise no more spirits than you can conjure down." " Nothing dries 
sooner than tears." Than usually attaches something to which something else is com- 
pared with reference to a higher, a lower, or a different state. It is sometimes improp- 
erly supplanted by other words. " He had no sooner come but we all ran to meet him ; " 

say, "than." " Nothing [else, no other thaw," "as wise as;" "wiser than;" "the 

wisest that; " " so wise thai" (consequence). 

Unless attaches to a clause the exception which would establish the opposite clause. 
" A man can not be convicted, unless he is guilty." ( — if not — ) " The accused is set at 
liberty, unless he has been convicted." ( — but not .... if— ) Observe the difference : " Troy 
must fall, unless the Palladium be preserved ; " " Troy must fall, although Hector defend 
it." " Wliereas it doth appear, that one Isaac Bertram, alias William Burton " &c. 
(Since — or, Inasmuch as — ) " His good deeds are never thought of, whereas his evil ones 
are everywhere told and exaggerated." ( — while, on the contrary — ) 

Particles implying union, contrariety, cause, or inference, are most frequently and 
variously used. And is the most general connective ; both and as ivell as make no excep- 
tions ; even goes beyond expectation ; likewise implies similarity or natural connection ; 
too is slightest and least formal ; also is more impressive and formal than too ; besides 
brings in an afterthought, or implies force by accumulation ; moreover either implies 
surplusage or turns to a different kind of arguments ; furthermore brings in something 
as a sort of reserved force, or as from a source that had escaped the notice of others. 
But is used either as a pure adversative or as a reserving adversative ; however takes the 
least notice of objections, or waives them ; yet admits to some extent, but holds on to 
some weighty offset or obstacle; still implies that the position is unmoved after all; 
notwithstanding braves all opposition; nevertheless is. the strongest term, implying that 
the position is not weakened in the least. As is most incidental, or takes the slightest 
notice of an admitted cause ; since is more formal and serious, and invites attention to 
the alleged cause or reason ; for is less formal than because ; because is the most formal 
and expressive word ; inasmuch as draws inference only to the extent of a limited cause. 
Then is less formal than therefore, and so is still less formal ; hence refers to a cause near 
at hand; thence to a remoter one; wherefore to something immediately preceding; 
therefore deduces an important conclusion, and often refers to a series of causes or 
reasons ; accordingly introduces what chimes in with nature and reason or some admitted 
principle ; and consequently sums up matters in the most formal style. 

? 445. Punctuation. — A comma or greater point usually precedes 
the conjunction, unless there are but two words or two similar phrases 
connected; and a comma is also placed after the conjunction when 
separated from its clause. 

Rule XVII. — Conjunctions connect sentences; or parts of 
a sentence, that are usually in the same construction. 

EXERCISES FOR, ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Her eyes are bright and a blue. The ship carried off a load of ice, 
and b brought back sugar, coffee, and spices. Never show your teeth, 
unless you can bite. Talk not too much, nor of thyself. Fear God, 
and keep his commandments; for this comprehends the whole duty of 
r man. To learn in youth, is less painful than to be ignorant in old age. 
No other persons are so blind as those who will not see. He supposed 
that his defeat gave us hope that he would yield to our forces, in as 
much as he believed we were sure that he could now receive no rein- 
forcements. There is either 4 liquor in his pate, or money in his purse, 
when he looks so pleased. — Shah. However, since the best of us have 
too many infirmities to answer for, we ought not to be too severe upon 
those of others; and, therefore, if our brother is in trouble, we ought to 
help him, without inquiring over seriously what produced it. — Swift. 

(a.)— is a conjunction, (def.) ; it implies addition, and here connects "bright" and 
" blue," according to Rule XVII. 



INTERJECTIONS. 191 

(b.) — is a conjunction, (def.) ; it implies addition, and here annexes a phrase, according: 
to Euie XVII. 

(c.) " Inasmuch as " is a compound conjunction, it is a phrase which joins &c. 
(def.) ; it implies cause or reason, and here connects sentences according to Rule XVII. 

(d.) — is a corresponding conjunction, it assists another conjunction &c. 

32. INTERJECTIONS. 

? 446. An interaction is a word that expresses an emotion 
only, and is not connected in construction with any other 
word. 

Ex. — " 0, stay, the maiden said, and rest." "My daughter! oh, my daughter!" 
"Ah! there's a deathless name." " Poh ! prithee, never trouble thy head with such 
fancies." 

^® => For a list of interjections, and their classification, see Book First. 

Interjection signifies throwing between or among. The interjections neither govern nor 
modify other words, neither are they governed or modified by other words ; and hence 
they appear to be thrown in among other parts of the discourse. 

? They do not imply thought or reflection, like other words; but spring 
instantaneously from the sensibilities or the will, with but little refer- 
ence, if any, to the intellect. They are most likely to occur in broken 
or fragmentary discourse, or when the mind is agitated or suddenly 
excited. We often hear them in conversation, and frequently meet 
with them in poems, orations, novels, and dramatic writings. When 
properly used, they have sometimes a fine effect. 

" Few, few, shall part where many meet! " Ah ! few shall part where many meet ! 

The snow shall be their winding-sheet, The snow shall be their winding-sheet 

And every clod beneath their feet And every clod beneath their feet 

Shall be a soldier's sepulchre." Shall be a soldier's sepulchre." 

The latter stanza is the first as it was afterwards improved. " Ah " indicates much 
better the transition from the storm of battle to the wail of woe. 

Othello, having killed his wife, thus gives vent to his immediate remorse : 

"Desdemona! Desdemona! dead? Dead! Oh! oh! oh!" — ShaJcspeare. 
Surely, nothing was ever expressed better. — But it must not be inferred that inter- 
jections -alone can make discourse sprightly or pathetic. They must grow naturally 
out of the subject or the sentiment. They may, like the overspreading vine, deepen the 
shade of feeling, but they can not supply the place of the tree. When I see them stand- 
ing thick on a page, I am generally reminded of the well-known line of Dryden : 

" He whistled, as he went, for want of thought." 
It is perhaps impossible to give a perfect classification or full explanation of the 
interjections. A few of their characteristics, however, may be noticed. 

? 447. Some interjections may be uttered by the speaker when alone 
but some always have reference to another being. 

Ex.— 1. " Oh ! ah ! alas ! fie ! 2. Farewell ! hist ! hark !. lo ! " 

? 448. Some denote painful emotions ; others, pleasurable emotions. 
Ex. — 1. " Alas ! oh! pish! begone! 2. Aha! hurrah! welcome! ha, ha, ha!" 

? 449. Some indicate intense feeling ; others, slight emotion. Some 
indicate depressed feelings; others, lively feeling. — u Oh ! eh? alas! 
heigho! " 

? 450. Some of them are, like laughter and weeping, universal expres- 
sions for certain feelings. They are found in all languages however 
much these may differ in other respects. 

? 451. Oh and are often confounded. Oh is now generally con- 
fined to expressions of pain, sorrow, surprise. O is used in other cases 



192 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

especially in wishing or in earnest address. Oh indicates perhaps 
depressed feelings ; and 0, lively emotions. ( Mr. Sargent seems to 
discard oh altogether.) 

? When an interjection is used, it is generally placed at the beginning 
of the sentence ; but sometimes within the sentence, or even at the end ; 
and sometimes it stands alone. 

? The case of a substantive after an interjection, often depends on some 
word understood. 

Ex. — " Ah me ! "=Ah ! pity me ; or, Ah, what has happened to me ! or, Ah ! wo is to 
me; or, Ah! it grieves me. "Ah! luckless I!"=Ah! luckless ami! "0, happy 
we ! "=0, happy are we ! — See also Nominative Independent, Rule V. 

? 452. A word or phrase abruptly uttered to express emotion, 
may be parsed as an interjection or as an inter jectional phrase. 

Ex. — "Strange! behold! wonderful! what! why! indeed! mercy! away!" "Why, 
there, there, there!'" "A. He might flay thee. B. A fiddlestick ! tell not me — I fear 
nothing; not I." — Addison. 

? 453. But when emotion is not the predominant meaning, and the 
ellipsis can be easily supplied, it may be better to parse the word as usual. 

Ex. — " Patience, good lady ! comfort, gentle Constance ! " — Shale. 

Have patience, good lady ! receive comfort, [=be comforted,] gentle Constance ! 

? 454. When excited, the mind often seizes the most important word 
or part of the sentence, and sets it forth at once as sufficient to show its 
meaning. 

? 455. The sounds addressed to the inferior animals, are generally in- 
terjections. 

Ex. — "Haw! gee! whoh! .scat! whist! 'st, \st!" &c. 

? 456. All imitative sounds, when uttered with emotion. But such 
sounds may sometimes be otherwise disposed of. 

Ex. — "Those hours the ancient timepiece 'told, — Forever — never! Never— forever ! " 
" The worch are fine, but as to the sense — b-a-h I " " Hark ! hark ! Bowgh-wowgh ! the 
watch-dogs bark." — Shah. "Sea-nymphs hourly ring his knell, Hark! now I hear 
them — ding-dong bell ! " — Shak. "Up comes a man on a sudden, slap ! dash ! Snuffs the 
candles, and carries away all the cash. 1 ' (Interjections.) "When click! the string 
the latch did draw, And jee ! the door went to the wa\" — Burns. (Perhaps interj. rather 
than adv.) " A lion meets him, and the fox's heart goes pit-a-pat." "The lark that 
tirra-lirra chants." — Shak. (Adverbs, showing hoio.) " Then nightly sings the staring 
owl, Tu-whit, tu-who — a merry note." (Perhaps a noun here, governed by " sings.") 
"With a lengthened, loud halloo, Tu-who, tu-whit, tu-whoo-o-o." — Tennyson. (A noun, 
descriptive of "halloo.") 

" Go, get you to bed and repose — 

To sit up so late is a scandal ; 
But, ere you have ta'en off your clothes, 
Be sure that you blow out the candle. 

Bifol de rol tol de rol lol. — Horace Smith. 
If such an expression can be parsed at all, it must be parsed as an interjection. It 
may be said to indicate pleasurable emotions. And if the interjection can be extended 
so far, it may likewise be applied to the song of the mocking-bird, or to the sounds ut- 
tered by any speechless animal whatever. 

From the foregoing remarks, we may infer that several parts of speech, especially 
the adverb, approach sometimes the interjection. 

? 457. Punctuation. — The interjection is sometimes joined immediately 
to the next word, or else it is followed by an exclamation point, or by 
a comma only, if the exclamation point is better deferred to the end of 
the phrase or sentence. 



INTERJECTIONS. 1 93 

Kule XVIII. — An interjection has no grammatical con- 
nection with other loords. 

The interjections, and notice Jioio they conform to what I have said about them : — 
Milan, the chanting quires ! me ! my pleasant rambles by the lake. And 
life, alas ! is full of sorrows. Alas, alas, fair Ines. 

Oh my husband , brave and gentle ! oh my Bernal, look once more 
On the blessed Cross before thee ! Mercy ! mercy ! all is o'er. — Whittier. 
Freedom, heyday! heyday, freedom! heyday, freedom! Ho! ho! how they step, 
going down to the dead. Well ! forewarned, forearmed. What ! take my money, and 
my life too ? My stars ! what a fish. Hist ! Romeo, hist ! 0, for a falc'ner's |voice. 
Tut, man ! one fire burns out another's burning. Yoho ! yoho ! through lanes, groves, 
and villages. Hum ! ha ! is this a vision. Ha, ha, ha ! a fine gentleman, truly ! " He 
is rather talkative. — Talkative! he is downright impertinent." 

The land of the heart is the land of the West. 
Oho, boys ! — oho, boys ! — oho ! — G. P. Morris. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS ATSTD PARSING. 

Alas a ! the way is wearisome and long. Adieu, and let me hear from 
you soon again. Gods b ! if I could but paint a dying groan. Ah me ! 
Hist ! hush ! within the gloom of yonder trees, methought a figure 
passed. Ha, ha, ha c ! well d said. Welcome,* 8 welcome, Lafayette ! Out 
upon her e ! thou torturest me, Tubal. 

The Armory. — Ah ! what a sound will rise, how wild and dreary, 
When the Death Angel touches those swift keys ! 

What loud lament and dismal Miserere, 
Will mingle with their awful symphonies ! 

Longfellow, 

(a.) " Alas " is an interjection, (def.) ; it denotes sorrow or grief, and is independent in 
grammatical structure, according to Rule XVIII. (Repeat it.) (b.) " Gods " is here 
used as an interjection, it is abruptly uttered to express an emotion ; etc. (e.) " Ma, ha, 
ha ! " is an interjection, etc. (d.) That thing was "well said." (e.) " Out upon her ! " is an in- 
terjectional phrase, it is abruptly uttered to express an emotion; it denotes anger, etc. 



WORDS SOMETIMES OF ONE PART OF SPEECH AND SOMETIMES OF 

ANOTHER. 

The part of speech to which a given word should be referred, should 
always be determined by the sense in which the word is used. When I 
say, u Our well is deep," well is a noun ; " The man is well" well is an 
adjective; " John writes well," well is an adverb; " The waters well from 
the ground," luell is a verb. In doubtful cases, the teacher may some- 
times translate the expression literally into some foreign language, and 
decide accordingly. 

Nouns. — "Much wants more." " The little he has, is worth my all." "Enough has 
been done." " From whence the limpid runnels flow." " The ancients and the mod- 
erns." " The rich man's joys increase the poor's decay." " The hes among birds." 
"The proudest she in Christendom." "The what, why, and how." "An abstract." 
" A calm." " For ever." " They were greeted with many a welcome." "I is a pronoun, 
and an interjection." " Without one if or but." " The line C D." " On page 27." 
" They chanted a Te Deum laudamus." 

Adjectites. — " A calm day." "As^'ZZday." " An abstract number." "Jlfwc7iwork 
and little profit." " The very man." " Take either horse — neither horse — both horses — all 
the horses — no better horses — horses enough — what or which horse you please." "Most 
men have more knowledge than he has." " One man or another." " A summer morn- 
ing." " The above description." " He had an only daughter." " I am alone." " The 
inside machinery." "A famous she visitant." "A good Church-of- England man." 
"You have played truant." 

17 



194 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Pronouns. — "All — every one.'''' " The same man that [whom] we saw." " The best 
that [which] could be obtained." " Every house was set on fire, even that [the house] of 
the minister." " I plucked such flowers as pleased me — as many flowers as I could find." 
" This dike was of the same width as the other" [was of]==This dike Avas of the same 
width of which the other was. " One may smile, and smile, and be a villain." " The 
good ones — the others." " Where etther's fall determines both their fates." " I remem- 
ber wk< \that which or those things which] he said." " I know what I would do." "I 
know which I would take." 

Verbs. — "To calm — to still the tumult." "We abstract qualities from their sub- 
stances." " To shear sheep." " To ship — to land goods." " You can not ape him." 
"Warm your hands." " Try to better your condition." " To sinner it or saint it." 
"Clear out, you hag you; Til fortune-tell you!" — JShalc. "This out-herods Herod 
himself." 

Adverbs. — " Skate as I skate " — manner. " I awoke as he came " — time. " He did 
as well as he could" — degree. " Strike home, and the world shall revere us." "All list- 
less roamed the shepherd swain." " He died after I left, and before the doctor came." 
" To man alone [only] is reason given." " Glory is but [only — nothing more than] a 
golden dream." " Black enough.'" " Swept enough.'''' " Very good." " I'll step in." 
" I am little used to such treatment." " I am much better." " There are horses no 
better." " He had only a daughter. " The less weight the tongue carries, the faster it 
runs." " The mail has since arrived." " I'll stay till you return." " He limps yet" — 
time. " Did you hear it thunder then?" "What [Partly] by entreaty, and what by 
threatening, I succeeded." (What, I think, for somewhat. — An unusual expression.) 
" Soft sighed the flute." 

Prepositions. — " It appeared after daybreak and before sunrise." "All escaped but 
[except] one." "Notwithstanding his enemies, he has held many important offices since 
the war." " Beelzebub, than whom none higher sat ; " perhaps better, " than who" 

Conjunctions. — "Since he will not obey, lie must be punished." "As I am a man, I 
thought you were wounded." — Shah. " He managed so, as to be [that he was] sent home 
in disgrace." " These documents are valuable as [Lat. ut.] showing the spirit of the 
times." ( — inasmuch as they &c.) " The captives were sold as slaves." (The captives, or 
slaves &c.) " The soldiers are to obey your orders as gpneral." ( — as being the general" 1 s 
orders — ) "A proper noun is a particular name ; as, John, James, Thomas." " I saw 
him, but did not speak to him." " The Bible is such that a child may understand it, and 
yet a philosopher may study it all his life." " He succeeded, notwithstanding he was op- 
posed." " He acted indiscreetly, still I will not dismiss him." 

33. SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES, CONTINUED. 

1. SAME CASES. 

Rule XI. — A substantive that docs not brine/ another 
person or thing into the sentence, and- is used merely for ex- 
planation, emphasis, or description, must be in the SAME case 
as the one denoting the person or thing. 

Note. — The one we shall call the principal term ; and the other, the explanatory term. 

Ex. — " Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, was a brave many " I, also I, am an Amer- 
ican." " It was I." " We will go ourselves." " They crowned him king." " His purse 
was wealth, his word a bond." 

? 458. The explanatory term is sometimes cut off from the other by a 
governing word. 

Ex. — " In the month of September." " Yonder is the city of St. Louis." " He was 
sent with us for a guide." " I hurt myself." 

? Two or more successive nouns forming a name, or habitually asso- 
ciated together in the sense of a proper name, may be parsed as one 
word. 

Ex. — " Gen. George Washington ; " " The two Miss Bradfords." " Lord Bacon, Sir 
Walter Kaleigh, Dr. Samuel Clarke, and the Duke of Marlborough, were not brought up 
in public schools. "^[Perhaps also such expressions as " Charles V;" "Alexander the 
Great." 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES, CONTINUED. 195 

? 459. Frequently, the explanatory term is asserted or assumed of the 
other by means of some neuter, intransitive, ov passive verb. The explan- 
atory term is then usually called a predicate-substantive. The verb, if 
any other than be, shows how the title or characteristic is acquired or 
made known. 

Ex. — ■" The world is but a stage, and all the men and women [are] merely players." 
"My friend was appointed judge.''' " Tom struts a soldier." " The soldiers sent a peti- 
tion requesting him to become their leader — a petition for him to become their leader." 
Such a predicate -substantive after verbs not finite, is in the nominative case whenever 
there is no preceding objective to control its case. 

? 460. When not attached to the other term by means of a verb, the 
explanatory term is said to be in apposition, and is called the appositive. 

Ex. — " Webster, the orator and statesman, was related to Webster, the lexicographer." 
" At Smith's, the bookseller." " A firth, or frith." " As a statesman, he had great abil- 
ity." _ In the German language, the word " als " (as) does not govern the following sub- 
stantive in the objective case, but requires merely that it shall agree in case with the 
preceding substantive. 

? Predication and apposition are fundamentally the same. When the 
explanatory term is asserted, it seems to be first made known that such 
an attribute belongs to the person or thing. Afterwards we use appo- 
sition; or when the attribute is already well known or easily perceived, 
and we wish to assert something else. 

Ex. — " News ! news ! — What ? — Mr. Buchanan is elected president." Afterwards we 
say, " Mr. Buchanan, the president, has formed his cabinet." " Mr. Jones was a saddler, 
but now he is a merchant ; " " Mr. Jones, the merchant, is a bankrupt." 

? 461. Sometimes two objectives follow certain verbs: the one simply 
denoting the person or thing ; and the other, as affected by the act. 

Ex. — " They named her Mary." " They elected him mayor." 

That the latter substantive is rather in apposition with the former than governed by 
the verb, seems evident to me from the following consideration: "They named her 
Mary" — Make her the nominative, and Mary at once becomes a nominative too, so as to 
agree with it ; as, "She was named Mary." But, "He taught me grammar" — Make 
me the nominative, and grammar still remains in the objective case; as, "I was taught 
grammar." 

? 462. The explanatory term sometimes precedes the other, or the verb. 

Ex. — u Child of the Sun, refulgent Summer comes." " Who is he ? " "A man he 
was to all the country dear." 

" Who is his friend?" is an ambiguous expression. If friend is the explanatory 
term, the sentence means, " Is any one friendly to him ? " " Has he any friends at all ? " 
If who is explanatory, the meaning is, " What sort of man is his friend ? " 

? 463. It is not always necessary that the explanatory term should 
agree with the other in any thing else than case. 

Ex. — " Our liberties, our greatest blessing, we shall not give up so easily." " His meat 
was locusts and wild honey." " Eyes was I to the blind, and/ee^ to the lame." 

? 464. The whole is sometimes again mentioned by a distributive word, 
or by words denoting the parts ; and sometimes the separate persons or 
things are summed up in one emphatic word denoting the whole. 

Ex. — " They bore each a banner." " The words pleasure and pain." " The two love 

each [loves the] other." (See also Pronomial Adjectives.) " Time, labor, money, all were lost." 

" But those that sleep, and think not of their sins." 

Pinch them, arms, legs, backs, shoulders, sides, and shins." — JShaJc. 

Note.— To this head, also such expressions as " The stars disappeared one by one," 

" They perished man by man," may sometimes be more properly referred. — See Adverb. 

? 465. Apposition frequently enables us to distinguish different persons 
of the same name, by means of their profession, occupation, or character. 



196 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 466. When the principal and the explanatory term are to be used as 
a phrase in the possessive case, the sign can be annexed to but one of 
them, or to the word immediately before the governing noun. 

Ex. — " At Smith's, the bookseller ; " or, " At Smith, the bookseller's." " The empe- 
ror Napoleon's grave." 

? 467. The principal oi the explanatory term may be a noun, a pro- 
noun, a phrase, or a «lause. — See the Exercises below. 
? 468. The explanatory term is essentially an adjective element. 

Ex. — " He was a hero "=He was heroic. " Every heart was joy "=Every heart was 
joyful. " They called him a patriot ; " " They called him patriotic." "Sluggish in youth, 
he " &c.=A sluggard in youth, he &c. 

? 469. Punctuation. — When not closely joined in sense to the other 
term, the appositive, with what belongs to it, is set off by the comma, 
sometimes by the semicolon. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Johnson, the doctor 11 , is a brother*! of Johnson, the lawyer**. Wait 
for me at Barnum's, the barber. Shakspeare lived in Queen Elizabeth's 
reign. The Misses Lewis are amiable young ladies. Messrs Lucas and 
Simonds are bankers in St. Louis. Ah ! Warwick, Warwick, wert thou 
as we are. The Spanish general presented the young prince to them as 
their future sovereigoii, the legitimate son of Huayna Capac, and the 
true heir to the Peruvian sceptre. My wife, the sweet soother of my 
cares, fell a victim to despair. The city, in honor of his General, Fran- 
cisco Pizarro, he named Francisco del Quito. Life is an isthmus between 
two great eternities. The inferior animals are divided into four classes ; 
quadrupeds 1 !, fowls, fishes, and insects. Officer, soldier, friend, and 
foe, were all shoveled into a common grave. It was I, your friend, that 
became his protector. He led the troops himself. The girls love one 
another. They deemed each other oracles of law. — Pope. She is modest 
and virtuous; [and modesty and virtue are] qualities ever to be 
esteemed. And all our knowledge is ourselves to know. — Pope. " To 
be good is to be happy," is a truth never to be forgotten by those com- 
mencing the journey of life. Far other scene was Thrasemene now. 
This life is the spring-time of eternity, — the time to sow* 4 the seeds of 
woe or the seeds of bliss. She walks [has become] a queen. Queen of 
flowers the fair lily blooms. Now, what** is your text ? I see you what 
you are. Whom do you take him to be. He made us wiser 2 — made us 
walk* 4 — made us scholars 11 . An elm, says the poet Holmes, is a little 
forest on a single stem. Such a one as I was, this picture presents. 
Death is the wages of sin. That Louis XIV was crafty, does not make 
him a great ruler. It is a shame toxecede in virtue. 

See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, 
The sot a hero, lunatic a king. — Pope. 

Correct the following sentences: — 

She is a niece of James Madison, hea who was president. They slew "Varus, he that 
was mentioDed before. They slew Varus, who was him that I mentioned before. It 
was Douglas, him of whom you spoke. It wasn't me, it was him or her. It was them 
that said so. It is not me he is in love with. ( — not I that — ) Whom do men say that I 
am. Who do you take me to be. Whom do they say it is. 

(a.) Incorrect: "fee," in the nominative case, should be him, in the objective case, 
to agree with James Madison, according to Rule XI. 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES, CONTINUED. 19r 



2. SUBJECT, OE NOMINATIVE, AND VERB. 

Will you repeat Kule XIII ?— Note XIII ?— Bule XIV ?— Note XIV ?— See Verb. 

I. PLURAL SUBJECT. 

? 470. When a verb is asserted of a collective noun, as refer- 
ring to the individuals, and not to the united collection as a 
whole, it is in the plural number. 

Ex. — " The council \ were divided in opinion." " A portion of the citizens are disposed 
to comply." " The public \ are respectfully invited." 

A collective noun, though singular in form, is the name of a group. Whether the 
verb referring to such a noun should be singular or plural, is often a difficult point to 
decide ; because it depends, in many instances, on the particular view or conception of 
the speaker. 

In general, the verb should be plural, when the act or state is as- 
serted of such a group considered individually ; and singular, when it 
can properly be said only of the whole group together. In the plural 
sense, the collective noun may be compared to a rope having its strands 
or threads untwisted ; in the singular, to the same in a twisted state. 

? 471. When a noun properly denoting only one or a part, 
is made^to stand for many, the verb is in the plural number. 

Ex. — " Five pair j were sold." " Forty head of cattle were grazing on yonder meadow." 



? 472. When two or more substantives connected by and^ and 
denoting different persons or things, are taken together as the 
nominatives to the same verb, the verb agrees with them in 
the plural number. 

Ex. — " His avarice and ambition \ were insatiable." " OaJc, hickory, walnut, and ath, 
| grow in this bottom." " You, he, and I, are allowed to go." "To love our enemies, 
to mind our own business, and to relieve the distressed, are things oftener praised than 
practised." 

The reason for making the verb plural, is obvious. The substantives so connected, are 
equivalent to a plural. " John, James, and William, are studying "=The boys are studying. 

II. SINGULAR SUBJECT. 

? 47H. When two or more nominatives connected together, 
denote or describe but one person or thing, the verb agrees 
with them in the singular number. 

Ex. — " In yonder house lives a great scholar and celebrated writer." " The saint, the 
father, and the husband, prays." — Burns. " Why is dust and ashes [man] proud?" 
" Descent and fall to us is adverse."— Milton. " Goldsmith's ' Edwin and Angelina ' is a 
fine little poem." 

? 474. So, a plural not used in its literal meaning, and viewed 
as denoting but one thing. 

Ex. — " The 'Pleasures of Hope ' was written by Campbell." " The ' Guesses at Truth ' 
contains some excellent sentiments." " Council Bluffs is a flourishing little town." " The 
twenty dollars [twenty-dollar bill] has been duly received." " Fifty feet of the second 
square was reserved for a church." The last two verbs should perhaps be plural in form ; 
and yet the singular implies a unity — a compactness in one — which the plural would not 
necessarily express. 



198 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? "When a verb refers to several distinct or different objects 
taken individually, it is in the singular number ; and when it 
refers to one nominative in exclusion or preference to the rest, 
it agrees with that alone. 

? 475. Such a subject may consist of one singular substantive or of 
more, but accompanied by such words or phrases as each, every, no, many 
a, or, nor, and not, but not, as well as, &c. ; or else it may consist of two 
or more singular nominatives connected by and only, but following the 
verb. 

Ex. — 1. "Every house was burned, and every man, woman, and child, was Mlled." 
2. " Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, is the proper day." 3. " There is Concord, and 
Lexington, and Bunker Hill, and there they will remain forever." — Webster. " Many a 
man has fallen a victim to intemperance." " Neither precept nor discipline is so forcible 
as example." " The poor man, as well as the rich man, suffers by this law." " His vir- 
tue, and not his talents, makes him beloved." " What black despair, what horror fills 
his mind!" — Thompson's Winter. "Here is the Eepublican, the Herald, and the 
Leader." 

In the first example above, the act is referred to all the objects taken separately ; in 
the second, only one may be taken, but the rest are thereby excluded ; in the third, the 
verb agrees with one of the nominatives — the nearest — and is understood to the rest. 

III. PERSON. 

? 476. When two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, 
differ in person, the verb usually prefers the one next to it ; 
and when they differ in number, the plural one. 

Ex. — "You or I am mistaken." "Thou or thy friends are to make reparation." 
" The horse or the hogs have been in the field." 

? 477. In regard to position, courtesy usually gives the first 
place to the second person, and the last place to the first : as, 
« You, he, and I ; " « You and I ; " " She and I." 

? 478. In conclusion, it may be proper to remark, that it is sometimes 
necessary to supply a substantive to complete the subject; that an ad- 
junct or an explanatory term does not control the verb ; that the sense 
sometimes prevails over the form of the subject; that a nominative far 
more important than the others, sometimes usurps their control, and 
takes the verb to itself; that a single object, or several objects taken 
singly, require a singular verb ; and that several objects taken collect- 
ively, but not as one thing, require a plural verb. 

Ex.—" Little and often fills the purse "=To put in little and often, fills the purse.— 
G. Brown. " Slow and steady often outtravels haste "=Whal is slow and steady, often 
outtravels what is in haste.— G. Brown. "Upwards of forty houses were burned "=A 
group or number amounting to upwards &c. Explanatory Term : " Death is the wages 
of sin ; " " The wages of sin are Death ; " " Peace and honor are the crown of virtue." 
Which term is explanatory, must be determined by the sense, or by the conception of 
the person using the expression. Adjunct: "The farm with all its appurtenances was 
sold." " Down comes the tree, nest, eagles, and all." — Fontaine. " A torch, snuff and 
all, goes out in a moment, when dipped into the vapor." — Addison's Italy. "Wooing, 
wedding, and repenting, is a Scotch jig, a measure, and a cinque pace."— Shak. In this 
last sentence, is seems to be proper as referring to the three things taken in a certain 
order as one whole. " Descent and fall to us is adverse." {See Paradise Lost, Book II.) 
" Is," in the foregoing example, is more expressive than are would be. It implies that 
the/a?Zis so connected with the descent, or follows it so closely, that the two may be 
considered as one thing. And unites them in form, but is strengthens the union by 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES, CONTINUED. 199 

uniting them also in sense. But I question whether even " poetic license" can protect 
the following couplet :— 

" Here's no war-steed's neigh and champing, 
Shouting clans, or squadrons stamping." — Walter Scott. 

? 479. It is usually better to repeat the verb or the auxiliary, when a 
different form of it is required. " The whole ground was covered with 
forests, and the ravines completely hidden." Better: "The whole 
ground was covered with forests, and the ravines were completely hid- 
den." 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AID PARSIKG. 

The flax often failed, and the sheep were destroyed by wolves. The 
mansion with its gardens and groves extends over a large area. The 
seasons, each in its turn, cheer the soul. Every twenty-four hours 
make a day. Every people have some kind of religion. Each private 
family pays a tax of five dollars for water. A remnant of cloth was 
left. 13 A remnant of the tribe were left. 13 5 from 7 leave 2. 5 from 
7 leaves 2. Two-fifths are greater than one-fourth [is]. A portion of 
these Indians have some education. The Hhine a and the Rhone rise in 
Switzerland. Lofty mountains, enormous glaciers, and wild, roman- 
tic valleys, successively appear. Tower and temple, hut and palace, 
were consumed by fire. A log-rolling, a quilting, or a wedding, was a 
time of general festivity. Every horse and every ox was stolen. You 
or he is in fault. You, he, and I, [We] are d invited. Continued exer- 
tion, and not hasty efforts, leads to success. Every doubtful or 
chimerical speculation was forbidden. The howling of the wolf, and 
the shrill screaming of the panther, were mingled in nightly concert 
with the war-whoop of the savages. The handmill was better than the 
mortar and the grater [were]. Where now is peace, sobriety, order, 
and love ? To have suffered the inhabitants to escape, would have pro- 
longed the evils of war. That Cortes with but a handful of adventur- 
ers should have conquered so great an empire, is a fact little short of 
the miraculous. [To lose] Two thousand dollars in one day, is loss 
enough. 

[To have] All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy. 

All play and no work makes Jack a mere toy. <* 

(a.) and one of the nominatives to "rise," according to Rule IV. (6.) -and of the 

3rd pers. plu. number, to agree with " Rhine and Rhone''' — a plural subject — accord- 
ing to Rule XIII. (c.) and in the nominative case to are understood, etc. (d.) and 

of the 1st person, plural number, to agree with "You, he, and I," (equivalent to We,) 
— a plural subject, — according to Rule XIII. 

Correct the following sentences : — 

I did not know where you wasa. Every one of the turkeys were caught by a fox. 
Not one of us have seen your hat. Wheat and rye is sowed in fall, but oats is sowed in 
spring. Circumstances alters cases. Neither my brother nor my sister were at the 
party. Tion are pronounced shun. Ashes are always used in the plural number. Two 
parallel lines denotes equality. Five dimes is half a dollar. I and you will go. 

(a.) Incorrect : "ivas " should be were to agree with " you, "according to Rule XIII. 

A LESS EXPLICIT BUT MORE CONDENSED YIEW OF THE FOREGOING 

SUBJECT. 

? Let us determine, 1st, What terms have no control over the verb; 
2ndly, The person of the entire subject; 3rdly, The number of the entire 
subject. 



200 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

TflRMs not Affecting the Form of the Verb. 
? Adjuncts to the nominative, explanatory terms, parenthetical terms, 
terms to which others are compared, terms excluded or excepted, terms 
apparently thrown aside for a more expressive one, terms apparently 
allowed to pass out of sight on account of the greater importance of 
another, and terms mentioned as if not thought of till one assertion is 
already made, — do not affect the form of the verb. 

Ex. — 1. " A long row of elms was cut down." " Star after star appears." 2. "His 
pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds." " The Bible, or Holy Scriptures, is the 
best book." 3. " This man (and indeed all such men) deserves death." "Our states- 
men, especially John Adams, have reached a good old age." 4. " The carriage, as well 
as the horses, was much injured." 5. " Industry, and not mean savings, produces wealth." 
" Since none but thou can end it." — Milton. 6. "What black despair, what horror fills 
his mind I" 7. "Honor and virtue, nay, even interest demands a diffeient course." 
8. " Well, there is Bardolph, and Smith, and Jones, and ivho else ?" 

Person. 

? When two or more nominatives differing in person, are taken collec- 
tively, the verb prefers the first person to the second, and the second to 
the third : when they are taken separately, it prefers that of the nomina- 
tive next to it. — For examples, see the preceding pages. 

Number. 

? Singular. — A single object denoted by a singular nominative; a 
united group of objects denoted by a singular collective noun ; an 
object conceived as a whole or unit, though denoted by a plural nom- 
inative, or by several nominatives or words ; two or more distinct or 
different objects taken individual^, and denoted by a singular nomina- 
tive, or by several nominatives, — require the verb to be in the sin- 
gular number. 

? Plural. — Several objects denoted by a plural nominative ; a single 
object or group conceived as to its parts or individuals, and denoted by 
a plural nominative or by a singular collective noun ; objects denoted 
by a plural nominative in company with singular nominatives, taken 
separately ; two or more distinct or different objects taken collectively, 
and denoted by different nominatives, — require the verb to be in the 
plural number. 

I NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT AND NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE, 

To this head may properly he referred a variety of expressions in our language ; 
some of which approach very near to elliptical expressions, and some to nouns used as 
interjections. If a perfect definition is such a one as will not only show the nature of 
the object defined, but also distinguish it from every other, then our grammarians have 
failed in regard to the Nominatives mentioned above. I shall endeavor to exhaust this 
subject by a rule consisting of three parts, perfectly distinct, and sufficiently clear, I 
trust, to enable the student to determine readily what should be referred to this head, 
and what should not. If the rule seems too long, it should be remembered that the 
shortest way is not always traveled over in least time or with least fatigue. The shorter 
Rules of Book First may again be applied afterwards, when the subject is fully under- 
stood. 

? 480. 1. Rule Y. — A substantive uttered merely to show the 
cause of emotion, or to draw attention to the object denoted, or 
to what the speaker says, is put in the NOMINATIVE case INDE- 
PENDENT. 

? 481. 2. Rule VI. — 1. A substantive before a participle, 



201 

and assumed as a condition or circumstance of toliat is said of 
something else, is put in the nominative case ABSOLUTE. 

? 482. 3. Rule VI. — 2. A predicate-substantive assumed 
after a participle or an infinitive, and not depending on any 
other word, is put in the nominative case absolute. 

Ex. — 1. "Those evening bells! those evening bells! How many a tale their music tells." 
" A ' Jcnave ' / a ' poltroon ' / — and these are the titles I get for my services." " Scotland ! 
there is magic in the sound." " Three thousand ducats! 'tis a good round sum." " His 
bed and board! he never had any." " The isles of Greece ! the isles of Greece ! Where 
burning Sappho loved and sung." " To be massacred by savages !,- God save us from 
such a death." " The Pilgrim Fathers, — where are they ? " " Webster's Dictionary Un- 
abridged." " John, you may go for some water." " You may go, John, for some water." 
" You may go for some water, John.'''' " Mr. President, it is natural for man to indulge 
in the illusions of Hope." " Hise, felloiv -men ! our country yet remains." "Ye flowers 
that cluster by eternal frosts." 

2. " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." " The coat fitting, I bought it at once." 
" Flash following flash, we had but little hope." " The terms [being or having been] 
settled, he produced the cash." " The wolf [being] at bay, the dogs barked the more." 
" What more could they do, a youth [being] tneir leader ?" " Now man [being opposed] 
to man, and steel [being opposed] to steel, A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel." — 
Scott. 

3. " To become a scholar, requires great application." " To be a respectable preacher 
or doctor, is easier than to be a respectable lawyer." " No one suspected his being & for- 
eigner." " My duty as [being] her instructor.'' 1 " His nomination, as [to be] bishop [Ger- 
man, " als Bischof zu sein "=as bishop to be] was confirmed." By a more strained supply 
of words, B-ule XI may be applied in the last two examples : " My duty, considered as 
being her instructor's (duty);" "His nomination, considered as to be the bishop'? 
(nomination)," &c. 

1. Rule V is applicable most frequently in addresses to persons or things. 2. The 
phrases comprised under the first part of Rule VI, are but abridged expressions for 
clauses beginning with such words as when, while, since, because, inasmuch as, &c. " Shame 
being lost, all virtue is lost "=" When shame is lost, all virtue is lost." The participle is 
sometimes understood, especially being or having been. 3. A predicate-substantive is a 
substantive that would describe, if asserted, the nominative or subject, and could not 
be governed by the verb. 

The student may observe that all the substantives referred to by the Rules above, do 
not govern any word, neither are they governed by any word, and yet they are signifi- 
cant, or expressive of thought. Sometimes they seem to imply that the speaker's feel- 
ings are so enkindled by the contemplation of the object, that the flood of accumulated 
thought "bursts forth at once, and without an effort on his part. — See Byron's " Isles of 
Greece." 

Note. — A word about a disputed point. — " For him to be our leader:" the German 
language would require " leader " even here to be a nominative, or rather, it would 
avoid the expression altogether, and say, " That he should be our leader." Many of our 
predicate phrases can not be literally translated into the German, and so I doubt the 
strict analogy of the two languages as to this point. Query. — The structure of our lan- 
guage being both " Classic " and Saxon, does it not follow the analogy of both the Latin 
and the German ? and should we not consider predicate -substantives nominatives always, 
and only then, when there is no previous substantive to control the case, and make it 
different ? 

? 482. Punctuation. — Sometimes a comma ; and, in strong emotion, 
sometimes an exclamation point. — See below. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

l. 
"Fellow-citizens," " Gentlemen of the jury." " Raj's Arith- 
metic, Part III." 

Friends, 5 Romans, 1 * 5 countrymen 5 ! lend me your ears. — Shakspeare*. 
Spirit that breathest through my lattice. — Bryant. 
His praise, ye e winds , that from four quarters blow, 
Breathe soft or loud ; and waye your tops, ye pines. — Milton. 



202 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Bethink thee, William, of thy wrong. — Harlow. 

You sunburnt sicklemen, of autumn weary, 

Come hither from the furrow, and be merry. — Shakspeare. 

My friends, do they now and then send 

A wish or a thought after me. — C'owper. 

To arms! they come! the Greek d ! the Greek ! — Halleck. 

Fire and brimstone ! what have you been doing? — [Inter jec. phrase.) 

u Come back ! come back ! " he cried in grief, 
" Across this stormy water; 

And I'll forgive your Highland chief, — 

My daughter! oh, my daughter! " — Campbell. 

2. 

The sun having risen, we began our journey. 

Bonaparte being banished, peace was restored to Europe. 

Forth he walked, the Spirit leading and his deep thoughts. 

He being a boy, the Indians spared him. He, being a boy, was not 
killed. 

Her wheel at rest, the matron thrills no more 
With treasured tales, and legendary lore. — Rogers. 

3. 

To be a great historian, is easier than to be a great poet. 

His being a foreigner, should not induce us to underrate him. 

(a.) " Shakspeare" is not an objective governed by by understood, as some would 
parse it. Did a Roman ever subscribe his name in the ablative f (6.) Not Rule XI, for 
each subsequent term is meant to be more comprehensive, (c.) A noun is never the sub- 
ject of an imperative verb, and a pronoun is the subject only when it comes immediately 
after the verb, and is joined to it.( d.) Rule XI is sometimes not inapplicable, and may be 
preferred, (e.) Rule XI may be applied to either word, but perhaps better to ye, as 
being the strengthening word. 

Correct the following sentences : — 

Me knowing what he bad done, he was always afraid of me. Him descending. 
Them having believed it, he told it to others. Its being him or me, should be all one to 
you. (An inelegant phraseology.) 

Expand into clauses : — 

Our provisions failing, we were obliged to halt. Ammunition being obtained, the 
party set out. This done, the rest will be easy. I recollect his being a merchant. Bet- 
ter : I recollect that etc. 

4. VERB AND OBJECTIVE. 

Bule VIII. — The object of a transitive verb in the active 
voice, must be in the OBJECTIVE case. 

Ex. — " You have hurt me." " Whom do you see ? " " He owns much property." " I 
saw him gathering apples." " I came to hear him." " I came for the purpose of hear- 
ing him." 

Note. — The object is the opposite of the subject. A passive verb can not govern an 
object. 

? 484. The object may be a verbal noun, or consist of an entire phrase 
or clause. 

Ex. — " My brother likes to study, but I like running find jumping better than studying." 
" He knew to build the lofty rhyme." " You do not consider how little most people care for 
what, is not to their interest." " I ordered the horses to be brought." 

? To determine whether a verb followed by a clause or a phrase is 



SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES, CONTINUED. 203 

transitive, we must consider whether a noun or a pronoun put in the 
place of the phrase or clause, would be governed by the verb. 

? As an entire clause may be the object of a verb or preposition, so may 
an entire phrase, beginning with a substantive followed by an infinitive. 
The governing word does not govern the noun or pronoun alone, yet it 
has sufficient influence over it, as a part of its object, (a part otherwise 
uncontrolled,) to determine its case ; and this influence is sufficient for 
the application of Kule VIII. 

Ex. — " Let me finish the problem." " I desire you to go." " I supposed him to be your 
brother." "He commanded the horse to be brought." "We heard the thunder roll." "One 
word is too often profaned for me to profane it" 

Note, — The effort has heen made several times, to implant from the Latin into the 
English, a Rule for " the subject of the infinitive ; " but most grammarians seem to have 
discarded the innovation almost instinctively, or without deigning to give it a formal 
rejection. I too incline to reject it. " Hule XI. The infinitive has sometimes a sub- 
ject in the objective case." — Butler's Grammar. Objections: 1. The English language 
never allows an objective before an infinitive, unless there is at the same time a governing 
word before that objective; but the Latin sometimes allows an intransitive verb before such 
an objective, and therefore differs from our language, and requires a Rule for the subject 
of the infinitive. We can say, " Gaudeo te valere ; " but not, " I rejoice thee to be well." 
2. Though Mr. Butler's few examples are plain and plausible enough, as examples made 
or selected for a Rule usually are, yet it is impossible to tell, in every instance, whether 
the object should be parsed as the " subject" of the infinitive or as the " object " of the 
preceding verb. 3. The participle has sometimes as good a right to such a subject as 
the infinitive ; thus, " I saw the sun rise " and "I saw the sun rising ," differ no more 
than " The sun rises" and " The sun is rising." 

TWO OBJECTIVES. 

? 485. A few verbs may govern, in different senses, two objects at once, 
provided they can govern them as well separately. 

Ex. — " He asked me a question "===" He asked me " and " He asked a question ; " but, 
" He gave me a question," is not equivalent to " He gave me " and " He gave a question." 

? 486. When a verb governing two objects is made passive, either 
object, but not both, may- be made the nominative. The other object 
remains in the objective case ; but as a passive verb can not govern an 
object,the other object, if it denotes the person, is governed by a prepo- 
sition expressed or understood ; and if it denotes the thing, it may be 
referred to Rule X. 

Ex. — " My mother taught me arithmetic "=I was taught arithmetic by my mother; 
or, Arithmetic was taught (to) me by my mother. Observe the difference : " James struck 
him 8 a blow 8 ; " " James wrote him 9 a letter 8 ; " " James called him 8 his friend 11 ." 

? 487. But when a transitive verb is followed by two objects, of which 
one is governed by a preposition, then that only which is the object of 
the active verb, can become the nominative to the passive. 

Ex. — " He paid [to] me a dollar "=A dollar was paid to me ; not, I was paid a dollar. 

6. ADVERBIAL OR UNGOVERNEB OBJECTIVE. 

Rule X. — A substantive used without a governing word, 
and modifying like an adverb or adjunct some other word, must 
be in the objective case. 

Ex. — "I do not care a straiv?" Care not how much? "The wall was 1200 feet 
long and 40 feet high." How long? how high? "It was richly worth a dollar." 
Worth how much ? " We went home." Whither? " The slippered pantaloon a world 
too wide." — ShaJ-c. How much too wide ? He is head and heels in debt." To what 



204 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

extent? "She walks [like] a queen.'''' "Now he trips a lady, and now he struts a 
lord." — Pope. " To act the coward and to play the fool." How ? " He wore his coat 
cloak fashion." " He is nothing too good for such conduct." " I was taught grammar." 
Taught as to what ? " Four times one are four "=Four repetitions of one are four. 

? Sometimes a substantive may be referred to this Rule, or parsed at 
once as an adverb. Some grammarians prefer to consider such expres- 
sions elliptical, and to supply a preposition, which can generally be 
done without straining the matter very far. 

? 488. There are expressions obviously elliptical. 

Ex.— "Dr. Rush, No. 340, Pearl Street, Philadelphia, Penn."=ro Dr. Rush, at No. 
340, on Pearl Street, in Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania. "Jan. 1st, 1857 "=On the first 
day of January, in the year 1857. 

EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The sailors, in wandering over the island, found several trees bearing 
delicious fruit 8 . I forgot to tell 8 [to] him the story. Boys like to play 8 . 
I was about to express 9 my opinion, when he spoke to suggest 14 to me 
to remain 8 silent. I can not permit him 8 to go* 4 . He taught us 8 arith- 
metic 8 , reading 8 , and writing 8 . He taught us to cipher, to read, and to 
write. He was taught to walk* 4 on the rope. The horse I bought, is 
five years old. We were taught arithmetic, reading, and writing. The 
profit is hardly worth the trouble. 



Before him rose the stupendous Andes, rock piled upon rock, their 
skirts below dark with evergreen forests, varied here and there by 
terraced patches of cultivated garden, with the peasant's cottage cling- 
ing to their shaggy sides, and their crests of snow glittering high in the 
heavens, — presenting altogether such a wild chaos of magnificence and 
beauty as no other mountain scenery in the world can show. — PrescotL 



I have now given a view of the entire language, — presented the most important prin- 
ciples of Analysis, and all that is necessary for parsing any correct sentence or expression 
whatsoever. To do this, it may, however, be sometimes necessary to suppose an ellipsis, 
and to supply such words as are suitable. My principal aim has been not merely to 
communicate such knowledge as may give the student greater power over language, but 
such as may guard him against error, — to show him, so far as possible, the right way, 
whereever he is liable to go astray. 

What I have said, relates chiefly to the essential principles of speech, — to what must 
occur in the most ordinary communication of thought ; yet it is well known, that we 
often seek not merely to communicate our thoughts, but to impart them with brevity, 
elegance, beauty, or force ; especially when our feelings are excited, and we wish to arouse 
those of others ; or, at least, when we aim to make our discourse more than usually in- 
teresting, impressive, or striking. This will lead us to notice a few things more. 



- 4 — ♦ — »■ 



34. RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. 

VARIETY. 

The soul can hardly be said to be made for enduring perpetual 
sameness. Variety, truly, has its charms ; and God has so formed 
the world as to give us great scope for enjoying it. We may observe 
it in the successive seasons ; in the vicissitudes of day and night ; in 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. 205 

the star-spangled dome of night ; in the radiant clouds that adorn 
the sky ; in the irregular associations of hills, valleys, and plains ; 
in the meandering stream ; in the long, abrupt, and shaggy mountain 
range ; in the wide-spreading forests with their millions of waving and 
fluttering boughs ; in the songs of birds; in the verdure of the fields; 
in the colors that enamel the flowers, or glow in the clouds that assem- 
ble around the rising or the setting sun ; in the multitude of animals 
and plants ; in fashion and in architecture ; in the pursuits and pastimes 
of men ; in the mansions of the wealthy and in the hovels of the poor. 

1. EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS.* 

? An expression is equivalent to another, when it conveys 
the same meaning in different words. 

? Language often affords us the choice of either a single 
word, & phrase, or an entire clause. 

Ex. — " Pleasant scenes "=Scenes of pleasure=Scenes that please. Now=At the pres- 
ent time. " To be good is to be happy ,, =Goodness is happiness. " The book contain- 
ing the story, is in my library "=The book which contains <fec. " Knowing his temper, I 
could foretell the consequences "=^s I knew &c. " The ship beginning to sink, he left 
it "=When the ship began to sink, &c. "We expected him to make a speech "=We 
expected that he would make a speech. " The river was so deep as to be impassable "= 
The river was so deep that it was impassable — that it could not be passed over. " Dew- 
besprinkled "=Besprinkled with dew. " Sharp-edged "=Having a sharp edge, or, With 
a sharp edge. 

? 489. Transitive verbs may be used in either the active or 
the passive voice. 

Ex. — " The British government banished Bonaparte "^Bonaparte was banished by 
the British government. 

? 490. We may sometimes substitute a denial of the opposite. 
This mode of expression, however, is seldom exactly the same 
in meaning as the other. 

? It may often be modestly nsed to deny what is obnoxious, or even 
praiseworthy, without presuming to claim the opposite. 

Ex. — " I remember your promise "=I have not forgotten your promise. "He is 
wise;" " He is not ignorant ; " "He is no fool." "She is handsome;" "She is not 
homely." "lam not unmindful of you." "I am not uninformed on the subject." 
" It is not improbable." "It may not be improper." 

? 491. It or there may often be used to introduce a sentence more ele- 
gantly. 

Ex. — " It is not probable that those who are vicious in youth, will become virtuous 
in old age." " There never was a time when labor was more in demand, or better re- 
warded." 

? 492. Frequently, we may use a different word or different 
mode of expression, with equal or even greater propriety. 

Ex. — " The gentleman does not possess the necessary qualifications "=He is unfit for 
the business. "She died;" " God released her from her pain." " Will you murder an 
old man tottering on the brink of the grave ! " " Will you stab at half an hour of my 
poor life!" "As soon as we gave bim the opportunity, he ran off ; " "W T eset him 
loose, and away he ran." "The one was a horse, named Ponnd-cake; the other, a 
mule that wagged his long ears to the call of ' John.' " " My worthy opponent does per- 
haps not see that he has contradicted himself; " " The honorable Senator does not seem 
to know, that he is caught tight and fast in the fixed fact of a killing contradiction. 

* Tacitus has perhaps carried variety in the use of equivalent expressions, to the 
farthest extent — even to excess. 



206 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? A person that has great command of equivalent expressions, may ex- 
press his thoughts with much greater ease; and not only -with greater 
ease, but often with greater accuracy, beauty, and force. 

It should be remembered, that almost every word has a peculiar 
meaning and use. Dictionaries often give us but the general meaning. 
The best mode of learning the precise meaning of words and phrases, is, 
to observe to what they are usually applied, — how those use them whose 
occupation requires them, or how good authors use them. 

Change the voice : — 

John fed the horse. Corn wallis was defeated by Washington. He made it. War 
ravages the country. His friends will recommend him. I ofiered him a situation. 

Infinitive or participle to a clause: — 

Trusting to his popularity, he became a candidate. Having paid his clerk, he dis- 
missed him. The teacher being in sight, all the boys ran to their books. He came to 
examine the matter himself. His views are so extravagant as to be ridiculous. 

Use it : — 

To devise any apology for such conduct, is utterly impossible. 

Use there : — 

Not one man was in the country, unwilling to defend it. Thorns are to roses. 

Change to compound adjectives : — 

My boots with red tops. Violets of sweet scent fringed the bank. The live-oaks of 
the South, that are curtained with moss. A sword having two edges, will be more 
suitable. 

Change the icords or the mode of expression : — 

Every one who hunts after pleasure, or fame, or fortune, is still restless and uneasy 
till he has hunted down his game. — ISicij't. Winter is celebrated as the domestic season 
of merriment and gaiety. As guilt is propagated, the power of reproach is diminished. 
I bore the diminution of my riches without any outrages of sorrow, or pusillanimity of 
dejection. — Johnson. Suspenders were abandoned with the first intimation of the pres- 
ent summer solstice. — Willis. 

2. ARRANGEMENT. 

" Forth rushed, with whirlwind sound, 
The chariot of paternal Deity." — Milton. 
" Up rose the sun, and up rose Emilie." — Chaucer. 
" Silver and gold have I none."— Bible. 
How much more spirited are the foregoing sentences than if they were arranged 
thus : — 

The chariot of paternal Deity rushed forth with whirlwind sound. Emilie rose up 
with the sun. I have no silver and gold. 
*How elegant is the arrangement in the following : — 

" Weary of his life, 
Francesco flew to Venice, thence embarking, 
Flung it away in battle with the Turk." — Rogers. 

? Arrangement 'may be considered with reference to words, 
to phrases, or to clauses. 

The place most important in a sentence, is usually its be- 
ginning ; the next most important, is the ending. 

? 493. Hence the subject, which is the germ or source of the 
whole sentence, naturally takes the first place. 

Ex. — "He maintained a large army at his own expense." " Rome was an ocean of 
flame." 

? 494. But an adjective, an adverb, a verb, or a substantive, 
may sometimes usurp the place of the subject, or be brought 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. 207 

out at the close of the sentence ; especially when it sets forth 
what is most striking, or what is uppermost in the speaker's 
mind. 

Ex. — " Strait is the gate, and narrow is the way that leads to life eternal." " Great 
is Diana of the Ephesians." "But more horrible was the fate of those who fell alive 
into the hands of the savages." " Most anxiously did they strain their eyes to catch the 
glimpse of a vessel, but none appeared." "When in came my father." "Away they 

went, with whoop and halloo, down the valley." "Away went Gilpin, and away " 

" Is this all you have ? and do you offer even this to a stranger ? Then never saw I 
charity before." " On they moved indissolubly firm." " Armed say ye ? — Yes, armed, 
my lord." " In prosperity, my friends shall never hear of me ; in adversity, always." 
" The goods he sent awaf. the money he put into his pocket, and then he left." " Before 
them, was the sea ; behind them, were the mountains." "It was a charming evening, 
•mild and bright.'"' " A man he was to all the country dear." " Sad and iveary was the 
march to Valley Forge. Hungry and cold were the poor jelloivs who had so long been 
keeping the field." — Irving. " Long was the way and dreary." — Milton. By placing 
" Long " at the beginning and " dreary " at the end of the sentence, how admirably has 
Milton expressed what must have been most striking and disheartening to Satan, who 
was about to undertake his journey over Chaos ! 

" Then shooh the hills with thunder riven ; 
Then rushed the steeds to battle driven ; 
And louder than the bolts of heaven 

Far flashed the red artillery." — Campbell. 

" Louder and louder the deep thrunder rolled, as through the myriad balls of some 
vast temple in the sky ; fiercer and brighter became the lightning ; more and more heavily 
the rain poured down. — Lichens. 

? 495. Frequently, an adjunct, a participial phrase, or an 
infinitive phrase, may be transposed or inverted. 

Ex. — "In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state evidently 
declined "=The Roman state, in proportion to the increase of luxury, evidently 
declined=The Roman state evidently declined in proportion to the increase of luxury. 
" To secure to us the blessings of liberty, our fathers endured a long and bloody war "== 
Our fathers, to secure to us the blessings of liberty, endured a long and bloody war= 
Our fathers endured a long and bloody war, to secure to us the blessings of liberty. 
" Having saved some money, the little family retired to the county "=The little family, 
having saved some money, retired to the country=To the country retired the little 
family, after having saved some money. 

? 496. Frequently, the clauses may change place, or one be 
placed within another. 

Ex. — "His funds were completely exhausted, before he had fitted out his little 
squadron "=Before he had fitted out his little squadron, his funds were completely 
exhausted. " If you desire it, I will accompany you ; " "I will accompany you, if you 
desire it ; " "I will, if you desire it, accompany you." 

? 497. Some regard should be paid to the natural order of 
things. 

Ex. — "We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we have prostrated ourselves at 
the foot of the throne." — P. Henry. "The storm passed away, and the firmament 
became again serene ; but the mariners remained tossing about in confusion, and dis- 
mayed by the turbulence of the waves." — Irving. 

" The solemn temples, the gorgeous palaces, 
The cloud-capt towers, the great globe itself, 
With all that it inherit, shall dissolve ; 
And, like the baseless fabric of a vision, 
Leave not a rack behind." — Shalcspeare. 

? 498. But the mind sometimes disregards the natural order 
of time or place, and puts forth first what is first or most 
thought of. 

Ex. — " Where I was bred and bom." — ShaJcspeare. 



208 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 499. A sentence so constructed as to suspend the meaning 
till its close, is called a period. 

Ex. — " When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, * * * a 
decent respect to the opinion of mankind requires, that they should declare the causes 
which impel them to separation." — Jefferson. ^ 

Bear in mind that a different arrangement sometimes changes the 
meaning. 
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE UNDER THIS AND THE PRECEDING SECTION:— 

A person gains more by obliging his inferior, than by disobliging him. The mur- 
murs of the people were loud, as their sufferings increased. To recover the prisoners 
taken at the Cow Pens, the royal army was instantly put in motion. Various, sincere, 
and constant are the efforts of men, to produce that happiness which the mind requires. 
The necessary appendages of friendship are confidence and benevolence. If beasts 
could talk, they might often tell us a cruel story. In compliance with the entreaties of 
the natives, he sent a detachment of Spaniards on a visit to the interior. At length, 
they came to a number of houses and gardens situated on a river. Satisfied with their 
success, they now set sail for Spain. We think more of ourselves than of others, but 
more for others than for ourselves. For many a returning autumn, a lone Indian was 
seen standing at the consecrated spot we have mentioned ; but, just thirty years after 
the death of Soonseetah, he was noticed for the last time. 

Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 

Whore heaves the turf with many a mouldering heap, 
Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. — Gray. 
Change to prose : — 

Tyrants no more their savage nature kept. — Pope. 
But chief my fear the dangers moved. — Merrick. 
For see, ah ! see, while yet her ways, 

With doubtful steps, I tread, 
A hostile world its terrors raise, 

Its snares delusive spread. — Merrick. 
Him the Almighty Power 
Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky, 
With hideous ruin and combustion, down 
To bottomless perdition, there to dwell 
In adamantine chains and penal fires, — 
Who durst defy the Omnipotent to arms. — Milton. 
Aspiring to be gods if angels fell, 
Aspiring to be angels men rebel. — Pope. 
(The meaning is, If angels fell by aspiring to be gods, then men rebel by aspiring 
to be angels.) 

ELLIPSIS, OR OMISSION OP WORDS. 

? §00. For the sake of brevity and force, words not necessary 
to the sense are sometimes omitted. 

Ex. — " Rider and horse, — friend, foe, — in one red burial blent," is more forcible than, 
" The rider and his horse, the friend and his foe, were blended in one red burial." " A 
horse ! a horse ! my kingdom for a horse," is much more spirited than, " Fetch me a 
horse, — I would now give my kingdom for a horse." " A boy and [a] girl." " The 
melons, [the] apples, and [the] pears." " The old [bridge] and the new bridge." 
" Govern [thou] thy passions." " Here is the very article [that] I need." " There is 
the man [whom] we saw." " Sweet [is] the pleasure, Rich [is] the treasure." " They 
laid her in the dark, [and] silent grave." "Pears are better than apples" [are]. 
" Bring [to] me some of your water." In the following stanza, the omission of which is 
quite elegant : — 

" I hear a voice — xthou canst not hear, 
Which says I must not stay ; 
I see a hand — Athou canst not see, 
^Which beckons me away." 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. 209 

? Omitted words are such, as have been already mentioned, or may be 
readily inferred from those that are used. 

Note. — Suppose you should see merely a horse's head projecting from behind a 
stable, would you not, from your knowledge, know what animal is there even without 
seeing him ? The same principle allows ellipsis, or the omission of words in language. 

? In analyzing and parsing, only such words should be supplied as are 
necessary to complete the construction. 

Supply the necessary loords : — The large and the little man were great friends. Stay 
longer. Arm soldiers. Stand back. Vain — vain — give o'er. How now, Tubal, what 
news from Genoa ? A diamond gone, cost me three thousand ducats in Frankfort ! 
" The combat deepens. — On, ye brave." But gone was every Indian we had seen. The 
more, the better. But s&ytrue [—what is true]. Great were the difficulties he had to 
encounter. Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits know. In 
who obtain defence, or who defend. He offered a reward to whoever could solve the 
problem. Delightful task to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how 
to shoot. He has behaved as well as you. He has behaved better than you. The 
honor, and not the profits, is what he values most. Quick at meals, quick at work. 
Better long something, than soon nothing. Soon ripe, soon rotten. As the tree, so the 
fruit. Out of debt, out of danger. Poor and content is rich, and rich enough. 
When pain and sorrow wring the brow, 
A ministering angel thou. — Scott. 

PLEONASM, OE BEPETITION OF WORDS. 

? §01. Sometimes more words may be used than are absolutely 
necessary. 

Ex — " I saw it with my own eyes." " The vessel sailed for Cuba, and not for New 
York." Our fiat-boat sunk down to the very 'bottom.'''' 

" One of the few, the immortal names, 
That were not born to die ! " — HallecJc. 

? 502. The same word, or the same construction, may some- 
times be repeated. 

Ex. — " Strike — till the last armed foe expires ! 

Strike — for your altars and your fires ! 
Strike — for the green graves of your sires ! 
God, and your native land ! " — HallecJc. 
How much more impressive than if written thus : — 

" Strike, till the last armed foe expires, and for your altars, fires, the green graves 
of your sires, God, and your native land." 

Ex. — "Oh Absalom, Absalom! my son, my son!" "Mourn, hapless Caledonia, 
mourn." "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" "A horse! a horse! my 
kingdom for a horse ! " " The innocent, the young, the aged, were all put to the sword ! " 
" Such a man may fall a victim to power, but truth, and virtue, and religion, would fall 

with him." " pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honors." "She was 

so young, so fair, and so intelligent." " He ran faster and faster." " Above all things, 
tell no untruth, no, not even in trifles." "No employment for industry — no demand for 
labor — no sale of the produce of the farm — no sound of the hammer but that of the 
auctioneer, knocking down property ! " — Benton. How well here does " no " indicate the 
utter prostration of business and prosperity ! " My lord, my love, my refuge." " What ? 
I! Hove ! J sue ! I seek a wife ! " — Shah. " The endless sands yield nothing but small 
stunted shrubs — even these fail after the first two or three days ; and from that tim* 
you pass over broad plains— you pass over newly reared hills — you pass through valleys 
that the storm of the last week has dug, and the hills and the valleys are sand, sand, still 
sand, and only sand, and sand, and sand again." — Crossing the Desert. How well here does 
repetition indicate the tediousness and weariness felt by the traveler ! 
" How be it, the door I opened, or so I dreamed ; 

Which slowly, slowly gaped." — Hood's " Haunted House." 
Here slowly repeated, very ingeniously intimates the fear and the hesitation of the 
opener. " If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop 

18 



210 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

was landed in my country, I never would lay clown iny arms ! Never, never, never ! " 
" Holl on, thou deep and dark-blue Ocean, — roll ! " " Take, 0, take this heart to thine." 
" Fal'n, fal'n, fal'n, fal'n, Fal'n from his high estate, And weltering in his blood." — 
Dry den. " Go, go, Tubal, and meet me at our synagogue ; go, good Tubal ; at our syna- 
gogue, Tubal." — ShaJc. 

" Claudio. " Who wrongs him ? 
Leonato. Thou, thou dost wrong me, thou dissembler, thou ! " — Shale. 
" Explain upon a thing till all men doubt it ; 

And write about it, and about it." — Pope's Dunciad. 
" By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed ; 
By foreign hands thy decent limbs composed ; 
By foreign hands thy humble grave adorned ; 
By strangers honored, and by strangers mourned." — Pope. 
" Fare thee well, and if for ever, 

Still for ever fare thee well." — Byron. 
" Must I then leave you ? Must I needs forego 
So good, so noble, and so true a master ? 
The king shall have niy service ; but my prayers 
For ever and for ever shall be yours." — Shale. 
" Alas ! I feel there is but one, 

One Mary in the world for me." — T. Moore. 
" Now man to man, and steel to steel, 

A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel." — W. Scott. 
" Like yours, their followers shouted brave ; 
Like yours, the minstrels answered loud ; 
Like yours, they 'gan the dance to weave ; 

And round and round the goblet flowed." — W. Scott. 
" ' Come back ! come back ! ' he cried in grief, 
' Across this stormy water ; 
And I'll forgive your Highland chief, — 
My daughter! oh, my daughter ! ' " — Campbell. [cation. 

" Busk ye, busk ye, my bonny, bonny bride," &c. — Hamilton. — See Versifi- 

" She winks, and giggles, and simpers, 

And simpers, and giggles, and winks ; 
And though she talks but little, 

'Tia a great deal more than she thinks." — Stark. 
" Ye living flowers that girt eternal frost ! 

Ye wild goats, sporting round the eagles' nest ! 

Ye eagles, playmates of the mountain storm ! 

Ye lightnings, the dread arrows of the clouds ! 

Ye signs and wonders of the elements ! — 

Utter forth God, and fill the hills with praise."— Coleridge, 
" And so from hour to hour we ripe and ripe, 

And then from hour to hour we rot and rot, 

And thereby hangs a tale." — Shale. 
" If ever you have looked on better days ; 

If ever been where bells have knolled to church ; 

If ever sat at any good man's feast ; 

If ever from your eyelids wiped a tear, 

And known what 'tis to pity and be pitied," &c. — Shale. 
" Love was not in their looks, either to God 

Or to each other, but apparent guilt, 

And shame, and perturbation, and despair, 

Anger, and obstinacy, and hate, and guile." — Milton. 

" I impeach Warren Hastings, Esq., of high crimes and misdemeanors. I impeach 
him in the name of all the Commons of Great Britain. I impeach him in the name of 
the people of India," &c, &c. — Burlee. 

" An English funeral in town is made up of show and gloomy parade ; mourning car- 
riages, mourning horses, mourning plumes, and hireling mourners, who make a mock- 
ery of grief." 

? 501 Authors sometimes consider it a beauty to begin two 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES.. 211 

or more consecutive words with the same letter. This is 
called alliteration. 

Ex. — Ci It is not in marbled mansions, fine furniture, ample apparatus, large libraries, 
and profound preceptors alone, to make us learned." 

" He loved by both ! — Yes, truly, because he was pet to the one and pup to the other." 
— Political Speech. 

" In friendship false, implacable in hate, 

Resolved to ruin or to rule the state." — Dry den. 
" Alike for feast and fight prepared, 

Battle and banquet both they shared," — W. Scott. 
" Fields for ever fresh, and groves for ever green." 
" The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair.'" 
" Bound rugged rocks, rude ragged rascals ran." 
11 Americans arrayed and armed, attend " &c. 
If any one will take the pains to examine, he will find that not a little of the vigor 
and beauty of Lord Macaulay's style, consists in the judicious application of the princi- 
ples which I have noticed from page 204-. Indeed, his style affords the best illustration 
of them all. 

ALLOWABLE DEVIATIONS. 

? §04. A departure from grammatical accuracy is sometimes 
allowed, in order to imitate or represent more faithfully the 
language and character of another. 

Ex. — 1. French Brogue. — "Dr. Cams. I pray you let-a me speak a vord vit your 
ear ; verefore vill you not meet-a me." — Shale. " He be vun verry nice gentillmun." 

2. Irish Brogue.— " Them Know-Nothiog chaps, Wid the stupid consate that the 
counthry's their own, Think they kin rule thimselves, be jabers." — Songster. 

3. German Brogue. — " Ash Katrina wash drawing de lager-bier von day." — Songster. 

4. American Backwoods. — " Josh and me was just a-gwine to a leetle log cabin in 
the piny woods, whar lived a long, lank, narrer-shouldered, crane-necked, sailer-looking, 
hatchet-faced gal that Josh thought right smart of. "—Sam SlicJc. 

5. Negro Dialect. — " High ! Massa ! sure Dick always answer when he hear Massa 
halloo." — Weems's Marion. 

" Till I see de bees a hummin all around de comb, 
Till I hear de banjo tummin down in my good home, 

All de wurl look sad and dreary." — Christy's Melodies. 

6. Ignorance. — Mrs. Gilpin. " So you must ride on horseback after we." — Cowper. 

" Let us examination these men." — Shalt. 
" Child. Once, when I sat upon her lap, I felt a beating at her side ; and she told me 
'twas her heart that beat, and bade me feel for mine, and they both beat alike, only mine 
beat the quickest. And I feel my heart beating yet, but hers — I can not feel ! " Had the 
author here said " more quickly," he would have shown at once, not the pathetic prattle 
of the child over its dead mother, but his own counterfeiting, and thus spoiled the dra- 
matic effect. 

7. Archaism. — 

" And there a season atween June and May, 
Half pranked with spring, with summer half imbrowned, 
A listless climate made, where, sooth to say, 
No living wight could work, ne carM even for play." — Thompson. 

8. Scottish Dialect. — See Burns. 

CONTRACTIONS. 

? Some letter or letters of a word are sometimes omitted, 
and what is left is sometimes changed and combined with an- 
other word. This is called contraction. 

An apostrophe (*) is usually put in the place of the letter or letters 
omitted. 



212 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Ex. — Th' or 't, for the; 'm, am,- 'rt, art; 're, are; 's, is, us, or has; 've, have; 'd, had 
or would ; '11, wi7Z; n't, wotf; ain't, are «oZ; don't, do wo£; won't, will not ; doesn't, does 
not; shan't, shall not — Addison; can't, can not; 't, it; 'tis n't, it is not; 'tis or it's, it is; 
'gan, began; pr'ythee, I pray thee; couldn't, could not; 'cause, because; e'en, even; e'er, 
ever; ne'er, never; o'er, over; whate'er, whatever; 'em, them; 'gainst, against; 'bove, 
above; 'midst, amidst] 'neath, beneath; wi', with; i', in; o', of; o'clock, of the clock. 

Give the full expression : — 

Thou'rt gone. I'm weary of conjectures. But don't forget the picture. 'Twas five 
o'clock. Well, Ma'am, perhaps you're one of 'em. There's not a wretch that lives on 
common charity, but's happier than I. We'd do better if we could. He'd learned 
his lessons well. Is't so ? You don't, you can't, mean that. It didn't suit me, and I 
wouldn't buy it. Dar'st thou, Cassius, leap with me into this angry flood ? I'll sell it, 
whatso'er it bring. Tho' I've warned him. Pilot! 'tis a fearful night — there's danger 
on the deep ! E'en from the tomb. Come, let's go. Should vice expect to 'scape 
rebuke ? 

? A word is sometimes parted by an intervening word. This 
11 figure " is called Tmesis. 

Ex. — "To us wards "=Towards us. "On which side soever "==On whichsoever 
side. " The live day long "=The livelong day. 

POETIC LICENSE. 

? 505. To poets is allowed greater liberty than to prose 

writers, 1. In the number, the omission, or the choice of 

words; 2. In the form of words; 3. In the arrangement of 

words. 

Ex. — 1. " One of us you'll find in tin ; 

Another's set in box within.'''' — Swift. (Omit within.) 
" My banks they are furnished with bees." — Shenstone. 
" The why is plain as way to parish church." — Shah. ( — the way — ) 
" Who with repentance is not satisfied, 

Is nor of earth nor heaven." — Shah. ( — neither .... nor — ) 
" It was a tall young oysterman lived by the river-side." 

Holmes. ( — oysterman that — ) 

2. " And the idols are brohe in the temple of Baal." — Byron. ( — brohen — ) 
" The delicatest flowers." — Shelley. (Hardly allowable for most delicate.) 

3. " But chief my fear the dangers moved "=But chief the dangers moved my 

"It is fit [fear. 

The spell should break of this protracted dream." — Byron. 
(The spell of this protracted dream should break.) 
" Her lover lived, — nor foes nor fears would blight 
That full-blown moment in its all delight." — Byron. 

S3. FIGURES. 

? The expressiveness of language may be increased or 
extended, by the judicious use of the Figures of Rhetoric. 

Some Southern orator has thus extolled the moral influence of woman : — 
" Woman wields the Archimedian lever, whose fulcrum is childhood, whose weight 
is the world, whose length is all time, and whose sweep — is eternity ! " 
Burns thus laments the vanished happy days of youth : — 
" Still o'er these scenes my memory wakes, 
And fondly broods with miser care ; 
Time but the impression deeper makes, 
As streams their channels deeper wear." 
Campbell thus closes a long poem on Hope : — 

" Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — FIGURES. 213 

Thy joyous youth began — but not to fade. — 
When all the sister planets have decayed ; 
When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, 
And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below ; 
Thou, undismayed, shalt o'er the ruins smile, 
And light. thy torch at Nature's funeral pile." 
Dryden speaks thus of the inventrgss of the church-organ : — 
" He raised a mortal to the skies, 
She drew an angel down." 
That is, the organ, at divine service, is as an angel that has just hastened down from 
heaven, to instruct and lead the choir in praising G-od. 

Grattan closes his character of Chatham, with this sublime figure : — 

" He struck a blow in the world, that resounded through the universe." 
Perhaps the author could not have found, in the whole compass of the language, a 
more expressive word for his meaning, than the word shadow is in the following line : — 
" Her voice is but the shadow of a sound." — Young. 
All the foregoing examples owe their beauty and vigor chiefly to the figures which 
they contain. 

? It is worthy of notice, that the greater portion of figurative lan- 
guage, the use of flowers and other objects for emblems, and the orna- 
mental part of dress, furniture, and architecture, — originate all in the 
same faculty or state of mind.* 

No perfect classification of the figures can be given ; but two or more different figures 
are sometimes involved in the same expression. 

1. SIMILE. 



A simile is an express comparison. 



Ex. — "The music of Carryl was, like the memory of joys that are passed, sweet and 
mournful to the soul." — Ossian. 

" The child reclined on its mother's bosom as some infant blossom on its parent stem." — 
Mrs. Sigourney. 

" Too much government may be a greater evil than no government. The sheep are 
happier among themselves than under the care of the wolves." — Jefferson. 
" Not every blossom brings fruit; not every hope is realized." 
" Christianity is to. the soul what light is to nature.'''' 

" But every emotion was lost in that of deadly hatred, when they beheld their detes- 
ted enemy, the Tlascalan, stalking through their streets, and staring round with looks 
of ferocity and wonder, like some wild animal of the forest, that had strayed by chance from 
his native fastnesses into the haunts of civilization.' " — Prescott. 

" The steed along the drawbridge flies, 
Just as it trembled on the rise : 
Not lighter does the sivallow skim 
Along the smooth lake's level brim" — Scott. 

2. METAPHOR. 

? § 07. A metaphor is an implied comparison. It is the 
name of one object or attribute applied to another, on account 
of some resemblance between them. A metaphor sometimes 
comprises several words. 

Ex. — " Life is an isthmus between two great eternities." " Her disdain stung him to 
the heart." "Bonaparte called burning Moscow an ocean of flame." "Patch grief 

* The student that would go to the bottom of this subject, should read some good 
treatise on Mental Philosophy ; — such as the large work of Upham ; especially the 
articles on Conception, Relative Suggestion, Abstraction, the Association of Ideas,, 
Memory, Imagination, and the Sensibilities, 



214 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

with proverbs." " The morning of life." " The storms of life." " world, thy slippery 
turns!" " You are always patting your nose into my affairs." " The tall Gothic tower 
of the church shot up lightly from the trees surroundiug it." — Irving. " If the people 
be sovereign, and the king delegate, it is better to change the bailiff than to injure the 
farm.'" — Fox. 

" Sin is a bitter sweet., and the fine colors of the serpent by no means make amends for tlic 
poison of his sting." — South. 

" A heart ! A cushion to stickpins into. For so the world has it." — Jerrold. 
" Gathering her brows like gathering storm, 
Nursing her wrath to keep it warm." — Burns. 
" Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest." — Gray. 
" And o'er the porch was cast a wandering vine." 
" Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." — Byron. 
"But loild ambition loves to slide, not stand, 
And fortune's ice prefers to virtue's land." — Dry den. 

3. ALLEGORY. 

? (508. An allegory is a fictitious discourse on one thing, sug- 
gestive of a train of thoughts (usually instructive) on another. 

Ex. — " Thou hast brought a vine [the Jewish nation] out of Egypt : thou hast cast 
out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to 
take deep root, and it tilled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and 
the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars." — Bible, Psalm LXXX. 

See Banyan's " Pilgrim's Progress ; " Addison's " Vision of Mirza," " Goodman Fact 
and Count Tariff; " Johnson's " Journey of a Day ; " Pontenelle's " Empire of Poetry ; " 
Poe's " Haunted Palace ; " Milton's " Sin and Death at the gates of Hell." 

? The Allegory includes parables and fables. It is founded, like the 
Metaphor and the Simile, on resemblance ; but some allegories imply 
also personification. 

? 509. The resemblance which suggests the figure, may be either in 
the appearance of the object, or else in ite relations or effects. The latter 
is commonly called analogy. 

Ex. — "Far through the rosy depths;" i. e., sunset sky. "Have you a key to this 
arithmetic? " "Albert calls Dash his horse; not because he looks like one, but because 
he has taught him to act like one." " After the engagement, an old sailor pointed to 
the corpse of Decatur, and said, " There lies the mainmast of the Navy." 

AIDS TO THE PROPER USE OF THE ALLEGORY. 

? 510. 1. Sometimes the allegorist selects, for his figurative subject, 
some object or event that is real, distinct, and analogous; and then 
traces the resemblance by strictly adhering to the attributes of his sub- 
ject : such is the vine mentioned above. 

? 511. 2. Sometimes the figurative subject is something real, distinct, 
and analogous ; but some of the attributes are ascribed to it from the 
other subject: such is the fable of the frogs about to leap into a well, or 
that of the wasps gathering about a dish of honey. 

? 512. 3. Sometimes the figurative subject, with its analogy, is distinct 
and fictitious, or merely assumed, and the attributes are all ascribed to 
it from the other subject: such is the fable of the cats bringing the suit 
about their stolen cheese before the ape. 

? 513. 4. Sometimes a chief attribute belonging or pertaining to the 
literal or covert subject, is personified into a figurative subject, and then 
adorned with literal or metaphorical attributes of the concrete. Such 
is the fable beginning thus : <J Prudence, Vanity, and Fashion, undertook 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — FIGURES. 215 

to keep house together;" also Addison's lt Goodman Fact and Count 
Tariff; " much of Bunyan's u Pilgrim's Progress; " Milton's " Sin and 
Death." 

4, PERSONIFICATION. 
? 514. Personification represents as persons, or else as rational 
or living beings, objects that are not such in reality. 

Ex. — " Greece cries to us from the convulsed, poisoned lips of her Demosthenes ; and 
Rome pleads with us in the mute persuasion of her mangled Tully." — E. Everett. 
" How does Gl-od reveal himself in nature ? She answers thee with loud voices, with a 
thousand tongues : God is love." 

" Soldiers ! from yonder pyramids, forty generations of men look down upon you." 

Bonaparte. — See Vision. 



" How sweet the Moonlight sleeps on yonder bank." — 8 

" The tyrannous and bloody act is done : * * •>' (The murder of two sleeping children.) 

Their lips were four red roses on a stalk, 

Which, in their summer beauty, kissed each other." — ShaJcspeare. 
" Cheered with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles." — Milton. 
" And buds that yet the blasts of winter fear, 

Stand at the door of life, and ask to clothe the year." — Bryden. 
" The Soul, secured in her existence, smiles 

At the drawn dagger, and defies its point." — Addison's Cato. 
" There Honor comes a pilgrim gray." — Collins. See his poetry. 
" And Freedom shrieked — as Kosciusko fell." — Campbell. 
" Every flower enjoys the air it breathes." — Wordsworth. 

" The mountains looked on Marathon, 
# And Marathon looked on the sea." — Byron. 

Personification is probably the noblest of all the figures. It is the 
very soul of poetry. To be able to use it happily, requires one of the 
highest attributes of genius, — that power which has given vitality to all 
the splendid fictitious creations of the human mind, — that power which, 
sallying over the earth, the sea, and the celestial dome — from earth to 
heaven, and from heaven to earth — through space, through time, and 
into eternity, — looks deeply and feelingly into all as 

11 One stupendous whole, 
Whose body nature is, and God the soul ; " 
and gathering the attributes of the inanimate, the animate, and the 
rational, disposes them in its own conceptions and creations, as the 
skillful painter his colors. 

? 515. The slight personification which merely represents a noun nat- 
urally neuter as masculine or feminine, is sometimes called syllepsis. 
Ex. — " The ship was delayed on her voyage." 
? Personification is closely allied to metaphor, and sometimes it is based 
on metonymy or synecdoche. 

5. METONYMY. 

? 516. A metonymy is the proper word or expression for one 
thing, applied to another, different in kind, but so related that 
the mind readily perceives what is meant. It is founded on 
the relations of cause, effect, contiguity in place, and contigu- 
ity in time. 



216 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

The cause, the effect, and the circumstances ; the sign and the thing 
signified; the whole and its parts, — are naturally associated in the 
memory, and readily suggest one another. 

Ex. — " I have read Homer and Virgil." " They have Moses and the prophets ; " i. e., 
their writings. " The women and children were put to the sword;" i. e., to death. 
"The husbandman has lost his sweat;" i.e., the reward of his labor.— " Gray hairs 
should be respected ; " i. e., Old age. " He was the sigh of her secret soul ; " i. e., the 
youth for whom she sighed in secret. " Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke ; " 
i. e., Their plow. " Now the merry bells ring round, And the jocund rebecks sound." — 
" The kettle is boiling ; " i. e., what is in it. "We drank but one bottle." "He ate a 
large bowl of soup." "Antiquity affords no such record." " My son, give me thy heart; " 
i. e., thy affections. " He addressed the Chair ; " i. e., the President. " Northumber- 
land was there ; " i. e., the duke of Northumberland. " They smote the city." " Penn- 
sylvania passed certain resolutions." — "He assumed the scepter ; " i. e., the regal* au- 
thority. (Sign for thing signified.) " The colonies then belonged to the crown ; " i. e., 
to the king. " The farmer left his plow, the blacksmith his anvil, the merchant his 
counter, and shouldered the bayonet to defend their liberties." " He sports a fine cane, 
a coach and six " [ ; and from these sign you may infer the rest], " Do you belong , > 
the red rose or to the white?" " My hard-earned laurels were to adorn some other 
brow." — " My adventurous song." (Attribute transferred from something accompany- 
ing.) " Droivsy night ; musing midnight ; jovial wine ; giddy hights ; the fearful, the 
dizzy brink ; bleating mountains." " Consume the midnight oil." " The plowman home- 
ward plods his weary way." " Why peep your coward swords half afraid out of their 
sheaths." Said the old man to his murderers, " Will you stab at half an hour of my 
poor life ! " " You have a very impudent mule," said a young man to another who had 
just rode between him and a young lady. ("Impudent" is transferred from the rider.) 
" The flag of freedom waves once more 
Around the lofty Parthenon. " — Percival. (From this infer the rest.) 

6. SYNECDOCHE. 
? §17, A synecdoche is a term or expression applied to more 
or less than it strictly denotes. Some anthors say, " Synec- 
doche is the naming of a part for the whole, or the whole for 
a part." 

Ex. — "My neighbor works five hands;" i. e., servants or slaves. " We bought a 
hundred head of sheep." " The foot and horse were then brought forward." " The same 
day were added unto them three thousand souls." (Observe — that the preaching was to 
save souls, hence the selection of this part for the whole.) " This roof protects us ; " i. e., 
This house. " Give us this day our daily bread;" i. e., food. " 'Twas then his threshold 
first received a guest." " England is too wise to go to war witto us ; " i. e., Great Britain. 
" They paid my price in paltry gold ; " i. e., money. " Stay thy avenging steel." " Here 
is buried William Jones ; " i. e., the body. " Tlie Assyrian came down like the wolf on 
the fold." " So thought the countries of Demosthenes and the Spartan ; yet Leonidas is. 
trampled by the timid slave." 

Rich ! I grant you; but when you get her, you'll have a stupid animal for a wife — a 
thing that will often make you bite your nether lip." (Observe how the widened mean- 
ing makes her more common and less important. First, high attributes are refused, and 
she is classed with animals ; then even animal attributes are refused, and she is classed 
with things. So "Mr. Allen" is more respectful than "one Allen.") Youth and 
beauty shall be laid in dust. (The character, quality, or attribute of a person, is of 
course a part of him.) " Tell your mistress her Majesty is here." "Your Excellency is 
requested to offer a reward for the murderer." " What will your lordship have ? " "I 
call the attention of your Honors to the case of Stiles vs. Nokes." 

" Craterus, said Alexander, loves the king; but Hephaestion loves Alexander." "I 
hate the viceroy, love the man." — Swift. " He remained silent, and thus wisely kept the 
fool within." — " A life on the ocean wave, A home on the rolling deep." " Ten thousand 
fleets sweep over thee in vain ; " i. e., A large number. — " The thirsty Texan pointed his 
finger down his open mouth, and then said to the Mexican woman, ' Rio Grande ! Rio 
Grande ! ' " i. e., Water ! water ! 

From the examples given, we may infer, — 
? 1. That metonymy and synecdoche are not founded on resemblance, 
but on relation. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — FIGURES. 217 

? 2. That they sometimes approach each other so nearly as not to be 
readily distinguished. 

? 518. 3. That they enable the speaker to be more definite, by confin- 
ing the attention only to what is most obvious, or intelligible, or to that 
which necessarily implies the rest; or else they enable him to be more 
impressive, by drawing the attention especially to that on which the 
action or fact immediately depends. 

Ex. — " He addressed the Chair," is more definite than " He addressed the President ;" 
for it must mean, " He addressed the President in his official capacity.'''' " Love scrapes on 
a fiddle-string." This humorously alludes to or suggests the cause. So, " We descried 
a sail"" [a,:ship]', but, ''Oar heels ploughed the deep " [Our ships'] : because the former 
accords better with seeing ; and the latter, with plowing. 

" And the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste " &c. — Milion. 

How artfully expressed ! Eve seems to have had an unconquerable curiosity to taste 
the fruit which was forbidden; but the penalty threatened was death! Hence, "forbid- 
den tree ; " "mortal taste.'' 1 

1. ANTITHESIS. 
? §19. Antithesis sets different objects or attributes in contrast. 

Ex. — " Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and heart to this 
vote." — Webster. 

" Humbled, but not dispirited; disappointed, but not despairing.''' 

"The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive speculation; those of Pope, 
by minute observation. Dryden is read with frequent astonishment ; Pope, with perpet- 
ual delight." — Johnson. 

" If Homer was the greater genius, Virgil was the better artist." — Pope. 

" At his touch, crowns crumbled, beggars reigned, systems vanished." — Phillips. 

" On the one side, chastity contends ; on the other, wantonness ; here purity, there 
pollution ; here integrity, there treachery ; here piety, there profaneness ; here honesty, 
there baseness ; — in short, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence, struggle with 
iniquity, luxury, cowardice, rashness : every virtue with every vice." — Cicero. 
" He hath cooled my friends, and heated mine enemies." — Shah. 
"Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; 
Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." — Shah. 

. " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 

Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." — Denham. 
" As when a husband or a lapdog dies."— -Pope. 
"And in the course of one revolving moon, 

Turned chemist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon." — Dryden. 
" To-day man's dressed in gold and silver bright. 

Wrapped in a shroud before to-morrow night ; 

To-day he's nice, and scorns to feed on crums, 

To-morrow he's himself a dish for worms." 
" They heard the clarion's iron clang, 

The breeze which through the roses sang." — Croly. 

2. IRONY. 

? §20. Irony sneeringly means the reverse of what the words 

literally denote. It is usually mockery uttered for the sake 

of ridicule or sarcasm. To call a fool a Solomon, or to praise 

what we mean to disparage, is irony. 

Ex. — "Have not the Indians been kindly and justly treated ? Have not the tempo- 
ral things, the vain baubles and filthy lucre of this world, which were too apt to engage 
their worldly and selfish thoughts, been benevolently taken from them ; and have they" 
not, instead thereof, been taught to set their affections on things above ? " — Irving. 

" What a, pity to separate yourself from such amiable companions ! " — Junius. 

19 



218 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

" A mind such as yours, may still find enjoyment in the memory of violated friendship ; 
in the afflictions of an accomplished prince, whom you have disgraced and deserted ; and 
in the agitation of a great country, driven by your counsels to the brink of ruin." 
— Junius.^ 

? 521. This figure has the finest effect, when the speaker seems to fall 
into the real sentiments of those whom he attacks. 

3. PARALIPSIS. 

? §22. Paralipsu pretends to conceal or omit what it really 
expresses or suggests. 

Ex. — " I ivill not call him villain, because it would be unparliamentary, and he it- a 
privy councillor. I will not call him fool, because he happens to be Chancellor of the Ex- 
chequer. ' ' — Grattan. 

"Without alluding to your habits of intemperance, I would ask, Iioav can you attempt to 
justify your present inattention to business, and the neglect of your family ? " — Junius. 

" Boys, you would not throw stones at the Police, — would you?" — O'Connell, thus 
putting into their heads what lie wants them to do, — inciting the mob to a riot. 

" Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massachusetts ;— she needs none. 
There she is, — behold her and judge for yourselves. There is her history, — the world 
knows it by heart. The past, at least, is secure. There is Boston, and Concord, and 
Lexington, and Bunker's Hill,— and there they will remain for ever." — Webster. 
" Must I remember ? Why she would hang on him 
As if increase of appetite had grown 
By what it fed on ; yet, within a month — 
Let me not think — Frailty, thy name is woman." — Shak. 

? 528. Under this head we may also include the figure termed Aposi- 
opesis. — See the last example. 

4. HYPERBOLE. 

? 5 £4. Hyperbole greatly exaggerates what is founded in 
truth. 

Ex. — " Brougham is a thunderbolt." " lie was the owner of a piece of land not larger 
than a Lacedemonian letter." li ' I beheld their chief,' says Moran, ' tall as a glittering- 
rock. His spear is a blasted pine. His shield the rising moon ! ' " — Ossian. 
" That fellow is so tall that he doesn't know when his feet are cold.'* 
" Some Curran, who, when thrones were crumbled, aud dynasties forgotten, might 
stand the landmark of his country's genius, rearing himself amid regal ruins and national 
dissolution, a mental pyramid in the solitude of time, beneath whose shade things might 
moulder, and around whose summit eternity must play." — Phillips. 

"And all Arabia breathes from yonder box." — Pope. 
" And where is she, whose diamond eyes 
Golconda's purest gems outshone." 
" Falstaff, thou globe of flesh, spotted o'er with continents of sin." — Shak. 

" Had she been true, 
If Heaven had made me such another world 
Of one entire and perfect chrysolite, 
I'd not have sold her for it." — Shak. : Othello. 
" Here Orpheus sings ; trees, moving to the sound. 

Start from their roots, and form a shade around." — Pope. 
" Love : — what a volume in a word, an ocean in a tear, 
A seventh heaven in a glance, a whirlwind in a sigh, 
The lightning in a touch, a millennium in a moment." — Tupper. 
Shakspeare makes a man that has been rebuffed by a proud and haughty one, describe 
him thus : — 

" The tartness of his lace sours ripe grapes. When he walks, he moves like an en- 
gine, and the grou m shrinks before his treading. He is able to pierce a corselet with 
his eye. He talks like a knell, and his hum is a battery. He sits in his state, as a thing 
made for Alexande :. What he bids be done, must be finished with his bidding. Hp 
wante nothing of a god but eternity, and a heaven to throne in." 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — FIGURES. 219 

Shakspeare also speaks of a kitchen-maid as being sufficiently greasy and filthy to 
burn a week after the general conflagration of the world. 

? 525. Hyberbole, to be proper, should imply strong emotions in the 
speaker, or the apprehension that the hearer would not otherwise attach 
sufficient importance to' what is said. 

N. B. Some of the figures imply an excited state of the mind; others 
do not. 

5. CLIMAX. 

? §26. Climax means ladder. It is a gradual climbing, or 
rise of thought, from things less to greater. 

Ex. — " The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent — augmented into a river — 
expanded into a sea." — Irving. 

" How has expectation darkened into anxiety, anxiety into dread, and dread into 
despair ! " — Irving. 

" Indolence implants vices ; vices lead to crimes ; and crimes, to the gallows." 

" We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we have supplicated, we have prostrated 
ourselves at the foot of the throne." — Henry. 

" Here I stand for impeachment or trial ! I dare accusation ! I defy the honorable 
gentleman ! I defy the government ! I defy their whole phalanx ! " — Grattan. 

" It is an outrage to bind a Roman citizen ; to scourge him is an atrocious crime ; to 
put him to death is almost parricide ; but to crucify him — what shall I call it ? " — Cicero m 
" Men would be angels, angels would be gods." — Pope. 
" Boisterous in speech, in action prompt and bold ; 
He sells, he buys, he steals, he kills for gold." 

" A Scotch mist becomes a shower ; and a shower, a flood ; and a flood, a storm ; and 
a storm, a tempest ; and a tempest, thunder and lightning ; and thunder and lightning, 
heaven-quake and earthquake." — Prof. Wilson. 

? 527. When the mind passes from greater things to less, the figure is 
called Anticlimax. 

Ex. — " Great men — such as Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Aaron Burr, Stephen Ar- 
nold, and the friend of my worthy opponent." — Political Speech. — See Irony. 

6. ALLUSION. 

? 6528. Allusion is such a use of some word or words as will 
recall some interesting fact, custom, writing, or saying. It is 
usually founded on resemblance or contrast. 

. Ex. — " Give them Saratoga in New York, and we'll give them YorJctown in Virginia." 
— Stump Speech in a Presidential Canvass. 

"All these monopolies, so beneficial to the public in particular, were soon rolled 
through the Legislature." (Allusion to log-rolling. — See Irony.) 
" When you go into the museum, be Argus, but not Briareiis." 

" It teaches them to imitate those Saints on the Pension List, that are like the lilies 
of the field ; they toil not, neither do they spin, and yet are arrayed like Solomon in his 
glory." — Curran. < 

" The excesses of our youth are drafts upon our old age, payable about thirty years 
after date." 
" There is a lip I've often pressed, 
And none had ever pressed before ; 
It vowed to make me sweetly blessed, 
And mine — mine only pressed it more." 
Barton. 



A llusion. 
' Thou melancholy Mug ! * * * [own, 

And I must love thee, for thou art my 
Pressed by my lips, and pressed by mine 

alone." Holmes. 



? §29. A continued allusion or resemblance in style, is 
termed Parody. There may, at the same time, be a contrast 
in sentiment. 

(See " Ode on the Passions," and the " Parody," in McGuifey's Eeader.) 



220 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

Ex. — " 'Tis the last rose of summer, left blooming alone ; 

All its lovely companions arc withered and strown ; 
No flower of her kindred, no rosebud is nigh, 
To reflect back her blushes or give sigh for sigh. 
I'll not leave thee, thou lone one, to pine on the stem ; 
Since the lovely are sleeping, go sleep thou with them. 
Thus kindly I scatter thy leaves o'er the bed, 
Where thy mates of the garden lie scentless and dead." &c. 
" 'Tis the last golden dollar, left shining alone ; 
All its brilliant companions are squandered and gone. 
No coin of its mintage reflects back its hue, 
They went in mint-juleps, and this will go too ! 
I'll not keep thee, thou lone one, too long in suspense ; 
Thy brothers were melted, and melt thou, to pence! 
I'll ask for no quarter, I'll spend and not spare, 
Till my old tattered pocket hangs centless and bare." &c. 

? 530. In this figure may perhaps not improperly be included the 
Pun. 

" Ancient maiden lady anxiously remarks, 
That there must be peril 'mong so many sparks; (fire ;) 
Roguish looking fellow, turning to the stranger, 
Says it's his opinion she is out of danger." — Saxe. 

1. EUPHEMISM. 

? 6531. Euphemism is a softened mode of speech for what 
would be offensive or disagreeable if told in downright plain 
language. 

Ex. — "He is not very prompt in meeting his pecuniary engagements," for, "He 
never pays his debts." -^ He appropriated to his own use," for, "He stole." "You 
labor under a mistake ; " '* You lie." " She certainly displays as little vanity in regard 
to her personal appearance, as any young lady 1 ever saw ; " " She is an intolerable slat- 
tern." " He does not always keep very exact accounts;" "He cheats when he can." 
" Because they have a few servants, they disdain to work; " i. e., a few slaves. "Till God 
released her from her pain;" "Till she died." "Sweet child! lovely child! your 
parents are no more ! *' 

Oushi did not say to David, "Absalom is killed;" but he avoided wounding his 
feelings as much as possible, by saying, " May all the enemies of the king be as that young 
man i.s." 

? 532. Euphemism is often based on other figures, but it is most fre- 
quently effected by circumlocution; that is, by a roundabout mode of 
expression. 

2. INTERROGATION. 

? 511. Interrogation is an animated mode of speech, by 
which the speaker prefers to put forth, in the form of ques- 
tion, what he neither doubts, nor expects to be answered. 

Ex. — " Where is the honest man that would suffer himself to be stripped of his 
rights and liberties ? " i. e., No honest man would suffer &c. 

" But when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or the next year? 
Will it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed 
in every house? * * * Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the 
priee of chains and slavery ? " — P. Henry. 

" Are not you, Sir, who sit in that chair, — is not he, our venerable colleague near 
you, are not both already the proscribed and predestined objects of punishment and 
vengeance ? " — Webster. 

" Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
Can Honor's voice provoke the Bilent dust, 
Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ? " — Gray. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES.-— FIGURES. 221 

" Gives riot the hawthorn hush a sweeter shade 
To shepherds looking on their silly sheep, 
Than doth a rich embroidered canopy- 
To kings that fear their subjects' treachery ? " — Shah. 

? 534. This figure fixes the attention more strongly on some important 
point, than a simple declaration would; and sometimes it implies a 
defiance to the adversary or hearer, to deny if he can. 

3. EXCLAMATION. 

? 5365. Exclamation is usually an abrupt or broken mode of 
speech, designed to express more strongly the emotions of the 
speaker. 

Ex. — " Br. Caius. What business could the honest man have in my room ! " — Shale. ; 
i. e., The honest man could have no business in my room. " David Barton, — what a 
powerful man he was ! " i. e., David Barton was a very powerful man. 

"Here a general shout burst from the bystanders — 'A tory! a tory ! a spy! a 
refugee ! hustle him ! away with him ! ' " — Irving. 

" Oh ! that I could return once more to peace and innocence ! that I hung an infant on 
the breast ! that I were born a beggar — a peasant of the field ! I would toil till the sweat 
of blood dropped from my brow, to purchase the luxury of one sound sleep, the rapture 
of a single tear ! " — Schiller. 

" How sweetly bloomed the gay green birch ! 

How rich the hawthorn's blossom ! " — Burns. 
" Ah ! what a sound will rise, how wild and dreary, 

When the Death Angel touches those swift keys ! " — Longfellow. 
" How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
How complicate, how wonderful is man ! * * * 
Distinguished link in being's endless chain ! 
Midway from nothing to the Deity ! 
A beam ethereal, sullied, and absorbed ! 
Though sullied and dishonored, still divine ! 
Dim miniature of greatness absolute ! 
An heir of glory ! a frail child of dust ! 
Helpless immortal ! insect infinite ! 
A worm ! a god ! I tremble at myself, 
And in myself am lost." — Young. — See Antithesis. 

? 536. There seems to be a peculiar elegance in the use of this figure, 
when the speaker means to show that the object produces at least some 
interest or excitement in his own feelings, though others may not 
appreciate it so fully. 

Ex. — " How glad from the cool mossy brim to receive it, 

As poised on the curb it inclined to my lips ! " 

Here the author slily intimates that there are persons who underrate the excellence 
of water, as a beverage. 

" How delicious was the taste of young potatoes when we got them ! What a jubilee 
when we were permitted to pull the young corn for roasting-ears ! " — Pioneer Settler. 
(A very common thing, to be sure ; but under our peculiar circumstances, uncommonly 
interesting ; — to us at least.) 

? 537. Exclamation and interrogation are frequently associated in the 
same discourse. 

4. APOSTROPHE. 

? g)gS8. Apostrophe is a sudden turning-away- in the fullness 
of emotion, to address some person or object. 

Ex. — "Death is swallowed up in victory. Death! where is thy sting f O Grave! 
where is thy victory f " — Bible. 



222 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD, 

" But — ah ! — him ! the first great martyr in this great cause ! him ! the premature 
victim of his own self-devoting heart ! * * ■•' him ! cut off by Providence, in the 
hour of overwhelming anxiety and thick gloom, falling ere he saw the star of his coun- 
try rise! how shall I straggle with the. emotions that stifle the utterance of thy name! — Our 
work may perish ; but thine shall endure! this monument may moulder away, but thy 
memory shall not fail ! " — Webster. 

" Roll on, thou deep and dark-blue Ocean, — roll ! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; " &c. — Byron. 
: ' Thou ling'ring star, with less'ning ray, 
That lov'st to greet the early morn, ^ 
Again thou usher' st in the day ' . 

My Mary from my soul was torn. 
Mary ! dear departed shade ! " — Burns. — See Vision. 

5. VISION. 
? 9qS9. Vision represents something that is past, future, absent, 
or simply imagined, as if it were really present. 

Ex. — " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy ; " i. e., left — crossed 
— and entered. 

"One morning, while they were at breakfast, up gallops a troop of horse, emdpresents 
an order for the arrest of the whole party." — Jeffrey. 

" Frederick immediately sent relief; and, in an instant, all Saxony is overflowed with 
armed men." — Macaulay. 

" Advance, then, ye future generations ! We would hail you as you rise in your long 
succession ! * * * We bid you welcome in this pleasant land of the Fathers ! " — Webster. 

" Soldiers ! from yonder pyramids, forty generations of men look down upon you ! " — 
Bonaparte. 

" In the event of dissolution, studied language is too weak to portray the heart-rend- 
ing scenes that must ensue. I see the torch of civil discord lighted ! I hear the cry of 
'Treason! treason! ' as it reverberates through the laud. I hear the shrill blast of the 
martial trump as it sounds to arms, and see the gathering hosts with eager haste range 
themselves under their respective banners. I behold the sanguinary struggle, and see a 
brother fall struck down by a brother's hand. Turning away from the sickening sight, 
desolated fields, beleaguered cities, and smoking ruins, meet my vision. Every tie of af- 
fection is sundered, and a solemn wail of anguish and despair is borne on every breeze! " 
— From a Fourth- of- July Speech. 

" The combat deepens. — On, ye brave 
Who rush to glory, or the grave ! — 
Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave, 

And charge with all thy chivalry ! " — Campbell. 

5. ONOMATOPEIA. 
? 540. Onomatopeia is such an imitation by the sound of the 
words, as may correspond to or suggest the sense. 

" Away they went, pell-mell, hurry-skurry, wild buffalo, wild horse, wild huntsman, 
with clang and clatter, and whoop and halloo, that made the forests ring ? " — Irving. 
" The lark that tirra-lirra chants." — Shah. 

" On a sudden open fly, 
With impetuous recoil and jarring sound, 
Th' infernal doors, and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder." — Milton. 

" Heaven opened wide 
Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound 
On golden hinges turning." — Milton. 
" Softly sweet in Lydian measures 
Soon he soothed his soul to pleasures." — Dryden. 
" Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, 
And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows ; 
But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 
The hoarse rough verse should like the torrent roar." — Pope. 
" When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
The line too labors, and the words move slow." — Pope. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES.— FIGURES. 223 

tl Loud sounds the axe, redoubling strokes on strokes 
On all sides round, the forest hurls her oaks 
Headlong. Deep-echoing groan the thickets brown," 
Then rustling, crackling, crashing, thunder down." — Pope. 
" Like our harsh, northern, whistling, grunting guttural, 

Which we're obliged to hiss, and spit, and sputter all." — Byron. 
" Merry, merry, go the bells, ding-dong, ding-dong."— JEC. White. 
" Behold a tide of Persian steel, 
A torrent of the Median car 
Turn, and their gory banners wheel ; — 

Rise, king, and arm the for thee war ! " — Oroly. 
"' Hear the sledges with the bells — 
Silver bells ! 
What a world of merriment their melody foretells ! 
How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, 

In the icy air of night ! 
While the stars that over-sprinkle 
All the heavens, seem to twinkle 

With a crystalline delight ; 
Keeping time, time, time, 
In a sort of Runic rhyme, 

To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells 
From the bells, bells, bells, bells, 

Bells, bells, bells, 
From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells." — E. A. Poe* 

? 541. Sound, motion, and even sentiment, may be imitated by this 
figure. 

? To this figure may also be referred such new-coined expressions as 
these: " He was bamboozled." "He offered- me the whole capoodle for 
three hundred dollars." " Now she gallivants it with another." "I mean 
that, curve, flash, flourish, — -or circumbendibus— if you please — which he 
always sticks to his name. 1 ' 



? §42. Two or more figures in the same expression. 

Meta. & Antithesis : " In peace, he was the gale of spring; 

In war, the mountain storm." — Ossian. 
Meton. & Meta. : •' Here the sword and scepfre rust; 

Earth to earth, and dust to dust." — Groly. 

(Here Icings aud heroes must moulder.) 
Meton. & Person. : ci All Switzerland is in the field ; 

She wil not fly, she can not yield." — Montgomery. 
" Existence saw him [Shak.] spurn her bounded reign, 

And panting Time toiled after him in vain." — Johnson. 
Allu. & Antith. : " Hands that the rod of empire might have swayed, 

Close at my elbow stir their lemonade." — Holmes. 
Person. & Apos. : *' Must I leave thee, Paradise ! thus leave 

Thee, native soil?" — Milton. 
Meta., Sim., & Hyper. : "Why man, he doth bestride the narrow world 

Like a Colossus, and we petty men 

Walk under his huge legs, and peep about." — ShctJc. 
Excla., Interro., Clim., & Antith.: ".I — a foreigner! Yes, gentlemen! Bu{ 
who was De Kalb ? Who was McDonald ? Who was Pulaski ? Who was La Fayette ? 
and — who was Arnold ? " — Dr. Shannon. 



? 543- Figures should be selected with a view to the aim of 
the person using them. The more perfect the figure is, or 
the more it suggests, in the fewest words, that is to the point, 
the better it is. 



224 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

" If a man is too oncl of paradox, — if he is flighty and empty &c. &c, — stick a fact into 
him like a stiletto." — Holmes. (Controversy resembles warfare.) 

Addison compares Marlborough leading the British forces to battle, to an angel, 
who,—- 

" Pleased the Almighty's orders to perform, 
Bides in the whirlwind and directs the storm." (Dignity.) 
Dryden thus describes an unprincipled politician : — 

" Architophel, grown weary to possess 
A lawful fame, and lazy happiness, 

Disdained the golden fruit to gather free, [Government. 

But lent the crowd his arm to shake the tree ;" i. e., to shake the 
Irving speaks thus of a great oak destroyed by a grape-vine: — 
" It was the lion of trees, perishing in the embraces of a vegetable boa." (Pity.) 
He thus describes Ichabod's horse : — 

" The animal he bestrode, was a broken-down plough-horse ; gaunt and shagged, 
with an [a] ewe neck, and a head like a hammer." (Ludicrousness.) 

'• The white man's road wound like a serpent round the hills of the Mohawk." (So 
thought the Indian. Hatred; detestation.— See " The Lone Indian.") 

A certain politician said of his antagonist, — 

" He will sink into oblivion, with the eurses of posterity about his head like the 
serpents about Medusa's." (Abhorrence.) 

Another said to his competitor, — 

" But when they shook the thirty pieces of silver at you, you took them ! " 

AVORDS, AND THEIR VARIOUS MEANINGS. 

? 544. Most of the figures enter largely into the very ele- 
ments of the language ; especially, the metaphor, metonymy, 
and synecdoche. 

Ex. — Interrogation : How, why, what, when, where, &C. Exclamation: 0! ah! 
alas! {and the other interjections). Climax: Damp, moist, wet, drenched, flooded, 
deluged ; whisper, buzz, rattle, roar, thunder; touch, strike, bruise, crush, smash ; fair, 
very fair; sense, talents, intellect, genius; complacency, cheerfulness, joy, delight, 
rapture; earnest, zealous, enthusiastic, fanatic. Antithesis: Hot, cold; wet, dry; up, 
down; into, out of; forwards, backwards ; for, against; good, bad ; wise, foolish ; strong, 
weak; honor, dishonor: belief disbelief; construction, destruction; able, unable; 
polite, impolite ; religious, irreligious; consistent, inconsistent ; mask, unmask; happi- 
ness, misery ; pain, pleasure ; war, neaee: smiles, tears; motion, rest; here, there; this, 
that; atom, universe. Onomatopeia: Hiss, hum, buzz, twitter, titter, giggle, jingle, 
tinkle, rattle, clatter, roar, roll, rumble, bow-wow, mewl; whirl, whirlwind, spin, 
spatter, sputter, sheak, sneeze, snarl, glitter, glisten, twinkle, flash* rush, gush, thin, 
burly, voluminous, slender, iarge, guttural, nasal, labial, ethereal, armament, cataract. 

? §45. The metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche, show them- 
selves chiefly in the meanings or applications of words. 

See Webster's Dictionary, Unabridged ; — see such words as time, term, 
source, puff, back, shaft, drone, shade, cine; good, bad, fair, firm, right ; 
flourish, settle, raise, rise, come. 

Illustrations: " Ani»«<meman," literal; " An insane hospital," metonymy, (place). 
" A clear brook," literal; "A clear sky," rfbetaphor; " A clear demonstration," metaphor; 
" A clear head," metaphor or metonymy. " A hard rock,"' literal; "A hard heart," meta- 
phor ; " A hard lesson," metaphor; il A /tabbed," literal ; " A hard bargain," metaphor ; 
" A hard master,'' metaphor; " Hard water is unfit for washing," metaphor or metonymy. 

" The plant in its bteom," literal; " The damsel in her bloom," metaphor. " They cut 
off his ear," literal, (external appendage); " The ear is curiously formed," metonymy, 
(internal organ) ; " A fine ear for music," metonymy, (faculty) ; " An ear of corn," meta- 
phor. " The head of a man— of a beast," literal; " I have sold every head," synecdoche; 
" A bright head," metonymy ; "A head of cabbage," metaphor; " The head of a. bed — of a 
ship— of a fountain— of a class," metaphor. " To apprehend a thief," literal ; " To appre- 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES.— FiGUBES. 225 

hend the meaning," metaphor; "To apprehend [fear j danger," metaphor and metonymy, 
(mental act and the effect); "To write what another dietateSj" literal; "To writes, 
letter — a book," synecdoche. 

" The best soil is composed of mould and sand," literal ; " The speech was composed by 
his wife," metaphor ; " The sea was composed and placid," metonymy ; " The martyr was 
composed under the severest 'tortures," metaphor on the sense in the preceding. "A 
collected mm of money," literal ; " A cool and collected mind } " i. e., a wary mind, — a 
mind undisturbed, and having all its thoughts gathered together, or at command ; meta- 
phor and metonymy. 

" Imagination " — " the making of images or idols," literal and obsolete ; " the making 
of images in the mind," metaphor ; " the faculty," metonymy, (cause) ; " the result " ( ; as, 
" strange imaginations''''), metonymy. 

? 546. The faculty, its action, the manner of its action, the result of its 
action, — or that which exhibits any of these, or about which the faculty 
is concerned, — have all, frequently, but one name in common. Trace 
the meanings of judgment, operation, fancy . 

? 54*7. We frequently find, that terms which were at first applied to 
something abstract or sensible — (sensible= L - perceptible by any of the 
five senses " ), — have afterwards been so extended as to denote what is 
abstract or intellectual. " Reflection," a bending-back ; hence, memory, 
or, a bending -back of the thoughts; — "ardor," ( heat, ) passion ; "acute;" 
"light," knowledge; " darkness 5 " ignorance. 

? 548. Some words have acquired, by accident, several meanings so 
different as not to be traceable to a common primitive ; as, brand, barb, 
pulse, pump). 

? 549. Finally, it is worthy of notice, that most words of many mean- 
ings have been -thus extended, by so applying them at each extension, 
as to add a little to their former meaning, or to take away a little. — See 
pick, line, pack, put. 

FIGURATIVE MEANINGS BECOME LITERAL. 

? §50. By frequent use, the figurative sense of words and 
phrases becomes literal, or is considered so. 

? 551". It is impossible to draw an infallible line of distinction between 
literal and figurative expressions. Sometimes a lively imagination will 
regard as figurative, what a different one regards as literal ; or it will 
ascribe a stronger figure to the expression. 

Ex. — "The angry flood;" " Imperious ocean;" " Wooing gales;" "Whispering 

breezes ; " "A raging fever." 

"Where health and plenty cheered the laboring swain." 
Or : "Where Health and Plenty cheered the laboring swain." 

Here, some would treat the attributes simply as metaphors ; others Avould regard 

the substantives as personified, , and sufficiently so to use capitals; and others would 

probably consider the expressions as involving a mixture of metaphor and personsifica- 

tion. 

ANOTHER VIEW OF THE FIGURES. 

? 552. 1. A figure may show itself in a single ivord; or it may com- 
prise a phrase, a clause, a sentence, or the entire discourse. 

? 553. 2. It may be founded on resemblance or analogy, contrariety, 
relation, or some other principle. 

? 554. 8. A comparison is sometimes direct, sometimes indirect, and 
sometimes very indirect. 



226 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 555. 5. A single figurative word may indicate that a figure is lurk- 
ing in the phrase, the clause, or the entire sentence. 

Regarding pronouns as figurative, only when masculine or feminine by syllepsis, and 
all the meanings of the articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections as literal, 
we need look for figurative \\ r oi\ls only among — 

? 6. Nouns, Adjectives, — Verbs, and Adverbs. 

? 556. 7. The literal and the figurative language are sometimes inter- 
woven throughout the sentence ; sometimes each occupies a distinct part 
of the sentence; sometimes they are consecutive in distinct sentences; 
and sometimes the figurative takes up the entire sentence, leaving the 
literal to be inferred. 

? 557. 8. Figures should be becoming, obvious, striking, and to the 
point; in a word, they should be so perfect as to bear study or crit- 
icism. The very use of figures implies an aim to express some thought 
or sentiment with more adequate and becoming clearness, beauty, and 
force. They can therefore be considered hardly proper, or preferable to 
plain language, unless they are such as will express the meaning better. 
Good figures are as expressive as emblems or pictures, and frequently 
they will be remembered when all else is forgotten. 

? 558. 9. By constant use, figurative words and expressions become 
literal; but until they are perfectly so, care should be taken, especially 
in the use of figures founded on resemblance, not to make monsters, or 
not to use such figures as are incongruous. 

? 559. 10. The same principles that have made our language and 
literature in excellence what they now are, still serve, 'in the hands of 
genius, to extend them indefinitely farther. Any person may extend the 
application of ivords and phrases, by strictly observing the principles com- 
prised in the Figures. 

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS VXD EXERCISES. 

" Ye are the salt of the earth/' " Canst thou send the Lightnings, that they may 
go, and say unto thee, Here we are!" — Bible. That fs. — " do thy bidding instantly, 
return, and await other orders." What a noble expression! " If ye really repent, 
show forth not merely the leaves of profession, but the fruits of performance." " Even 
now the axe lies at the Foot of the tree, and every tree that does not bring forth good 
fruit, shall be cut out and cast into the fire." — Bible. 

"No, Orlando; m^n ore April when they woo, December when they are wed : and 
maids are May when they are maids, but the sky change? when they are wives. 1 ' — Shak. 
" When sorrows come, they come not single spies, burin battalions." — Id. "Brutus. 
He [Caesar] would be crowned ; — How that might change his nature, there's the ques- 
tion : It is the bright day that brings the adder forth." — Shak. 

" I pray you think you question with the Jew? You may as well use question with the 
wolf, Why he hath made the ewe bleat for the lamb." — Shah. Here Shylock is com- 
pared indirectly to a wolf. " After this disaster, I resumed the reading of my poem, 
when one of the young fellows broke the attention of all, by saying that he wished to 
say something before he might forget it ; — 'Jack, there was tin- biggest ox sold last Sat- 
urday in Smithfield market lever saw.'" What a very indirect and keen mode of 
calling the said poet an ox, i. e., a great fool ! 

" Honor travels in a way so narrow. Where one but goes abreast.'* — Shale. From a 
mountain-climber; — highly imaginative. "Time hath, my lord, a wallet at his back, 
Wherein he puts alms for oblivion, A great-sized monster of ingratitudes." — Shak. Still 
more imaginative. " Socrates died like a philosopher; but Jesus Christ, like a God." 
Wholly imaginative. Who ever saw a God die ? A God never dies. And to say that 
Jesus died like himself, is an empty truism. 

" The mourner yew and builder oak were there." — Spenser. " A king that wears his 
crown lightly, knows not of what metal it is made." — Bacon. "Welcome ever smiles, 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES.— VERSIFICATION. 227 

and farewell goe3 out sighing." — Shale. " What's this ? a sleeve ? 'tis like a demi-can- 
non : What ! up and down, carved like an apple-tart ? Here's snip, and nip, and cut, 
and slish, and slash." — Shah. " Thou liest, thou thread, thou thimble, thou yard, thou 
rag, thou quantity, thou remnant, thou flea, thou winter cricket, thou! " — Shale. 

"The Parisians call frogs Dutch nightingales." "Colors: Violet, indigo, blue, 
green, orange, saffron." "Drinks: 'Vox populi,' 'Fiscal agent,' 'Moral suasion,' 
' Jewett's fancy,' ' Ne plus ultra,' ' Chain lightning,' ' Silver top,' ' Polk and Dallas.' " 
" Walter Scott's dogs: Rover, Sweetlips, Forester," &c. 

" As the dew to the blossom, the bud to the bee, As the scent to the rose, are those 
memories to me." — Amelia Welby. " Her waist is ampler than her life, For life is but a 
span. * * * To see one sad ungathered rose On my ancestral tree." — Holmes. 
" A miserable horse, whose ribs were as articulate as the bars of a gridiron, stalked 
about the field, where a thin carpet of grass tantalized his hunger." — Irving. "Nothing 
now disturbed the silence of the night, except the bark of some lonesome night-walking 
dog, or the serenade of some romantic cat." — Irving. 

" If Cato may be censured, severely indeed, but justly, for abandoning the cause of 
liberty, which lie would not, however, survive ; what shall we say of those, who 
embrace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of it when they have much to hopp>, 
and give it up when they have nothing to fear." " Falstaff manures and nourishes his 
mind as he does his body with sack and sugar. He carves out his jokes as he would a 
capon, or a haunch of venison, where there is cut and come again, and lavishly pours 
out upon them the oil of gladness. His tongue drops fatness, and in the chambers of 
his brain it snows of meat and drink. He keeps up perpetual holiday and open 
house." — Hazlitt. 

" To a bird high in the air above them, the little lake and village adjoining might 
appear like a button and a button-hole." — Willis. "And what is political economy but 
national house-keeping?" "The ship was, like most of her sex, hard to manage." 
"Our other patriots stopped at the half-way house of John Dickinson." — Jefferson. 

" The union is the vital sap of the tree. If we reject the Constitution, — to use the 
language of the country, — we girdle the tree ; its leaves will wither, its branches drop 
off, and the mouldering trunk will be torn down by the tempest." — Ames. " Not to 
crush these serpents [Tories] before their rattles are grown, would be ruinous." — Gen. 
Lee. 

" Like a man who hath reared a fair mansion on another's land, I [a rejected lover] 
have lost my labor by mistaking the place whereon I built it." — Shah. " She was a 
rose with all its leaves yet folded." " Her lips so fair Stirred with her dreams as rose- 
leaves with the air." — Byron. " And dare'st thou then, To beard the lion in his den, — 
The Douglas in his hall?" — Scott. " The lover can see a Helen in a brow of Egypt." — 
ShaJcspeare. 

" ' Kiss ' rhymes with ' bliss ' in fact as well as verse." — Byron. " A new legislature 
does not always see through' the eyes of the old one." "A hollow sound." "Where 
Midnight listens to the lion's roar." " Must I leave thee, Paradise ? " " The weight 
of years has bent him, and the winter of age is upon his head." — Schiller. 

"Yes, this [a scull] was once ambition's airy hall, The dome of thought, the palace 
of the soul."— Byron. " He touched his harp and nations heard entranced." — Pollolc. 
" The mind that broods o'er guilty woes, Is like a scorpion girt by fire." — Byron. " One, 
with God on his side, is a majority." 

In the masterly use of figurative language, Shakspeare has sur- 
passed all uninspired writers; and our own Irving stands unsurpassed 
among prOse writers. 

36. VERSIFICATION. 

This is the last mode of beautifying and elevating style, that we shall present to the 
learner. It is essential to the formation of poetry, and. comprises an important, if not 
the principal, part of Prosody. 

POETRY. 

? Poetry, in its highest perfection, is thought, feeling, im- 
agery, and music, expressed in language. 



228 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Note. — Hence its alliance with Music, Painting, Statuary, and all the other Fine Arts. 
In some poetry, thought predominates, as in Pope's Essay on Man ; in some, feeling, as 
in the Burial of Sir John Moore ; in some, the imagery; as in Moore's Lalla Rookh, and 
in other poems generally, as may be seen by their capability of being illustrated; in some, 
the music, as in Moore's Melodies, — and in songs generally, which are often sadly defi- 
cient in sense, and have but little to recommend them, except that they are good vehicles 
for pretty tunes or airs. Some poetry happily combines all the excellencies. 

? Deficiency in any of these, must be compensated by greater 
excellence in the rest. 

The characteristics which distinguish poetry from prose, are somewhat 
analogous to those which distinguish woman from man. A distinguished 
writer says, " Poetry is to prose as singing is to talking, or as dancing- 
is to walking," which is almost the same as to say, Poetry is poetry. 



? Versification is either the act or the art of making verse. 
Sometimes it denotes the result, or that peculiar structure of 
language which distinguishes poetry from prose. 

? Verse has rhythm and rhyme. 

? Rhythm, is essential, but rhyme is not. 

J&if* For want of a more suitable mark, caesuras will be denoted by the circumflex accent 
(A) ; and for want of accented capital letters, accented capital vowels will be Italicized. 
So, acute f/'s. 

" Thou art, God, the life and light 
Of all this wondrous world we see ; 
Its plow by day, its smile by night, 

Arc bur reflections caught from Thee. 
"Where'er we turn thy glories shine, 
And all things fair and bright are Thine." — T. Moore. 
" The Assyrian came down like the w61f on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, 
When the blue waves roll nightly on deep Gallilee." — Byron. 
" Lives of great men all remind us 

We can make our lives sublime; 
And, departing, leave behind us 

Footprints on the sands of time." — Longfellow. 
" Come as the winds come when forests are rended ; 
Oomft as the waves come when navies are stranded; 
Faster come, faster come; faster and faster! 
Chief, vassal, page, and groom, tenant, and master." — W. Scott. 
" Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, 
Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore — 
While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tipping, 
As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber d&or. 
' 'Tis some visitor,'. I muttered, ' tapping at my chamber door — 
Only this, and nothing wtdre.' " — E. A. Poe. 
" Under a. tuft of shade that on a green 
Stood whispering soft, by a, fresh fountain side 
They sat them down." — Milton. 

From these lines it is easy to perceive, that in poetry the voice or the 
mind passes along the words by a sort of regular pulsations, which consti- 
tute the rhythm, metre, or measure. The correspondence or similarity of 
sound at equal or proportionate intervals, or in immediate succession, is 
termed rhyme. 

And verse may be briefly defined as being — 
? Beautiful language keeping time like music. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 229 

? Or : Syllables formed into language according to accent, 
quantity, and generally, rhyme ; and so divided into lines as to 
promote harmony. 

FEET. 

? Feet are the smallest rhythmical divisions of the lines. 

Grammarians say they are called feet, because they show how the voice " steps'''' along 
the lines. I rather think the name was at first given from the fact that men, especially 
in a primitive state of society, naturally use the foot, to mark or beat time in music. 

? Feet, in the English language, are formed according to 
. accent and quantity. 
? A simple foot comprises not more than three syllables. 

IAMBUS, ANAPEST, TROCHEE, DACTYL. 

There are four principal feet; the iambus, the anapest, the 
trochee, and the dactyl. 

? S60. An iambus consists of two syllables, and has the poetic 
accent on the second. 

Ex. — " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 

" The field is heaped with bleeding steeds, and flags, and cloven mail." 

? §61. An ana-pest consists of three syllables, and has the 
poetic accent on the last. 

Ex. — " O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave." 

? §62. A trochee consists of two syllables, and has the poetic 
accent on the first. 

Ex. — " See the distant forest dark and waving." 

? §61 A dactyl consists of three syllables, and has the poetic 
accent on the first. 

Ex. — " Bachelor's hall, what a queer-looking place it is ! " 

? 564. The iambus and the anapest are kindred feet, and hence they are 

sometimes used promiscuously. 

Ex. — " Eor the winds and the waves are absent there, 

And the sands are bright as the stars that glow." 

? 565. The trochee and the dactyl are kindred feet, and hence they are 
sometimes used promiscuously. 

Ex. — " Bounding away over hill and valley." 

O^ISURA, SPONDEE, PYRRHIC. 

? To the feet above, it may be proper to add three more, as 
secondary or auxiliary feet ; namely, the cozsura, the spondee, 
and the pyrrhic. 

? These are sometimes allowed to break the regular measure, 
in order to avoid a tedious sameness in the rhythm, or for the 
sake of onomatopeia. 

? .566. A ccesura is a long or accented syllable used as one 
foot. 

Ex. — " Restless mortals, 1 oil for n&ught." 



230 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

" Thou wast that all to me, love, 
For which ray soul did pine — 
A green isle in the sea, Idee. 
A fountain and a shrine." — Poe. 

" Gold ! gold ! gold ! gold ! (4 feet,) > , + . , . 

Heavy to get and light to b61d. ,, — Hood. (4 feet,) ) ^ timc ec l na ") 

? 567. A spondee consists of two long syllables about equally 
accented, and used as one foot. Sometimes the first syllable 
only is a long one. 

Ex. — " Near the lake where drooped the willow, 

Long time ago ! " — Morris. 
" O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp, 
Rocks, caves, lakes, lens, bdgs, dens, and shades of death." — Milton. 

? §68. Sometimes the accent in iambic verse, to avoid resting 
on a short syllable, seems to have passed to the first syllable, 
(if long) of the next foot, making this foot a spondee, and 
leaving the other unaccented. A foot left thus unaccented, 
has been called a pyrrhic. 

Ex. — "Of the low sunset clouds, and the blue sky." — Willis. 

" Presently in the e Jge 5f the last tint." — Id 
" To the fainl golden mellowness, a star." — Id. 

POETIC PAUSES. 

? To improve the rhythm or the verse still farther, there are 
also two pauses; the find and the ccesural. 

? The final pause is a slight pause made at the end of each 
line, even when the punctuation does not require it. 

Ex. — " Ye who have anxiously and fondly watched 

Beside a fading friend, unconscious that 

The cheek's bright crimson, Lovely to the view, 
Like nightshade, with unwholesome beauty bloomed. 

§69. The ccesural pause occurs within the line; most fre- 
quently about the middle of it. It belongs chiefly to long 
lines. It not only improves the rhythm, but, like emphasis, 
it often serves to arrest, with fine effect, the attention to the 
meaning. Sometimes a line has two or more csesural pauses, 
one of which is usually greater than the rest. 

Ex. — " But not to me returns 

Day, | 5r the sweat approach of even or morn." — Milton. 

" Like the leaves of the forest | when summer is green, 
That host, with their banners, j at sunset were seen.'' — Byron. 

" Then her cheek | was pale, and thinner | | than should be | for one so young ; 
And her eyes | on all my motions, | | with a mute observance, hung." — Tennyson. 
"Warms | in the sun, | | refreshes | in the breeze, 
Glows | in the stars, | | and blossoms | in the trees ; 
Lives | through all life, | | extends | through all extent- 
Works j undivided, | | operates | unspent." — Pope. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 231 

" No sooner had the Almighty ceased, j than all 
The multitude of angels, | with a shout 
Loud | as from numbers without number, | sweet 
As from blest voices | uttering joy," &c. — Milton. 
What a fine effect on the sense have the pauses after loud and sweet ! Milton has gen- 
erally shown remarkable skill in his management of the poetic pauses. 

? §70. Good poets generally aim so to construct their verse, 
that the final and coesural pauses may properly fall where the 
sense in expressive common speech naturally requires pauses. The 
same is true in regard to poetic accent, with reference to common 
accent and to emphasis. 

ACCENT.— POETRY AND PROSE. 

1. In the utterance of any kind of discourse, we naturally make 
continual use of an accent, as a delicate ear can readily perceive. In 
prose, we allow this accent to pass along the words, resting on the syl- 
lables at very irregular intervals, and varying in its stress according to 
the sense, and the earnestness of our speech. The words most import- 
ant to the sense, usually draw this accent upon themselves. 

We are allowed to accent words, as we arrange them in speech, to suit 
our meaning; but as it would not generally be easy to determine what 
syllable in a word of more than one, should have the preference, these 
words come to us already furnished with an accent. Speech, indeed, 
would sometimes be unintelligible, if every person were allowed to ac- 
cent polysyllables at pleasure. 

Now, if we should undertake to make poetry, our first object would 
be, so to arrange the words that we could start out and proceed with a 
regular accent; that is, an accent of nearly equal stress, and resting on 
the syllables at regular intervals. The common accent thus modified, 
may be termed the poetic accent. 

2. Again, in prose, we make pauses at very irregular intervals; but 
in poetry, we aim to mark off equal or proportionate quantities of sylla- 
bles or sound, by means of final pauses, ccesural pauses, and more espe- 
cially by means of rhyme. 

Regularity, then, seems to be the great elementary principle of versi- 
fication. Deviations seem allowable, only to avoid a tedious sameness ; 
and the best poets have generally observed a regularity even in their 
deviations from that regularity with which they first set out. 

POETIC ACCENT. 

? In reading poetry, a practised ear can easily perceive a very 
slight pause at the end of each foot ; or rather, a slight stress 
on the first or the last syllable of each foot. 

? §71. This stress is the poetic accent. It is peculiar to poe- 
try, and corresponds to the beat in music. It controls the 
position of words, according to quantity and word-accent. 

QUANTITY. 

Quantity and accent are two different things, and should never be, as they usually are, 
i-onjrmnded. "Not every long syllable is accented, nor is every short syllable unaccented. 



232 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? The quantity of a syllable is its relative quantity of sound; or, what 
is equivalent to the same thing, it is the relative time occupied in utter- 
ing it. 

? In respect to quantity, all the syllables in the language may be divi- 
ded into three classes; long, short, and variable. 

? The quantity of many syllables depends on the manner of uttering 
them, and on their association with other syllables ; yet we may safely say, 
that some syllables are always long, and others always short. 
? 572. A syllable having a long vowel or dipthongal sound, especially 
when closed by one or more consonant sounds, is long. 

Ex. — "Pry, warm, proud, Sashed." "Round us roars the tempest louder." 
? 573. A syllable having a short vowel sound, but closed or followed 
by consonants in such a way as to retard pronunciation, is generally 
long. 

E v :. — "When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw." 
? 574. A syllable ending in a short vowel sound, is short. 

Ex. — "The, a, to, q\v&ntily, salary." 
? 575. A syllable next to an accented syllable of the same word, is 
often made short by the greater stress on the accented syllable. 
Ex. — Homeward!, ptin&fement. 
? 576. An unimportant monosyllable ending in a single consonant 
preceded by a, single short vowel, and joined immediately to the more 
important word to which it relates, is short; as, u at war." 
? A few syllables in the language may be pronounced either as one 
syllable or as two. 

Ex.— "Hour, our, tins lyre, choir." 
? 577. Two syllables may sometimes be contracted into one, either by 
the pronunciation or by omission. 

Ex. — Fie-nj for Jl-e-ry, His for it i*, threatening tor threatening. 

WO IID- ACCENT. 

? This accent belongs only to words of more syllables than one. Each 

word of more syllables than one, has one of its syllables accented; 

or else it has a chief accent and one or more inferior ones. Sometimes 

a word (usually a compound) has two accents of nearly equal stress. 

Ex. — Ciis-tom, en -shrine, lu-mi-na-ry, ep-i-gram-mat-ic, in-dem-ni-fi-ca-tion, in-eom- 
pre-lieii-si-bil-i-ty, a-nieu, tare-well ! knit-ting-nee-dle, e-ven-haud-ed.§ 

POSITION OF THE POETIC ACCENT. 

? 578. There is perhaps no word so long or so uncouth, that it may 
not, by some arrangement, be brought into some kind of verse. 

? §79. Any monosyllable may receive the poetic accent. — 
iSee, however, p. 231. 

Ex. — " Blue w&3 the lake, the clouds were gone." 

"Gone were the clouds, the lake was blue." &c. 

? 580. But it is generally inelegant, and sometimes perhaps incorrect, 

to place it on a short syllable. 

Ex. — We can not read, " As a friend thank him, and with joy see him." 
But we may read, "See him with joy, and thank him as a friend." 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 233 

? The number of monosyllables in our poetry, is probably much 
greater than that of all the other words together. Unencumbered by 
word-accent, they admit greater variety of arrangement, and come more 
readily under the poetic, accent. 

? §81, When words of more than one syllable are introduced 
into verse, the poetic accent must take the place of the 
primary or the secondary accent. 

? 582. Should the poetic accent fall on a different syllable, the word 
must be rejected, or the arrangement must be so varied as to admit it. 
(To this rule we find in our poets a very few exceptions, — chiefly in the 
use of compound words.) 

Ex. — " Perhaps like me he flounders out a line, 

And begins another — there stops " (Erroneous.) 

? 583. A long syllable of a word, next to an accented syllable, never 
receives the poetic accent, or it is made short. (There are a very few 
exceptions. ) 

Ex. — " Westivard the course of empire takes its way." 

? Words of two or more syllables, by their own accent, readily show, 
arid constantly keep in mind, the kind of verse. 

Ex. — " Turn, gentle hermit of the dale, 

And guide my lonely way 
To where yon taper cheers the vale 
With hospitable ray." — Goldsmith. 

? 584. It should not, however, be inferred, that every syllable having 
the word-accent, must also receive the poetic accent. Only this is nec- 
essary, — that the poetic accent, in its proper march through the verse, 
shall never supersede the other accent, by resting on a different syllable 
of the same word. 

Ex. — " Whilst our maidens shall dance with their white leaving arms, 

Singing joy to the brave that delivered their charms." — Campbell. 

? The poetic accent generally passes in some regular order 
through the entire poem. 

? Accented syllables demand it; long syllables naturally 
tend to draw it upon themselves ; and short syllables incline 
to refuse it. 

? When it comes in collision with the common accent, the harshness is 
commonly greater than when it rests on a short syllable. 

? it sometimes accommodates itself to the common accent, where the 
sense and melody allow a considerable pause ; that is, at the end, at the 
beginning, or near the middle of the line, though rarely the last. It 
seems, indeed, to be a general principle, to allow the poet most liberty 
at these places, not only as to accent, but also as to extra short syl- 
lables.— See pp. 234-35. 

? To accommodate itself to quantity, the poetic accent may sometimes 
vary from its regular stations, either by preferring the previous or the 
subsequent syllable, or by passing over one more syllable than the reg- 
ular number, or by resting on each of several successive long syllables. 
—See pp. 234-35. 

20 



234 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? 586. Verse is generally most melodious, when the regularly accented 
syllables are long, and the unaccented, short. 
Ex. — "At the close of the day when the hamlet is still." 

LINES, OR VERSES. 

? 587. Iambic or anapestic lines sometimes end in one or two 
additional unaccented short syllables, called supernumerary or 
hypermeter syllables. — See stanzas, pp. 237-50. 

(Query. — May not such syllables be called floating syllables, as resembling what is 
fastened in a stream, yet floats ? ") 

? Such lines are called hyper meters, 

? §88. Trochaic or dactylic lines often end with the caesura. — 
See pp. 242-54. 

? 589. Iambic lines may occasionally begin with a trochee, 
a dactyl, or a spondee. 

Ex.— "Bursts the wild cry of terror and dismay." — Campbell. 
" Hovering a space till winds the signal blow." — Milton. 
"Liberal not lavish is kind Nature's hand." — BeatHe. 
" Weep, wee]>, and rend you hair for those who never shall return " — Macaulay. 

? 590. A trochee may sometimes be admitted within an iam- 
bic line, where the rhythm and sense allow a considerable 
pause. 

l-Yx. — " Of goodliest trees 1 6a den with fairest fruit." — Milton. 

" These [prairies] are the gardens of the desert, these 

The unshorn fields, foouwdZess and beautiful." — Bryant. 
'•The song is hushed, the laughing m/mphs are flown ; 
And he is left, musing of bliss, alone." — T. Moore. 

? 591. Iambic lines occasionally admit an anapest, provided 
it is such a one as might be contracted, or one that has no 
consonant between the unaccented syllables, or only a liquid, 
or such a consonant as very little obstructs utterance. 

Ex. — "With Heaven's a>/i//e>y fraught, come rattling on." — Milton. 

" And many a youth, and many a viaid." — Id. 
" That binds him to a woman's delicate love." — Willis. *— 

? 592. Anaspetic lines may occasionally begin with an iam- 
bus or a spondee. 

Ex. — " Then- swords are a thcusand, — their bosoms are one." — Campbell. 

" 01 fly to the prairie sweet maiden with me ; 
'Tis as green, and as wide, and as wild, as the sea." 

? 59£. Some anapestic verse occasionally admits a spondee or 
an iambus. 

Ex. — " The poplars are felled, fareivell to the shade, [poem. 

And the whispering sounds of the cool colonnade." — Coicper. — See the 

? 594. A pleasant rhythm is sometimes produced, by throwing 
one anapest or even two into each iambic line. 

Ex. — " I come! I come ! ye have called me long; 

I come 5'er the mountains with light and song." — Mr*. Hemons. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES VERSIFICATION. 235 

? To preserve equality or proportion in time, seems to he a 
governing principle in versification ; and variations in th* posi- 
tion of the poetic accent or in the number of unaccented sylla- 
bles^ are allowable where the chief poetic pauses occur, — at the 
hi ginning and the end of lines, and. at > e ccesural pause. 

Ex. — " And give me for my bushel sown 

Twice ten for one.'''' (Prolong' the sound as you read.) 

"Keeping time, time, time, 
In a sort of Runic rh#me." — Poe. 

" Ry the first love-beat Of the youthful heart, 
Ry the bliss to meet, And the pain to part." — Moore. 

"Ye've trailed me through the forest; | ye've trailed me o'er the stream.; 

And struggling through the everglade | your bristling bayonets gleam." — Patton. 

" Merrily swinging on brier and weed, 
Near to the nest of his little dame, 
Over the mountain -side or mead 
Robert of Lincoln is telling his name — 
B6b-o-link, B6b-o-link ; 
Spink, spank, spink ; 
Snfig and safe is that nest of ours 
Hidden among the summer flowers. 
Chee, chee, ch6e ! "— Bryant. 

This beautiful stanza is remarkable for a skillful combination of nearly all the 
feet. 

STANZAS.— VERSE. 
Lines are formed into stanzas. 
? 595, A stanza is a complete group of lines constructed in 
a certain way with respect to one another. 

Two consecutive lines form a couplet or distich; three, a 
triplet. Such lines are usually understood as rhyming together. 

? A line, according to its number of feet, is sometimes called a mono- 
meter (one foot), a dimeter, a trimeter, a tetrameter, a pentameter, a hexame- 
ter, a heptameter, or an odometer. 

? Short lines are seldom formed into stanzas, unless in com- 
bination with long lines. 

The greater portion of our poetry consists of lines of medium length. 

? §96. Long lines are sometimes broken at the csesural pause, 
and written in two lines each. 

? 597. Rhymes must begin with different letters, but end in 
the same or nearly the same sound. 

? Rhymes that are not exact, yet authorized, are called allowable rhymes. 

? 598. Rhymes may run back into the lines as far as three 
syllables. Hence they are classified thus : Single rhymes, 
double rhymes, and trip le rhymes. 



236 BOOK SECOND. — THE STANDARD. 

? 599. A rhyming element usually corresponds to but one 
other one ; but sometimes to more. 

? 600. Lines are sometimes so formed as to have rhyming syllables 
within them, as well as at the end. — See p. 228. 

? 601. Some verse has no rhyme. Such is styled blank verse. 

? Blank verse, to sustain the dignity of poetry, must usually excel in 
other respects. 

? In fact, it seems to be a ruling principle in poetry, — 

? N. B. To atone for a poetic property omitted, by greater excellence in the 
others. 

? The word verse is properly applicable to any single line of poetry ; 
but, by synecdoche, it may be applied to a stanza, or to poetry in gen- 
eral, as a modest term, meaning something that has at least the form, if 
not the spirit, of poetry. 

? Verse, according to what foot prevails in it, is usually divi- 
ded into four kinds ; iambic, anapestic, trochaic, and dactylic. 

? Verse that is very irregular in its feet, or in the combina- 
tion of its lines, has been styled composite. 

? Good poets always aim to select such a mode of versification as will 
best agree with the character or the sentiments of the intended poem. 

? When a certain stanza, or a certain mode of versification has been 
adopted, there is usually not, throughout the same poem, any deviation 
from it, either in the kind of feet, or in their number to the respective 
lines, or in the mode of arranging the lines that rhyme together. 

? Songs are not always so regulir as other poems. To write a good 
song requires great art, unless the mind happens to be one of those rare 
and fine ones that combine, by nature, the poet and the musical compos- 
itor. The best songs are written by learning the air, tunc, or music first, 
and then filling it out suitably with words. Great care should be taken to 
make the prominent parts of the song coincide with the prominent parts of 
the air ; that is, to make the sentiments, the language, and the air, coincide 
precisely in the relative prominence of the parts. For instance, it would 
be ridiculous for a congregation to dwell, with the prolonged and highest 
notes, on such little words as a, the, in, &c. ; and the song requiring such 
singing, would be justly condemned, whatever its other merits might 
be. — See Burns, Moore, Morris, Watts. 

? In the composition of odes, the poet is generally allowed to pursue 
whatever variety of versification he pleases, in order that he may 
express a varying train of feelings in rhythm suiting the different parts, 
and thus produce a finer and richer harmony than regular measure 
could afford. 

Ex. — " 'Twas at the royal feast for Persia won 

By Philip's warlike son : 
Aloft, in awful state, 
The godlike hero sate 

On his imperial throne : 
His valiant peers were placed around, 
Their brows with roses and with nrz/rtle bound ; 
So should desert in arms be crowned. 1 ' 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 



237 



The lovely Thai's by his side 
Sat like a blooming Eastern bride, 
In flower of youth and beauty's pride. 
Happy, happy, happy pair ; * 

None but the brave, 
None but the brave, 
None but the brave deserves the fair " &c. — Dry den. 
See Dryden's " Ode on St- Cecilia's Day," Poe's " Bells," Collins's " Ode on the Passions/' 
and Gray's odes. 

SCANNING. 
? To scan poetry is to show how it is formed in respect to its 
feet, — to analyze its versification. 

See Analysis and Description, — the next section. 
? Each line is usually scanned by itself; but it seems best to scan 
continuously from one line into another, when we can thus avoid 
irregularities. 

Ex. — " 'Tis the last rose of summer 

Left blooming alone ; (4 feet.) 

All its lovely companions 
Are faded and gone." (4 feet.) 

? Sometimes more than one mode of scanning, may be applied to the 
same poem. 

That mode is always preferable, which is simplest or most musical. 



THE ELEMENTARY COMBINATIONS OF LINES IN ENGLISH POETRY. 

Note. — To a person wishing to write verse, perhaps nothing can be presented more 
useful than a general circuit of the combinations of poetic lines, with their scansion, and 
all the various deviations, or licences, of which he may avail himself. 

fi®" The letters /, i, a, 2, d, and c, placed on the left of the stanzas, denote respec- 
tively feet, iambics, anapeste, trochees, dactyls, and caesuras ; the letters above the stanzas 
show the rhyme ; the sign plus (-f) denotes hypermeter syllables ; accentual marks are 
used to aid in showing the versification, and sometimes they show irregular versifica- 
tion ; and upright dashes are sometimes used to show caesura! pauses. 



1. IAMBI 


C VEHSB, 


i. 

a b a b 

"His wit, 

With smart, 
Has hit 

My heart.'" — Newspaper. 

3. 

a b a b 


3 i 


a a b c c b 
"The losses, 
The crosses, 
That active men engage ; 
The fears all, 
The tears all, 
Of dim declining age." — Burns. 
6. 


Love must, in short, 
Keep fond and true, 

Through good report, 
And evil too." — T. Moore. 

4r. 


2i-f 
2i 


a b a b 
" To halls of splendor, 
Let great ones hie ; 
Through light more tender, 
Our pathways lie." — Moore. 
7. 


a a b c c b 




a a b c c b 


precious one, 
Let thy tongue run 

In a sweet fret ; 
And this will give 
A chance to live 

A long time yet." — Neivspaper. 


2i 
3i + 


" The pibroch rang 

With bolder clang 
Along the hills of heather ; 

And fresh and strong 

The thistle sprung, 
That had begun to wither." — Hogg, 



238 



BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 



2* 



3/ 

li 

i 

3/ 



1i 
4i 



a 



3t 

3/ 

2» 



3/ 

3i 



2i 4- 



3t 



3/ + 
3« 

3/4- 

13 i + 



4i 
3* 



3i 
2i 



4* 



5. 

a & & a 
" His gifts divine 2 i - 

Through all appear, 
And round the year 
His glories shine.' 1 — Songster. 2 i 

9. 

abba 
" Ne : — 'Tis a fast to dole 
Thy sheaf of wheat. 
And meat, 
Unto the hfingrv soul." — Herrick. 

•> ; 
10. 

a a b c c b 
" The soul refined 
Is most inclined 
To every moral excellence ; 
All vice is dull, 
A knave" s a fool ; 
And Virtue is the child of Sense." 

Young. 

13. 

a b a b 

" When thou art nigh, it seems 

A new creation round ; 

The sun has fairest beams, 

The lute a softer sound." — Moore, 

15. 

rt I) c c b 

" Tread softly, — bow the head, — 

In reverent silence bow ; 
No passing bell doth toll, — 
Yet an immortal soul 

Is passing now."' — Mrs. Soutkey. 

16. 

a a b c c b 
" Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky, 
Thou dost not bite so nigh 

As benefits forgot ; 
Though thou the waters warp, 
Thy sting is not so sharp 
As friends remeinb'ring not.^-Shak 

19. 

a a b b 
"Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 
Our hearts, with glad surprise, 
To higher levels rise." — Atlantic 
Monthly. 

30. 

ababcddc 
' An inf an t on its mother's breast — 
A bouncing boy at play — 
A youth by maiden fair caressed — 
An old man silver gray — 
Is all of life we know : 
A joy — a fear ; 
A smile — a tear — 
And all is o'er below."— -Shaw. 



8. 

a a a b c c c b 
" Could love foiever 
Run like a river, 
And Time's endeavor 

Be tried in vain, — 
No other pleasure 
With this could measure ; 
And like a treasure 

We'd hug the chain." — B%r<m. 

11. 

a b a b c c c b 

'Dream, Baby, dream! 

Thine eyelids quiver. 
Know'st thou the theme 

Of yon bright river ? 
It saith, ' Be calm, be sure, 
Unfailing, gentle, pure: 
So shall thy life endure, 

Like mine tor ever.' 

13. 



[wall. 

Com - 



Gay's Stanza. 
a b a h 
Wide o'er the foaming billows 

She cast a wistful look ; 
Her head was crowned with willows 
That trembled o"er the brook." 

Gap. 
" From Greenland's icy mountains, 
From India's coral strand, 
Where Afric's sunny fountains 
Roll down their golden sand." 
Heber. 
14. 
a b c b 
' ,r Iis sweet to love in childhood, 
When the souls that we bequeath, 
Are beautiful in freshness 

As the coronals we wreathe." 
This stanza may also be scanned contin- 
uously, without irregularity; and it may be 
written as well in two lines. 
17. 
a b a b 
; Fly swift, my light gazelle, 

To her who now lies waking 
To hear thy silver bell 

The midnight silence breaking." 
Moore. 
18. 

a b a b c c 
• Go, Soul, the body's guest, 

Upon a thankless errand ; 
Fear not to touch the best, 

The truth shall be thy warrant : 
Go, since I needs must die, 
And give the world the lie. * * 
3 i -j- Tell arts they have not soundness, 
3 i 4- But vary by esteeming ; 

Tell schools they want profoundness, 
And stand too much on seeming. 
If arts and schools reply, 
Give arts and schools the lie." 
Bamfield. 



3/ 

3*4- 
3/ ' 



3 i 
3* -f 



3/ 
3 i 4- 



3/ 
3* 



RHET ORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 



239 



21.— See 19. 

a a b b 

3 i " What scenes of glory rise 

Before my dazzled eyes ! 

4 i Young zephyrs wave their -wanton 

wings, 
And melody celestial rings. 1 ' — Croly. 

22. Short -metre Stanza. 
a b a b 

3 i " The hurricane hath might 

Along the Indian shore ; 

4 i And far, by Ganges' banks, at 

night, 
Is heard the tiger's roar." 

Hemans. 
23. 
a a b c c b 
4 i "If solid happiness we prize, 

Within our breast the jewel lies ; 

3 i And they are fools who roam : 

The world has nothing to bestow ; 
From our own selves our joys must 
flow, 
And that dear hut — our home." 
Co (ton. 
27. Common-metre Stanza. (Martial.) 
a b c b 

4 i To hunt the deer with hound and horn, 
3 i Earl Percy took his way ; 

The child that's yet unborn, may rue 
The hunting of that day." 

Chevy Chase. 



24t. 
a b a b b 
f " G6, lovely rose ! 

i Tell her that wastes her time and me, 
i That now she knows, 

i When I resemble her to thee 
i How sweet and fair she seems to be." 

Waller. 
This stanza finely illustrates several of 
the chief principles laid down under Ver- 
sification. 

25. 
a b a b 
" Gay, guiltless pair, " 
What seek ye from the fields of 
heaven ? 
Ye have no need of prayer, 
Ye have no sins to be forgiven." 
Sprague. 
36. 

a b c b d d 
" It was a summer evening, — 
Old Kaspar's work was done, 
And he before his cottage door, 

Was sitting in the sun ; 
And by him sported on the green, 
His little grandchild Wilhelmine." 
Southey. 
a b c b (Humorous.) 
She's never gadding in the street, 

But loves to slay at home ; — 
Her eyes are parted by her nose, 
Her ringlets by a comb." 



2/ 

4ci-\- 

3i + 



3i-f 

3i 

4ti 



On 



" To hunt the deer with hound and horn, Earl Percy took his way ; 
The child that's yet unborn, may rue the hunting of that day." 



4/ 
3i 



4i 
3 i 



a b a b. (Sentimental.) 
"A violet by a mossy stone, 

Half-hidden from the eye, 
Fair as a star, when only one 

Is shining in the sky." — Wordsworth. 
28. 
a b c b 
" Fair scenes for childhood's opening- 
bloom, 
For sportive youth to stray in ; 
For manhood to enjoy his strength, 
And age to wear away in." — Words- 
worth . 
30. Long-metre Stanza. 
a b a b 
" So blue yon rounding river flows, 
It seems an outlet from the sky, 
Where, waiting till the west-wind 
blows, 
The freighted clouds at anchor 
lie." — Longfellow. 
" Till then let Cuniming blaze away, 
And Miller's saints blow up the 
globe ; 
But when you see that blessed day, 
Then order your ascension robe." 
Holmes. 



4*4- 
3i 



4i -f- 

4:1 



2/ 



29. 

a b a b 
" The Ocean looketh up to heaven, 
As 'twere a living thing ; 
The homage of its waves is given, 
In ceaseless worshiping." 
31. 
a b a b 
' Her heart is like a faded flower, 
Whose beauty's lost and sweetness 

flown ; 
Forgot, neglected in the bower, 
And left^ by all to die alone." 
Songster. 
33. 

a b a b 

' There is a calm for those who weep, 
A rest for weary pilgrims found; 
They softly lie, and sweetly sleep, 
Low in the ground." — Montgomery. 
34. 
a b c b 
' All thoughts, all passions, all delights 
Whatever stirs this mortal frame, 
Are all but ministers of love, [eridge. 
And feed bis sacred flame."— Vol- 



240 



BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 



38. 

a a b b 
4ti "Those evening bells! those evening 
bells ! 
How many a tale their music tells 
Of youth and home, and that sweet 

time 
When last I heard their soothing 
chime." — Moore. 
39. 
a a a 

4 i " Around Scbago's lonely lake, 

There lingers not a breeze to break 
The mirror which its waters make." 
Whittier. 

4:0. 

a a a b 
4 i " Who fed me from her gentle breast, 
And hushed me in her arms to rest. 
And on my cheeks sweet kisses 
pressed, 
i -|- My Mother." — Thompson. 

41. Burns's Stanza. 
a a a b a b 
4 i "When ripened fields and azure skies, 
Call forth the reaper's rustling noise, 
I saw thee leave their evening joys, 

2 i And lonely walk, 

To vent thy bosom's swelling rise 

In pensive walk." — Barns, 

4:3. 

a a b c c b 
4 i _|_ « Two spirits reached this world of 
oars: 
The lightning's locomotive powers 

3 i _|_ or 4 i Were slow to their agility : 

In broad daylight they moved 

incog, 
Enjoying, without mist or fog, 
Entire invisibility." — Campbell. 

4:3. 

a a ab 

4 i "When maidens such as Hester die, 

Their place ye may not well supply, 
Though ye among a thousand try, 

2 i -4- With vain endeavor." — Lamb. 

4:4: 

4 i " By torch and trumpet fast arrayed, 

Each horseman drew his battle-blade, 
And furluus every charger neighed 

3 i -\- To join the dreadful revelry." 

Campbell. 



33. 

4 i " Oh, never talk again to me 
4 i -4- Of northern climes and British 
ladies ; 
It has not been your lot to see, 

Like me, the charming girl of 
Cadiz." — Byron. 

35. 

a b c c b 
4 i "To horse! to horse! the standard 
flies, 

3 i The bugles sound the call ; 
The Gallic navy stems the seas, 
The voice of battle's on the breeze, — 

Arouse ye, one and all ! " — Scott. 

36. 

a b a b c c 

4 i " You have the Pyrrhic dance as yet, 
4 i Where is the Pyrrhic phalanx gone ? 

Of two such lessons why forget 
The nobler and the manlier one? 
4 i You have the letters Cadmus gave — 
Think you he meant them for a slave ? " 
Byron. 

37. [fickle, 

4 i -f- " Thou art not false, but thou art 
4 i To those thyself so fondly sought ; 

The tears that thou hast forced to 
trickle, 
Are doubly bitter from that 
thought : 
4 i -j- 'Tis this which breaks the heart 
thou grievest, 
Too well thou lov'st — too soon thou 
leavest . ' ' — Byron. 

4:5. 

a a b c c c b 
4/ "Thou grewest a goodly tree, with 

shoots 
4/ Fanning the sk«/, and earth-bound 

roots 
2 i -f- So grappled under, 

4 i That thou, whom perching birds 
could swing, 
And zephyrs rock with lightest wing, 
Prom thy firm trunk unmoved didst 
fling 
2/-f- Tempest and thunder." 

Magazine : Charter-oaJc. 
Observe how the change of feet in the last 
line, improves the vigor of the stanza. 



4i 



i -f- or 2 \ 



4:6. 

a abb c 

' His brow was sad ; his e?/e beneath 
Flashed like a fachion from its sheath ; 
And like a silver clarion rung 
The accents of that mountain tongue 

Excelsior." — Longfellow, 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 241 

abcddceee cffg gab 
3 * -f- " The gallant Leonatus, 

3 i The page of Imogen, — 

4 i He had a steed from ^Irab ground, 

And when the lords and ladies gay- 
Went hawking on a festal day, 

And hunting in the country round, 
And Imogen did join the band, 
He rode him like a hunter grand, 
A hooded hawk upon his hand , 

And by his side a slender hound : 
When they saw the deer go by, 
He slipped the leash and let him fly, 
And spurred his steed, and slacked the rein, 
And scoured beside her o'er the plain. 
The daring Leonatus, 
The page of Imogen." — Stoddard. 

Observe how the foregoing stanza dances through the soul ; and what a fine ringing 
close the repetition of and and similar structure, and the anapest, in the last two rhym- 
ing lines, and the refrain following, give to the whole stanza. (A word or phrase re- 
peated like the last two lines, is called a refrain.) 

48. 

a abb c c &c. 
4/ " Swift to the breach his comrades %, — 

4 i ' Make way for liberty ! ' they cry, 

And through the Austrian phalanx dart 

As rushed the spears through Arnold's heart ; 

While, instantaneous as his fall, 

Rout, ruin, panic, seized them all : 

An earthquake could not overthrow 

A city with a surer blow. 

Thus Switzerland again was free, 

Thus death made way for liberty." — Montgomery. 

4 i -\- " The turkman lay beside the river ; 

The wind played loose through bow and quiver ; 

The charger on the bank fed free, 

The shield hung glittering from the tree, * * * 

Wild burst the burning element 

O'er man and courser, flood and tent ! 

And through the blaze the Greeks outsprang, 

Like tigers, — bloody, foot and fang ! — 

With dagger-stab and falchion-sweep, 

Delving the stunned and staggering heap, 

Till lay the slave by chief and Khan, 

And all was gone that once was man." — Croly. 

The iambic tetrameter is a sprightly, vigorous measure, in which much of our poetry 
is written. — See Scott, Byron, Moore, Butler, Swift, Gay, Mrs. Hemans. 

49. 

a b a b 
3/ " Leaves have their time to fall, 

5/ And flowers to wither at the north-wind's breath, 

3 i And stars to set — but all, 

5/ Thou hast all seasons for thine own, oh Death." — Hemans. 

50. 

a b a b c c 
3/ " 'Tis sweet, in the green spring, 

5/ To gaze upon the wakening fields around ; 

Birds in the thicket sing, 

5 i Winds whisper, waters prattle from the ground ; 
3 i A thousand odors rise, 

Breathed up from blossoms of a thousand dyes." — Bryant. 

21 



242 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

51. 

abb a c c 
3/ " Ah ! there's a deathless name ! — 

5/ A spirit that the smothering vault shall spurn," 

5 i And like a steadfast planet mount and burn — 

3 i And though its crown of flame 

5 i -\-l Consumed my brain to ashes as it won me, 

^By all the fiery stars ! I'd pluck it on me ! " — Willis. 
53. 
a b a b 
5 f M We mourn for thee when blind blank night 

2/ The chamber fills ; 

5/ We pine for thee when morn's first light] 

2/ Reddens the hills." 

53. 
abba 
5 t "A long way off Lucincla strikes the men ; 

2/ As she draws near, 

2i And one sees clear, 

A long way off— one wishes her again." 

54:. 

a b ab 
5/ -} " It is the Rhine ! our mountain vineyards laving ; 

3 i I see the proud flood shine. 

Sing on the march, with every banner waving, 

Sing, brothers ! 'tis the Rhine." — Hemans. 
55. 
a b a b 
5/ •'Westward the course of empire takes its way ; 

4 i The first four acts already passed, 

5 { A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; — 

Time's noblest offspring is the last." — Berkeley. 

56. Pentameters, or Heroic Measure. 5 i or 5 i -J-. 
In this measure, by far the greatest and most valuable pari of our poetry is written. 
It comprises nearly all our blank verse and epic poetry, and all our dramatic poetry. See 
Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton,Dryden, Pope, Thomson, Cowper, Pollok, Rogers, 
Byron, Campbell, Crabbe, &c. 

Blank. 

" Ay, but to die, — and go we know not where ; 
To lie in cold obstruction and to rot ; 
This sensible warm motion to become 
A kneaded clod ; and the delighted spirit 
To hathe in fiery floods, or to reside 
In thrilling regions of thick-ribbed ice ; 
To be imprisoned in the viewless winds, 
And blown with restless violence round about 
The pendent world; or to be worse than worst 
Of those, that lawless and uncertain thoughts 
Imagine howling : 'tis too horrible ! 
The weariest and most loathed life 
That age, ache, penury, and imprisonment, 
Can lay on nature, is a paradise 
To what we fear of death." — SliaJespeare. 

" Yet, higher than their tops, 
The verdurous walls of Paradise upsprung, 
Which to our general sire gave prospect large, 
Into his nether empire neighboring round. 
And higher than that wall, a circling row 
Of goodliest trees, loaden with fairest fruit, * 

Blossoms and fruits at once of golden hue, 
Appeared, with gay enamelled colors mixed; 
Of which the sun more glad impressed his beams 
Than in fair evening cloud, or humid bow, 
When God hath showered earth. 1 ' — Milton. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 243 

" How, in the name of soldiership and sense, 
Should England prosper, when such things, as smooth 
And tender as a girl, all essenced o'er 
With odors, and as prodigal as sweet, 
Who sell their laurel for a myrtle wreath, 
And love when they should fight, — when such as these 
Presume to lay their hands upon the ark 
Of her magnificent and awful cause ? " — Cowper. 

aabbcedd &c. 
" Oh ! had he been content to serve the crown, 
With virtues only proper for the gown ; 
Or had the rankness of the soil been freed, 
From cockle that oppressed the noble seed ; 
David for him his tuneful harp had strung, 
And heaven had wanted one immortal song." — Dryden. 

57. Elegiac Stanza. 
a b a b 
5 i " The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 

No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." — Gray. 
So, " Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, Whose trembling limbs " &c 
Cromwell. — " His grandeur he derived from heaven alone, 

For he was great, ere fortune made him so ; 
And wars, like mists that rise against the sun, 

Made him but greater seem, not greater grow." — Dryden. 

58. 
5 i -J- " Thy name is princely. Though no poet's magic 

5 i Could make Red Jacket grace an English rhyme, 

Unless he had a genius for the tragic, 

And introduced it into pantomime." — Hal.lecJc. 
59* 
5/ " Harp of the North, farewell ! the hills grow dark, 

5 i On purple peaks a deeper shade descending ; 

In twilight copse the glowworm lights her spark, 

The deer half-seen are to the covert wending." — Scott. 

60. 

5 i -{- " Philosophers may teach thy whereabouts and nature, 

5 i -j- Put wise, as all of us, perforce, must think 'em, 

The schoolboy best has fixed thy nomenclature, 

And poets, too, must call thee Bob-o-linkum." — Hoffman. 
61. 
a b a b c c 
5 i -f- " And thou hast walked about — how strange a story — 

In Thebes's streets, three thousand years ago; 
When the Memnonium was in all its glory, 

And time had not begun to overthrow 
Those monuments and piles stupendous, 
Of which the very ruins are tremendous." — H. Smith. 

68. Byron's Stranza. 
a b a b a b c c 
"0, that I had the art of easy writing, 

What should be easy reading ! could I scale 
Parnassus, where the Muses sit inditing 
Those pretty poems never known to fail, 
* How quickly would I print (the world delighting) 
A Grecian, Syrian, or Assyrian tale ; 
And sell you, mixed with Western sentimentalism, 
Some samples of the finest orientalism." — Byron. 
Remark. — When iambic hypermeters of moderate length occur only now and then 
n the poem, they are more commonly humorous than serious. 



244 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

63. The Sonnet. 
abbaaccadeedff 
" And canst thou, Mother, for a moment think 

That we, thy children, when old age shall shed 

Its blanching honors on thy weary head, 
Could from our b^st of duties ever shrink ? 
Sooner the sun from his high sphere should sink, 

Than we, ungrateful, leave thee in that day, 

To pine in solitude thy life away, 
Or shun thee tottering on the grave's cold brink. 
Banish the thought ! — where'er our steps maj r roam, 

O'er smiling plains, or wastes without a tree, 

Still will fond memory point our hearts to thee, 
And paint the pleasures of thy peaceful home ; 
While duty bids us all thy griefs assuage, 
And smooth the pillow of thy sinking age." — H. K. White. 

64:. Spenserian Stanza. 
" And forth they pass by pleasure forward led, 
Joying to hear the birds 1 sweet harmony, 
Which therein shrouded from the tempest dread, 
Seemed in their song to scorn the cruel sky. 
Much can they praise the trees so straight and high, 
The sailing Pine, the Cedar proud and tall, 
The vine-prop Elm, the Poplar never dry, 
The builder Oak, sole king of forests all, 
6 i The Aspen good for staves, | the Cypress funeral."— Spenser. 

An iambic hexameter is usually called an Alexandrine. 
" There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is a rapture on the lonely shore, 
There is society where none intrudes 
By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 
I love not Man the less, hut Nature more, 
From these our interviews, in which I steal 

From all I may be, or have been before, 
To mingle with the universe and feel 
What I can ne'er express, | yet can not all conceal." — Byron. 

65. 

a a b b 
G i " The dew was falling fast, | the stars began to blink, — 

I heard a voice ; it said, | ' Drink, pretty creature, drink ! ' 
And looking o'er the hedge, | before me I espied 
6/ A snow-white mountain lamb | with a maiden at its side." — Wordsworth. 

66. 
a b a b c c 

5 i " For ages, on the silent forest here, 

Thy beams did fall before the red man came 
To dwell beneath them ; in their shade the deer 

Fed and feared not the arrow's deadly aim. 
Nor tree was felled, | in all that world of woods, 

6 i Save by the beaver's tooth, | or winds, or rush of floods." — Bryant. 

67. 
a b b b 
2 i " Immortal dead! 

4 i Ye in your lot are fixed as fate, 

And man or angel is too late 
6/ To beckon back by prayer | one change upon your state." — Tupper. 

68. 
a a b b 
6/ "I see the valleys, Spain ! | where thy mighty rivers run, 

And the hills that lift thy harvests | and vineyards to the sun, 
And the flocks that drink thy brooks | and sprinkle all the green, 
7/ Where lie thy plains, | with sheep-walks seamed, | and olive shades between." 

Bryanfm 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 



245 



69. Lines Divisible. 
7 *' " The melancholy days are come, | The saddest of the year ; 

Of wailing winds and naked woods, | And meadows brown and sear." 
7 i " 0, better that her shattered hulk | Should sink beneath the wave ! 

Her thunder shook, the mighty deep, | And there should be her grave ! 
Nail to the mast her holy flag, | set every threadbare sail, 
And give her to the god of storms, — | the lightning and the gale ! " — Holmes. 
TO*. 
7 f -\- No ; — the joke has been a good one, — [ But I'm getting fond of quiet; 
And I don't like deviations | from my customary diet ; 
So I think I will not go with you | to hear the toasts and speeches, 
But stick to old Montgomery Place, | and have some pig and peaches." — Holmes. 
The quantity of iambic verse in English literature, far exceeds that of all the other 
kinds of verse". 



2. AETAPESTIC VERSE. 



a " Move your feet Or, t c 

To our sound, 
Whilst we greet 
All the ground." — Fletcher. 
2. 
abacdbdc 
2/ " Now, mortal, prepare, 
2 a For thy fate is at hand ; 

Now, mortal, prepare, 
a -\- And surrender. 

For Love shall arise, 

Whom no pow'r can withstand, 
Who rules from the skies 

To the centre." — Granville. 

4:. 

a b a b 
2 / -j- The autumn winds rushing 
2 a -J- Waft the leaves that are searest ; 
But our flow'r was in flushing, 
When blighting was nearest. — Scott. 

7. 

2 a " Come, my mates, let us work, 

And all hands to the fork, 

3 a While the sun shines, our haycocks to 
make : 

So fine is the day, 
And so fragrant the hay, 
That the meadow's as blithe as the 
wake." — Smart. 



I. 

a b a b 
Move your feet 

To our sdund, 
Whilst we grSet 

-411 the grdund. 



Or, d 



Move your feet 
To our sound, 
Whilst we greet 
-411 the ground. 



2/ 



3. 



ababccdede 
2a" When, in rage, he came there, 
2/ Beholding how steep 

The sides did appear, 
And the bottom how deep ; 
2f-\- His torments projecting, 

And sadly reflecting, 
2 a -J- That a lover forsaken, 
A new love may get ; 
But a neck, when once broken, 
Can never be set," &c. — Walsh. 

5. 

a a b c c b 
2 a " Our life is a dream, 

2 a Our time, as a stream, 

2/ Glides swiftly away ; 

4 a And the fugitive moment refuses to stay.' 



6. 

2 a " Let the stupid be grave, 
'Tis the vice of the slave ; 
But can never agree 
With a maiden like me, 
4 a Who is born in a country that's happy 
and free." 



3 a 
3/ 



8. 
a b ab 
" I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute ; 
From the centre all round to the sea, 
I am lord of the fowl and the brute.' 



- Cowper. 



*There is also a sort of doggerel stanza, usually iambic, ending in a long prosy line, 
and frequently found in newspapers ; as, — 

" Now Eeiiben was a nice young man 
As any in the town ; 
And Piioebe loved him very dear, 
But, on account of his being obliged to work for a living, 
he never could make himself agreeable to old Mr. and Mrs. Brown." 



246 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

9. 

3 a -j- " Though the day of my destiny's over, 

3 a And the star of my fate has declined, 

Thy soft heart refused to discover, 
The faults which so many could find." — Byron. 
10. 
3«+s " The strawberries grow in the mowing, Mill May, 

3 a And the bob-o-link sings on the tree ; 

On the knolls the red clover is growing, Mill May, 
Then come to the meadows with me ! " — Eastman. 
11. 
4/ -f- " How fair is the rose ! what a beautiful flower, 

3/ The glory of .April and May ! 

4 a -f- But the leaves are beginning to fade in an hour, 

3 a And they wither and die in a day." — Watts, 

12. 
ab abb 
3/ "To Biches? Alas! 'tis in vain ; 

3/ Who hid in their turns have been hid ; 

Their treasures are squandered again ; 
4/ And here in the grave are all metals forbid 

4 a Save the tinsel that shines on the dark coffin-lid." — Knowles. 

13. 

3/ " The music of stream and of bird 

3 a Shall come back when the winter is o'er ; 

4 a But the voice that was dearest to us, shall be heard 

In our desolate chambers no more ! 
4/ The sunlight of May on the waters shall quiver — 

4 a But the light of her eye hath departed forever I " — Burdell. 

14:. 

a abb 
4 a " When the flowers of friendship or love have decayed, 

In the heart that has trusted and once been betrayed, 
4/ N5 sunshine of kindness their bloom can restore ; 

For the verdure of feeling will quicken no more ! " — Hoffman. 

4/ " Though 6qual to all things, for all things unfit ; 

Too nice for a statesman, too proud for a wit ; 
4 a -j- For a patriot, too cool ; for a drudge, disobedient ; 

And too fond of the right to pursue the expedient." &c. — Goldsmith. 

" So I hope from henceforward you ne'er will ask, can l^maul 
This teasing, conceited, rude, insolent animal. 
And if this rebuke might be turned to his benefit, 
(For I pity the man,) I should be glad then of it." — Swift. 

ab a ab 
4/ "A warrior so bold, and a virgin so bright, 

3/ Conversed as they sat on the green ; 

They gazed on each other with tender delight, — 
Alonzo the Brave was the name of the knight, 
The maid — was the fair Imogene." — Lewis. 
16. 
a abb c c d d e e 
3/ + • "A breath of submission we breathe not ; 

The sword that we've drawn we will sheathe not ; 
4/ Its scabbard is left where our martyrs are laid, 

And the vengeance of ages has whetted its blade. 

3 a-}- Earth may hide, waves ingulf, fire consume us ; 

But they shall not to slavery doom us : 

4 a If they rule, it shall be o'er our ashes and graves ; 

But we've smote them already with fire oh the waves, 
3 a -{- And new triumphs on land are before us ; — 

To the charge ! — Heaven's banner is o'er us." — Campbell. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 



247 



4a 4 
4/ 



4a 
4/ + 



4a-f- 
4/ 

4/4 
4a 4 



4/ 



IT. 

a 6 a 6 
" When the black -lettered list to the gods was presented, 
(The list of what Fate for each mortal intends,) 
At the long string of ills a kind goddess relented, 

And slipped in three blessings— wife, children, and friends/ 

18. 
" Should the tempest of war overshadow our land, 

Its bolts could ne'er r6nd Freedom's temple asunder ; 
For unmoved at its portals would Washington stand, 

And repulse with his breast the assaults of the thunder." — Paine. 
19. 
ab ab ce cb 
' When a prince to the fate of the peasant has yielded, 
The tap'stry waves dark round the dim-lighted hall ; 
With 'scutcheons of silver the coffin is shielded, 

And pages stand mtite by the canopied pall : 
Through the courts, at deep midnight, the torches are gleaming ; 
In the proudly-arched chapel the banners are beaming ; 
Far adown the long aisle sacred music is streaming, 
Lamenting a chief of the people should fall." — Scott 



30. 



Lines Divisible. 
ab ab 



' The Captive Usurper, | Hurled down from the throne, 
Lay buried in torpor, | Forgotten and lone." — Byron. 



13. TROCHAIC VERSE. 



l. 

a a b b c 
t Turning, 

Burning, 
Changing, 
Ranging, 

3 t c " Full of grief and full of pain." 

Addison. 
3. 
a a b c c b 

2 t " 'Tis most certain, 

By their flirting, 

3 t c Women have most envy sh6wn ; 

Pleased to ruin 
Others' wooing, 
Never happy in their own." 

5. 

aaabcccb 
2 t " Clear wells spring not, 

Sweet birds sing not, 
Loud bells ring not 
d Cheerfully ; 

Herds stand weeping, 
Flocks all sleeping, 
Nymphs back creeping 

Fearfully."— Shale. 

7. 
3 t c " Woo the fair one, when around 
3 t Early birds are singing ; 

When o'er all the fragrant ground 
Early herbs are springing." 

Bryant. 



3. 
a a b b c c &c. 
" See him stride. 
Valleys wide, 
Over woods, 
Over floods ; 
So shall I 
(Lofty p6et !) touch the sk£."— Sivift. 

a b c b 

3 t " Whizzing through the mountains, 

2 t c Buzzing o'er the vale ; 

Bless me ! this is pleasant, 

Riding on a rail." — Saxe. 

6. 

a 6 a 6 

2 t c " Can I cease to care, 

3 t Can I cease to languish, 
While my darling fair 

Is on the couch of anguish." 
Burns. 
8. 

" Though we charge to-day with 
fleetness, 

3 t c Though we dread to-morrow's sk£, 

There's a melancholy sweetness 
In the name of days gone by." 
Tapper. 
9. 

" Husband, husband, cease your strife, 

Nor longer idly ra- e, sir ; (7 ft.) 
Though I am your wedded wife, 
Yet I'm not your slave, sir." — Burns. 



248 



BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 



10. 

3 t c " Now the pine-tree's waving t6p 

3 t c Gently greets the morning gale ; 

Kidlings now begin to crop 
Daisies in the dewy vale." 

Cunningham. 
12. 

4 t " Call not this the month of roses — 

2 t c There are none to bidoin ; 

Morning light, alas ! discloses 

3 t c But the winter of the tomb." 

Dewey. 

14:. 

aaabcccb &c. 
3 t c " Scots who have with Wallace bled, 
Scots whom Bruce has often led, 
Welcome to the gory bed, 

Or to victory." — Burns. 
Compare 3 t c with 4 i, 

16. 

a a b b c c &c. 

3 t c "It shall come in empire"s grdans, 

Burning temples, trampled tin ones ! 
Then, Ambition, rue thy lust. — 
Earth to earth ! and dust to dust ! " 
Crohi. 
18. 
ababcdcd 

4 t "In the greenest of our valleys 
3 t c By good angels tenanted, 

Once a fair and stately palace 
(Snow-white palace) reared its head ; 
In the monarcb Thought's dominion, 

It stdod th6re ; 
Never seraph spread a pinion 

Over fabric half so fair." — Poe. 

30. 

a b a b c c 
2t c " Poet of the heart, 

Delving in its mine, 
From mankind apart, 
Yet where jewels shine ; 
3 t c Heaving upwards to the light, 

Precious wealth that charms the 
sight." — Locke. 

21. 

3 t c " He that loves a rosy cheek, 

Or a coral lip admires, 
Or from starlike eyes doth seek 

Fuel to maintain his fires ; 
As old time makes these decay, 
So his flames must melt away." 

Carew. 

a a a b a b 

4 t " Never wedding, ever wooing, 

Still a lovelorn heart pursuing, 
Read you not the wrong you're doing, 
2 t c In my cheek's pale hue ? 

All my life with sorrow strewing, — 
Wed, or cease to woo." -Campbell. 



11. 

3 / c " Soldier, rest! thy warfare '6er, 

4 t Sleep the sleep that knows not 

breaking ; 
Dream of battle-fields no more, 
Days of danger, nights of wak- 
ing." — Scott. 

13. 

a a a b c c b 

3 t " Oft as summer closes, 

W r hen thine eye reposes 
On its lingering roses, 

2 t c Once so loved by th6e, 

Think of her who wove them, 
Her who made thee love them ; 

3 i Oh ! then remember me." 

Moore. 

15. 

a a b b refrain 

d 2 t c " When the Alhambra walls he 
gained, 
3 t c On the moment he ordained, 

That the trumpet straight should 

sound 
With the silver clarion sound. 
3 t Wo is me, Albania ! " 

Byron. 

17. 

abaaabccdd 

3 t c "In a valley that I kndw, 

t c Happy scSne ! 

3 I c There are meadows sloping 16w, 
There the fairest flowers blow, 
And the brightest waters flow, 

All serene ; 
But the sweetest thing to see, 
If you ask the dripping tree, 
Or the harvest-hoping swain, 
Is the rain." — Hoyt. 

19. 

a a b b 
U " See the ruddy morning smiling, 
Ileal- the grove to bliss beguiling ; 
Zephyrs through the woodland playing, 
Streams along the valleys straying." 

Goldsmith. 

abecabab 

4:t " ^4h ! my heart is ever waiting, 
2 t c Waiting for the May,— 

Waiting for the pleasant rambles, 
Where the fragrant hawthorn bram- 
bles, 
With the woodbine alternating, 

Scent the dewy way, 
Ah ! my heart is weary waiting, 
Waiting for the May." 

Dublin Magazine. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — VERSIFICATION. 249 

a a b b 

4 t c " Then, methought, I heard a hollow sound, 

Gathering irp from all the lower ground ; 
Narrowing in to where they sat assembled, 
Low voluptuous music, winding, trembled." — Tennyson. 

25. 
a b a b 

5 t " Mountain winds ! oh ! whither do ye call me, 
4i c Yainly, vainly, would my steps pursue : 

Chains of care to lower earth enthrall me, 

Wherefore thus my weary spirit woo? " — Hemans. 

86. Lines Divisible. 

a a &c. 

" Where the wood is waving, | Steady, green, and high, 

Fauns and dryads, nightly, | Watch the starry sky." 

87. 
a b a b 

6 t " ZJp the dewy mountain, | Health is bounding lightly; 

On her brow a garland, | twined with richest posies : 
Gay is she, | elate with hope, | and smiling sprightly ; 

Redder is her cheek | and sweeter than the rose is." — G. Brown. 

88. 
a a b b &c 

7 t " Then in thee let those rejoice, | who seek thee, self-denying, 

All who thy salvation love, | thy name be glorifying." 

89. 

7 t c " Come and tell us, our Ximena, | looking northward far away 

O'er the camp of the invaders, j o'er the Mexican array." — Whittier. 
" Softly blow the evening breezes, | Softly fall the clews of night ; 
Yonder walks the Moor Alcanzor, [ Shunning every glare of light." — Percy. 

30. 

8 t " Beams of noon, like burning lances, | through the tree-tops flash and 

glisten 
As she stands before her lover | with raised eyes to look and listen. 

Whittier. 

4. DACTYLIC VEKSE. 

Our literature has but little regular or pure dactylic verse. 
I. 2. 

a a ab a a ab 

2d " Land of the Pilgrim's pride, 2d " Free from satiety, 

Land where my fathers died, Care and anxiety, 

From ev'ry mountain side Charms in variety, 

2% Let freedom ring." — Smith. dc Fall to his share." 

3. 4. 

a a a b c ccb ab a b 

2d " Bright in her father's hall 2d " Take her up tenderly, 

Shields gleamed upon the wall, d c Lift her with care ; 

Loud sang the minstrels all, Fashioned so slenderly, 

d t Chanting his glory ; Young, and so fair ! " 

When of old Hildebrand 5. Hood. 

I asked his daughter's hand, 2 d " Where shall the lover rest, 

Mute did the minstrel stand d t Whom the fates sever 

2 i-for d t To hear my story." — Longfellow. From his true maiden's breast — 

Parted forever." — Scott. 



250 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

6. 

a ab e cb 
2 dj ,k Bird of the wilderness, 

Blithesome and cumberless, 
Light be thy matin o'er moorland and 16a ; 
Emblem of happiness, 
Blest is thy dwelling-place ; 
0, to abide in the desert with thee ! " 
7. 
ab a b 
2 d t c " Come from the mount of the leopard, spduse, 

2 d t Come from the den of the lion ; 

Come to tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 

Come to the mountain of Zion." — G. Brown. 
8. 
a a ab c c cb 
3d " Boys will anticipate | lavish and dissipate 

3 d c All that your busy pate | hoarded with care ; 

And in their foolishness, | passion, and mulishness, 
Charge you with churlishness, | spurning your prayer." 
9. 
a a ab c c cb 
3 d t " Pause not to dream of the future before us ; 

Pause not to weep the wild cares that come o'er us : 
Hark, how Creation's deep, musical chorus, 
Unintermitting, goes up into Heaven ! 
Never the ocean-wave falters in flowing; 
Never the little seed stops in its growing; 
More and more richly the rose-heart keeps glowing, 
'Till from its nourishing stem it is riven." — Osgood. 
10. Lines Divisible. 
a ab b 
3 d t " S6e, in his waywardness, how his fist doubles ; 

Thus pugilistical, daring life's troubles : 
Strange, that the neophyte enters existence, 
In such an -attitude, feigning resistance." — Hood. 
11. 
a abb &c. 
±dc " Often had mountain-side, mountain-side, broad lake and stream, 

Gleamed in my waking thought, waking thought, crowded my dream." 

12. 

ababccdeed 
3 d I " Green be the graves where her martyrs are h/ing ! 

3 d c Shroudless and tombless they sunk to their rest, 

While o'er their ashes the starry fold flying 

Wept the proud eagle they roused from his nest. 
2 d Borne on her northern pine, 

Long o'er the foaming brine 
Spread her broad banner to storm and to sun ; 
Heav'n keep her ever free, 
Wide as o'er land and sea 
Floats the fair emblem her heroes have won." — Holmes. 

13. Lines Divisible. 
ab a b 
5 d t " Time, thou art ever in motion | On wheels of the days, years, and ages ; 

Restless as waves of the ocean, when Eurus or Boreas rages." 

G. Brown's Gram. 
14. 
a abb 
7 d " Out of the kingdom of Christ shall be gathered, by angels o'er Satan victorious, 
All that offendeth, that lieth, that faileth to honor his name ever glorious." — Id. 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES — VERSIFICATION. 251 

15 

7 dc " Nimrod the hunter was mighty in hunting, and famed as the ruler of cities 
of ydre ; 
Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, from Shinar's fair region his name 
afar bore." — Id. 

5. COMPOSITE VERSE. 

Iambics and Anapests. 
1. 3. 

" Our free flag is dancing " With a laugh and song we glide along, 

In the free mountain air, Across the fleeting snow ; 

And burnished arms are glancing, With friends beside, how swift we ride 

And warriors gathering there." — Bryant. On the beautiful track below." — Fields. 
f£W 'Throughout this composite verse, show what feet compose each of the lines. 

3 
"'Twas the battle-field ; and the cold, pale moon 
Looked down on the dead and dying ; 
And the wind passed o'er with a dirge and a wail, 
Where the young and brave were hying." — Landon. 
"We buried him darkly, at dead of night, 
The sods with our bayonets turning ; 
By the struggling moonbeams' misty light, 
And the lantern dimly burning." — Wolfe. 

4:. 

" I know where the young May violet grows, 
In its lone and lowly nook ; 
On its mossy bank, where the large tree throws 

Its broad dark boughs, in solemn repose, 
Ear over the silver brook." — Bryant. 
5. 
" Thy heart was a river | Without a main — 
Would /had loved thee never, j Florence Vane." — CooJce. 
6. 
" Through the valley, through the valley, | where the glittering harebells peep, 
Where laden bees go droning by, | and hum themselves to sleep." — CooJce. 

7. 
It was many and many a year ago, | In a kingdom by the sea, 
That a maiden there lived whom you may know, | By the name of ylnnabal Lee ; 
And this maiden she lived with no other thought | Than to love and be loved by me." 

Poe. 
8. All the Feet. 9. 

" Night sinks on the wave, " Go where glory waits thee, 

Hollow gusts are sighing ; But when fame elates thee, 

Sea-birds, to their cave, Oh ! still remember me." &c. 

Through the gloom are fhying." — Hemans. Moore. 

10. 11. 

" Jt is written on the rose, " The departed ! the departed! 

In its glory's full array, — They visit us in dreams ; 

Read what those buds disclose — And they glide above our memories, 

Passing away." — Hemans. Like shadows over streams." 

12. 13. 

" Oft in the stilly night, " Gentle and lovely form 

Ere slumber's chain has bound me, What didst thou here ? " &c. 

Fond Memory brings the light 14:. [low, 

Of other days around me ; " Near the lake where drooped the wil- 

The smiles, the tears, Long time ago ; [low 

Of boyhood's years, Where the rock threw back the bil- 

The words of love then spoken ; Brighter than snow ; 

The eyes that shone, Dwelt a maid beloved and cherished 

Now dim and gone, By high and low ; 

The cheerful hearts now broken." — Moore. But with autumn's leaf she perished, 

Long time ago." — Morris. 



252 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

15. 

" Many are the thoughts that come to me | In my lonely musing ; 
Or: Many are the thoughts that come to me In my lonely musing ; 

^4nd they drift so strange and swift, | There's no time for choosing 
Which to follow, for to leave any seems a losing." — Granch. 

16. 
" March — march — march ! Earth groans as they tread ! 
Each carries a skull ; Going down to the dead." 

" Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle 

Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime — 
Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, 

Now melt into softness, now madden to crime ? 
Know ye the land of the cedar and vine, 

Where the flowers ever blossom, the beams ever shine" &c. — Byron. 
18. 
" Busk ye, busk ye, my bonny, bonny bride, 

Busk ye, busk ye, my winsome marrow ! 
Busk ye, busk ye, my bonny bride, 

And think no more on the braes of Yarrow." — Hamilton. 
Many songs are composite in their versification. The following specimens may serve as a 
clew to the scanning of all the most popular or common songs. Let the student tell how 
many and what feet compose each of the lines. 

SACRED SONGS. 

" On Jordan's stormy banks I stand." 
" Come thou fount of every blessing." 
" The Lord my shepherd is." 
" The God of glory sends his summons forth." 
"Ye holy throng of angels bright." 
"How tedious and tasteless the hours, 
When Jesus no longer 1 see." 
"Though troubles assail, and dangers affright." 
"How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord." 
"Backward with humble shame we look." 
" Hark the voice of love and mercy, 

.Sounds aloud from Calvary." 
"When through the turn sail the wild tempest is streaming, 
When o'er the dark wave the red lightning is gleaming." 

" How happy are they 
Who their Savior obey, 
And have laid up their treasures above." 
"The moment a sinner believes 

And trusts in his crucified God." 
"Boundless glory Lord be thine." 
"Love divine all love excelling, 

Joy to heaven, to earth come down." 
" Come ye disconsolate where'er ye languish, 

Come to the mercy-seat, fervently ku§el." 
" Glory to God on high ! 

Let earth and skies reply." 
" Praise ye his name, 

His love and grace adore." 
" The rosy light is dawning 

Upon the mountain's brow." 
"Hark to the solemn bell, 

Mournfully pealing ! " 

SECULAR SONGS. 

" Woodman, spare that tree, 

Touch not a single bough." 
" Speak, oh, my heart, and tell me why." 
" Thou art far, far away." 
" The world is bright before thee." 
" I have traveled this wide w r orld all over." 



RHETORICAL PRINCIPLES. — FIGURES. 253 

" Columbia ! Columbia ! to glory arise." 
"Hail, Columbia! happy land; * * * 

Wbo fought and bled in Freedom's cause." 
" Green grow the rushes, ! " 
" Merrily every bosom boundeth, 

Merrily, oh ! " • 
" How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood." 
" She is a winsome wee thing." — Bums. 
" I sing of a whistle, a whistle of worth." — Id. 
" Here awa, there awa, wandering Willie." — Id. 
" Ldng, long the night, 

Heavy comes the morrow ; 
While my soul's delight " &c. — Burns. 
" When the charms of spring awaken, awaken, awaken." 
" Sambo is it you, de"ar, come down to see me now." 
" A home on the rolling deep." 

" Come, oh ! come with me, the moon is beaming." 
"White cat, black cat, | any cat at all." 
" Oh, in heaven you will meet your Katy Darling." 
"Wake ! Dinah, wake! the bright moon is beaming." 
s 5 i " Oh, I should like to marry, | if that I could find 
c 5 i "^Iny handsome fellow, | suited to my mind." 

"We were boys and girls together In that happy time, 
When the spirit's light shone brightest, And the heart was in its prime." 
Or: " We were boys and girls together, j In that happy time, 

When the spirit's light shone brightest, | zlndthe heart was in its prime." 
" H6me, home, swe~et, sweet home." 
" Something to love me, something to bless." 
" Wait for the wagon." 
" To ride in a wagon, an old rusty wagon, A squeaking lumber wagon, 'Twould be 
shocking to my pride ; Besides, a jolting wagon I never could abide," 

Father and /went down to camp, Chorus : Yankee Doodle, keep it up, 

Along with Captain Gooding, Yankee Doodle, dandy, 

And there we see the men and boys Mmd the music and the st6p 

As thick as hasty pudding, &c. And with the girls be handy. 

By Shackbury, a doctor in the British Army, and author of the original Yankee Doodle. 
" Then into her nest, with a serpent's creep, 

P6p goes the weasel." 
" Have you heard of one Fremont, mout, mdnt ? " 
" The sunshines bright in the old Kentucky home." 
" Our country now is great and free — 

Few days, few days." 
" Don't you remember sweet Alice, Ben Bolt ; 

Sweet Alice, with hair so brown." 
" Thou, thou, reignst in this bosom," 
"Maxwelton Braes are bonnie." 
" Days of absence, sad and dreary." 

" ' Farewell ! farewell ! ' is often heard From the lips of those who part." 
" 'Tis a calm still night, And the moon's pale light." 
" Old folks from home, How gaily speed the hours ! " 
"Bird of the greenwood away, away." 
" Let me go to my home in the far distant West." 
" Let us go, lassie, go To the braes of Balquhither, 
Where the blae-berries grow 'mong the bonny highland heather." — Tannahilh 
" Wild roved an Indian girl, Swift as an antelope, 

Bright .4lf arata, Through the forest going ; 

Where sweep the waters Loose were her jetty locks 

Of the blue Juniata ; In wavy tresses flowing." 



For some inferior, prosy kinds of versification, see Longfellow's Hiawatha and Evange- 
line, Tupper's Proverbial Philosophy, and Southey's Sapphics, &c. ; — most of which kinds 
are exotics, and do not seem to flourish well in our climate. 

We sometimes meet with scraps of verse, formed chiefly with the design of being 
mechanically ingenious. 

" She drove her flock o'er mountains, 

By grove, or rock, or fountains.'''' — Fowler'' s Grammar. 
"Lightly and brightly breaks away 
The morning from her mantle gray." — Byron. 



254 



BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 



11 So many as love me, and use me aright, 

With treasure and pleasure I richly requite." — Tusser. 
M These steps both reach and teach thee shall 

To come by thrift, to shift withal." — Tusser. 
" Now, 0, now I needs must part, 

Parting though I absent mourn ; 

Absence can no joy impart, 

Joy once fled can ne'er return." — Fowler's Grammar. 
Such structure may be termed " word-matching.'''' 



' When bound to some bay, 
In the billowy ocean 
O'er sea-rolling surges 
The sailors are steering, 
God weighs on his waters 
Their wandering bark, 
And wafts them with, winds* 
On their zcatery way." 

Fowler's Grammar. 



' E vening draws her rosy veil 
L ovely o'er the western sky ; 
L ingering clouds in beauty sail, 
E re the night withdraws their dye. 
N ota wavelet " &c. 



Such 
acrostic. 



verse makes what is called an 



This is alliteration, and has been al- 
ready noticed on page 211. 

cur- f- w- 

A -sed -iend -rought 

bles- fr- b 



' Such sharpness shows the sweetest friend, 
Such cuttings rather heal than rend, 
And such beginnings touch their end." 



d- dis- and p- 

-eath -ease -ain. 

br- and ag- 

A cursed fiend wrought death, disease, and pain ; 
A blessed friend brought breath and ease again." — Fowler's Grammar. 
Such verses have been called task poetry. 

" Ah me ! 

Am I the swain, 

That, late from sorrow free, 

Did all the cares on earth disdain ? 

And still untouched, as at some safer games, 

Played with the burning coals of love and beauty's flames ? 

Was't I could drive and sound each passion's secret depth at will, 

And from those huge o'erwhelmings rise by help of reason still ? 

And am I now, heavens i for trying this in vain, 

So sunk that I shall never rise again? 

Then let despair set sorrow's string 

For strains that doleful be, 

And I will sing. 

Ah me ! " 

Fowler's Grammar. (Rhombic Stanza.) 



To persons that wish to invent new stanzas, the following summary of feet and 
rhymes may be serviceable ? — 



FEET. 



i 


+ 


t 


c 


i i 


+ 


t t 


c 


i i i 


+ 


t t t 


c 


i i i i 


+ 


t t tt 


c 


i i i i i 


+ 


t t t t t 


c 


i i i i i i 


+ 


t t t t t t 


c 


i i i i i i i 


+ 


t t t i t t t 


c 


a 


+ or 2 + 


tttttttt 


c 


a a 


+ or2 + 


d 


c or t 


a a a 


-f or 2 4- 


d d 


c or t 


a a a a 


4- or 2 -|- 


d d d 


cor t 






d d d d 


c or t 






d d d, d d 


c or t 






d d d d d d 


c or t 






d d d d d d d 


c or? 



KHYMES. 

a a b b c c &c. 

a b a b 

a a b c c b 

aaabceeb 

a a a 

a a a b 

a a a b a b 

a b a b c c 

a b c c b 

a a b c c c b 

a a b b c 

abba 

a b a b b 

a b c b d d 

a b c b d d c 

a b b b 

ababebec 

ababecdeed 

abaedbde 

ababecdede 

a b b a a c c a d e e d f f 



ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION. 255 



37. ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION. 

Note. — A perfect or entirely satisfactory analysis of speech has never been made ; and 
it is perhaps even less possible than a perfect analysis of the outward, material world. 
Yet our knowledge of either may be much extended by such analyses as can be made. 

? Analysis is the separating of a whole into its parts, and 
synthesis is the combining of parts into a whole. 

? The analysis of sentences with reference to the entire 
thoughts expressed by them, is called Analysis; and the 
analysis of words with reference to their ideas in the structure 
of sentences, is called Parsing. 

? Language is any series of words or signs by which we 
express or communicate thoughts. 

? Discourse is the embodying of thought with language, or 
it is some train of thought embodied into language. Dis- 
course is to language what building-materials are to buildings. 
Discourse, according to its subject-matter, to the manner in which it 
is developed, or to the end in view, has been variously divided. The 
most obvious division is into prose and poetry. 

? The chief divisions of prose are science, philosophy, history, travels, 
novels, essays, addresses, critiques, and letters. 

■? The chief divisions of poetry are epic poetry, dramatic poetry (trage- 
dies and comedies), lyric poetry (odes, so?igs, and sonnets), satires, 
epistles, epigrams, and epitaphs. 

? Discourse is either direct, indirect, or representative. 

? 602. Direct discourse represents the speaker as giving his own 
thoughts in his own language. Indirect discourse represents the speaker 
as relating in his own language what he ascribes to another. Repre- 
sentative discourse, or dialogue, enables the author to represent, by 
assumed characters, either his own sentiments or those of others. The 
great advantage of representative discourse, and also to some extent of 
indirect discourse, is, that it enables the author to conceal or disguise his 
own opinions. (Who shall say, for instance, to what extent Shakspeare 
is morally or critically responsible for his writings ? — See also Dr. 
Franklin's account of what a wise old Indian chief thought of the 
whites. ) 

? Perhaps the most rational division of discourse is the following: — 

? 60o>. 1. That which depends chiefly on place, and is termed 
description: 2. That which depends chiefly on time, and is 
termed narrative; 3. That which aims to unfold or exhibit 
the nature or rationale of things, and prevails in works of 
science and philosophy ; 4. What accompanies each of these 
for the sake of illustration, or to render the speaker's meaning 
more intelligible or impressive. Any of the three first men- 
tioned, may predominate in the discourse, but they are not 
unfrequently combined. 



256 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? Discourse may usually be divided into paragraphs. 

? 604. A paragraph is a portion distinct in form and sense. Para- 
graphs often consist of two or more sentences. 

? 605. A sentence is a thought expressed in words. A sentence must 
comprise words enough to be of itself complete in sense and grammatical 
structure. (A nominative in one sentence, for instance, can never be 
the subject of a verb in another sentence. ) 

The beginning of a sentence is denoted by a capital letter ; and the end, usually by a 
period, au interrogation point, or an exclamation point. 

? 606. Sentences are either simple or compound ; and their constituent 
parts are ivords, phrases y and propositions. 

? 607. A proposition may ba either declarative, imperative, interrogative, 
or exclamatory; actual or contingent; positive or negative; independent, 
principal, subordinate, or coordinate ; it comprises but one subject and one 
predicate, though either or both may be compound, or modified to any 
extent whatsoever. 

? 603. A phrase consists of two or more words rightly put together, but 
not making a proposition ; and it generally depends on something else 
for complete sense. 

? 601). A word or phrase requiring Rule V, is independent ; and, if it 
implies an address, is termed a compellative. 

? 610. A simple sentence contains but one proposition; a compound 
sentence, two or more propositions, termed clauses. 

? 611. Two or more clauses, forming a distinct part of a compound 
sentence, may be termed a member ; and so may the remaining clause, 
or group of clauses. 

? 612. Members or sentences having a dependent clause, may be termed 
complex members or sentences. 

? 613. A sentence not making sense before it is read to the end, is said 
to be compact or periodic in structure; a sentence making sense before it 
is read to the end, is said to be loose in structure ; and parts too closely 
connected to admit even the comma, may be said to be close in structure. 

? The distinct, consecutive sentences of discourse are coordinate ; that 
is, they stand on an equal footing, or are not conceived as modifying 
one another. 

? The words, phrases, or clauses of sentences, may be viewed as principal, 
subordinate, or coordinate parts. 

? 614. Principal parts are modified; subordinate or dependent parts 
modify ; coordinate parts are generally the same in kind, and do not 
modify one another, — or they perform the same office, are construed 
alike, and have a common dependence on something else. 

? 615. Coordinate parts are generally construed in pairs or series, and 
connected by such words as and, or, but. 

? 610. A phrase without a connective, or word to show its dependence, 
may be said to be connected by its position ; a sentence or clause, by 
simple succession; and a clause so intimately connected with a finite 
verb — (as a subject-nominative, predicate-nominative, objective — ) that 
it must be read with it in order to analyze the clause, may be said to be 
incorporated in the sentence. 



ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION. 257 

The compellative, subject, or predicate, taken with its modifications, 
grammarians usually call the logical* compellative, subject, or predicate ; 
without them, the grammatical compellative, subject, or predicate. 
? Every proposition or clause should be separated so soon as possible 
into its grammatical subject and predicate ; and all the dependent parts 
should then be referred, according to the sense, to the one or to the 
other. 

PARTS MODIFIED AND PARTS MODIFYING. 

Parts of Speech : Articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions 
conjunctions, interjections. 

? Of these, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, are never 
modified. 

? Then only substantives, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, may be modified. 

? Substantives may be modified by — 1. articles; 2. adjectives; 3. 
pcssessives ; 4. appositives (words in apposition) ; 5. adjuncts ; 6. 
participles ; 7. infinitives ; 8. clauses. 

? Adjectives may be modified by — 1. adverbs; 2. adjuncts; 3. infini- 
tives. 

? Verbs (including participles and infinitives) may be modified by — 
1. adverbs; 2. adjectives; 3. objectives; 4. predicate-nominatives; 5. 
adjuncts; 6. participles; 7. infinitives; 8. clauses. 

? Adverbs may be modified by — 1. adverbs; 2. adjuncts. (An adverb 
sometimes modifies a verb with reference to a substantive ; and- an 
adjective, a substantive with reference to a verb : as, " Only the apples 
were boiled soft. v ) 

? Words modifying : Articles, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, infinitives, 
participles, adverbs. 

? Phrases modifying : Adjuncts, adjective phrases, substantive phrases, 
infinitive phrases, participial phrases, adverbial phrases, absolute 
phrases. 

? Clauses modifying : Relative clauses, substantive clauses, adverbial 
clauses, conjunctive clauses. 

? Phrases or clauses used as single words, may modify and be modi- 
fied in the same way as such words. What modifies, may usually be 
itself modified. The modifications given above, may all be reduced to 
two classes ; and the whole scheme of analysis may be simplified as we 
shall now show. 

GENERAL ANALYSIS. 

? All speech whatsoever may be most conveniently analyzed, 

by resolving it into six elements ; two principal elements, two 

modifying elements, a connecting element, and an independent 

element. 

? The two principal elements are the subject-nominatives and the predi- 
cate-verbs; both of which are easily distinguished, by their form and 
sense, from other parts. 

* Logical, as used in grammar, relates rather to the sense of words ; and grammat- 
ical, to their syntactical structure. " To think aiwaj's accurately, is a great accomplish- 
ment. " " To think," "is," " an accomplishment," are, grammatically, the most impor- 
tant words ; but, logically, " always " is the most important word, and the next most 
important is " accurately." 

22 



258 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

? Subject-nominatives may even be clauses, but predicate- verbs can 
never be clauses. 

Note. — Observe that the Substantive also enters speech as a subordinate element, by 
assuming two other forms, the possessive and the objective ; and the Verb too enters 
as a subordinate element, by assuming also two other forms, the infinitive and the 
participial : both nominatives and finite verbs are used, however, to some extent, 
in a subordinate capacity. 

? The modifying elements are either adjective elements or adverbial 
elements.* 

? Any word, phrase, or clause, that modifies a substantive, is an 
adjective element. It shows of what kind or nature the object is. 

? Any word, phrase, or clause, that modifies a verb, ( participle, infin- 
itive,) adjective, adverb, or entire predicate, is an adverbial element. It 
generally show r s the place, time, manner, degree, condition, cause, effect, 
purpose, reason, inference, consequence, object, kind, quality, end,* ten- 
dency, respect wherein, &c., or expresses affirmation or negation. Its 
chief use is, to make with the predicate-verb the predicate. For the 
sake of greater precision, the objective elements may be discriminated, 
as such, from the other adverbial elements. 

? 617. Connecting elements are commonly conjunctions, prepositions, 
relatives, or adverbs. Connectives may perform, additionally, some 
function in the parts to which they belong ; they may be expressed or 
omitted ; they may be used singly or in pairs ; they may consist of one 
word each, or of a phrase. 

? 618. The independent element ma}' be a substantive denoting what is 
addressed, or what is the mere subject of thought ; or it may. be an 
interjection, which implies a glancing-aside at the speaker's emotions; 
or it may be something that represents an entire sentence, or stands as 
the fragment of a sentence. 

? What is inverted or elliptical should generally be analyzed as if it 
stood in its logical order or fullness. 

? It is sometimes not easy to determine whether an adjunct, an adjec- 
tive, an adjective phrase; a participle, a participial phrase ; an infinitive 
or an infinitive phrase, — should be referred to the subject or to the 
predicate. Consider carefully what constitutes the whole of that of 
which the affirmation is made; next consider what constitutes the 
whole of that which is strictly affirmed. When even this mode of 
judging is inadequate, it will probably be a matter of little consequence, 
to which part the modification is referred. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS TOR ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION. 

1. 
? Read a paragraph, and be sure that you clearly and fully compre- 
hend it. If it is expressed not in the most most ordinary manner, show 
how it has been raised (by equivalents, arrangement, ellipsis, repetition, 
expansion, &c, figures, versification. — See pp. 204-54) from the plain, 
logical sense and order, to the rhetorical. Next show how the sense has 
been brought out to the best advantage, by the aid of capitals and 
punctuation. 

*Thia classification may seem to be an imitation of what is in some late books ; but 
this enth-e section was written before I saw what is written on this subject in the books 
to which T refer. 



ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION. 259 



? Read the first sentence. Is it simple, compound, or complex? is it 
declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, or a composite of these ? 
consisting of what members, and how connected ? Find the ccmpellative : 
find the principal clause by considering carefully what it was that was 
chiefly to be said ; (in exclamatory, imperative, or interrogative sentences, 
the principal clause is generally more easily found by imagining them 
to be declarative ;) and dispose of all the rest of the sentence as adverbial 
or adjective modifications. Every clause that can not be treated as a 
modifying element, must be considered a coordinate clause ; and when 
two clauses so modify each other that it can not be told which is the 
principal, the two may be treated as mutually dependent, or as correlative. 

? Begin with the distinct clauses or independent phrases; take not 
more than is sufficient for one analysis; invert parts, if necessary, and 
supply words wanted ; and then state what kind of clause it is, connected 
by what — (word, simple succession, incorporated in the sentence — ) to 
what, as a coordinate or as a subordinate element; and, if subordinate, 
whether it performs the office of a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb. 

? Next proceed thus: — 

is an independent phrase; the independent substantive is , modified by . 

is the entire subject; the subject-nominative is , modified by — - . 

( is the entire subject; the subject-nominatives are , connected by , and 

modified by .) 

is the entire predicate; the predicate-verb is — -, modified by . 

? Analyze the sub-parts ; then take up the next clause and proceed in a 
similar manner, and so on until the sentence is exhausted. A series of 
finite verbs, however long or modified, should be treated as one predi- 
cate, if not parted by a nominative expressed. By so doing, not a little 
perplexity will be avoided. The same remark applies to a series of 
nominatives. When the sentence is analyzed, parse the words according 
to the Formules heretofore given; that is, mention the part of speech, 
the kind, the properties, the relations to other words, the Rule. This is 
the analysis of words, viewed as constructive elements of sentences: they 
may, after they are parsed, be further analyzed and described as follows : — 

? 1. Tell whether primitive, derivative, or compound ; from what de- 
rived, of what compounded; the radical, the prefix, the suffix, their 
meaning, euphonic changes ; the primary meaning, and thence by what 
figure or figures the meaning of the word as used in the paragraph be- 
fore you ; mention the conjugates ; the synonyms, and how it differs from 
them; — tell why the compound is hyphened or consolidated. Is the 
word the best the author could have used? 

? 2. Tell whether a monosyllable, dissyllable, &c. ; which syllable has 
the chief accent, and which the weaker; whether the word is of Saxon 
origin, of Latin, Greek, French, &c. ; — whether it is harsh, soft, imitative, 
familiar, uncommon, popular, technical, &c. 

? Syllables may be analyzed and described thus : — 

is a syllable (, definition) ; it consists of the vowel sound (utter it), denoted by 

; beginning with the consonant sound (utte->- it), denoted by ; and ending 

with the consonant sound (utter it), denoted by : the letter is silent. 

? Letters thus :— 

is & letter: i V0W ®1> J mute, liquid; representing the elementary 

( consonant ; \ semivowel ; i ' l to 

sounds — - (utter them) ; and sometimes silent, as in . Definitions as you proceed. 



260 BOOK SECOND THE >£ L i ) V. I >. 

Verse, as such, may be analyzed and described thus : — 
? Say that it is verse, and why ; tell whether it is blank verse or rhym- 
ing verse, and why ; whether composed in couplets, triplets, or stanzas ; 
how many lines to the stanza, how they rhyme together, and — if it has a 
name — what is the stanza called; of how many and what feet does each 
line consist, and to what does it rhyme, with what sort of rhyme: what 
licenses or deviations. 

Note. — The teacher should ask such questions, and make such remarks, as he may 
deem most to the student's advantage. He should also illustrate the definitions and prin- 
ciples not exemplified, by showing how they are applicable to the following or to other ex- 
tracts. 

EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

THE SAILOR-BOY'S DREAM. 

[Selected because it is interesting and easily understood, correctly and elegantly writ- 
ten, and exemplifies more of the doctrines of grammar than any other piece of the same 
length, known to me. The superior cs show how the piece may be divided into clauses.] 

In slumbers of midnight the sailor-boy lay, 
His hammock swung loose at the sport of the wind ; 

But, watch-worn and weary, his cares flew away , 
And visions of happiness danced o'er his mind. 

He dreamed of his home, of his dear native bowers, 
And pleasures that waited on life's merry morn c ; 

While memory stood sidewise, half covered with flowers, 
And restored every rose, but secreted its thorn. 

The jessamine clambers in flower o'er the thatch , 

And the swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall ; 

All trembling with transport, lie raises the latch , 
And the voices of loved ones reply to his call. 

A father bends o'er him with looks of delight . — 
His cheek is impearled with a mother's warm tearc ; 

And the lips of the boy in a love-kiss unite, 

With the lips of the maidc whom his bosom holds dear. 

The heart of the sleeper beats high in his breast , 

Joy quickens his pulse — all his hardships seem o'erc • 

And a murmur of happiness steals through his restc — 
" God! thou hast blest me, — I ask for no more." 

Ah ! whence is that flamec which now bursts on his eyec ? 

xAh ! what is that soundc which now 'larums his earc ? 
'Tis the lightning's red glare painting hell on the skyc ! 

"Tis the crashing of thunder, the groan of the sphere! 

He springs from his hammockc, he flies to the deckc ; — 
Amazement confronts him with images direc: 

Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck n&c^ 
The masts fly in splinters, the shrouds are on fire! 

Like mountains the billows tumultuously swell; 

In vain the lost wretch calls on mercy to save; 
Unseen hands of spirits are ringing his knell, 

And the death-angel flaps his dark wing o'er the wave. 



EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 261 

sailor-boy! woe to thy dream of delight! 

In darkness dissolves the gay frost-work of bliss; 
Where now is the picture that Fancy touched bright, 

Thy parent's fond pressure, and love's honeyed kiss ? 

0, sailor-bay ! sailor-boy ! never again 
Shall love, home, or kindred, thy wishes repay; 

Unblessed and unhonored, down deep in the main 
Full many a score fathoms, thy frame shall decay. 

No tomb shall e'er plead to remembrance for thee, 
Or redeem form or frame from the merciless surge ; 

But the white foam of waves shall thy winding-sheet be, 
And winds in the midnight of winier thy dirge. 

On beds of green sea-flower thy limbs shall be laid, 
Around thy white bones the red coral shall grow; 

Of thy fair yellow locks threads of amber be made. 
And every part suit to thy mansion below. 

Days, months, years, and ages, shall circle away, 
And still the vast waters above thee shall roll ; 

Earth loses thy pattern forever and aye — 

O, sailor-boy ! sailor-boy! peace to thy soul."— Dimond. 



THE SEA. 

[Selected as being a fair specimen of the full elegant or classic style of the 19th 
century, and as being richly illustrative of the various doctrines of grammar.] 

"The sea is His, and He made it; " cries the Psalmist of Israel, in 
one of those bursts of devotion, in which he so often expresses the whole 
of a vast subject by a few simple words. Whose else, indeed, could it 
be, and by whom else could it have been made ? Who else can heave 
its tides^ and appoint its bounds ? Who else can urge its mighty waves 
to madness with the breath and the wings of the tempest ; and then speak 
to it again with a masters accents, and bid it be still? Who else could 
have poured out its magnificent fullness round the solid land, and — ■ 

" Laid, as in a storehouse safe, its watery treasures by ? " 
Who else could have peopled it with its countless inhabitants, and caused 
it to bring forth its various productions, and filled it from its deepest 
bed to its expanded surface ; filled it from its centre to its remotest 
shore; filled it to the brim, with beauty, and mystery, and power? 
Majestic Ocean! Glorious Sea ! No created being rules thee, or made 
thee. Thou hearest but one voice, and that is the Lord's ; thou obeyest 
but one arm, and that is the Almighty's. The ownership and the work- 
manship are God's; and thou art his, and he made thee. 

"The sea is His, and He made it." It bears the strong impress of 
his greatness, his wisdom, and his love. It speaks to us of God, with 
the voice of all its waters; it may lead us to God, by all the influences 
of its nature. How, then, can we be otherwise than profitably employ- 
ed, while we are looking on this broad and bright mirror of Deity? 
The Sacred Scriptures are full of references to it, and it is itself full of 
religion and God. 

u The sea is His, and He made it." Its majesty is of God. What is 



262 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

there more sublime than the trackless, desert, all-surrounding, unfath- 
omable sea? What is there more peacefully sublime than the angry, 
dashing, foaming sea? Power — resistless, overwhelming power — is its 
attribute and its expression, whether in the careless, conscious grand- 
deur of its deep rest, or in the wild tumult of* its wrath. It is awful 
when its crested waves rise up to make a compact with the black clouds, 
and the howling winds, and the thunderbolt, and they sweep on in the 
joy of their dread alliance, to do the Almighty's bidding. And it is 
awful, too, when it stretches its broad level out, to meet in quiet union 
the bended sky, and show, in the line of meeting, the vast rotundity of 
the world. There is majesty in its wide expanse, separating and enclos- 
ing the great continents of the earth, occupying two thirds of the whole 
surface of the globe, penetrating the land with its bays and secondary 
seas, and receiving the constantly pouring tribute of every river, of 
every shore. There is majesty in its fullness, never diminishing and 
never increasing. There is majesty in its integrity, for its whole vast 
surface is uniform ; in its local unity, for there is but one ocean, and the 
inhabitants of any one maritime spot may visit the inhabitants of any 
other in the wide world. Its depth is sublime: who can sound it? Its 
strength is sublime: what fabric of man resists it? Its voice is sub- 
lime, whether in the prolonged song of its ripple, or in the stern music of 
its roar; whether it utters its hollow and melancholy tones within a 
labyrinth of wave-worn caves; or thunders at the base of some huge 
promontory ; or beats against a toiling vessel's side, lulling the voyager 
to rest with the strains of its wild monotony; or dies away with the 
calm and dying twilight, in gentle murmurs on some sheltered shore. 
What sight is th' re more magnificent than the quiet of the stormy sea? 
What music is there, however artful, that can vie with the natural and 
changeful melodies of the sea? 

" The sea is His, and He made it." Its beauty is of God. It possesses 
it in richness of its own ; it borrows it of earth, and air, and heaven. 
The clouds lend it the various dyes of their wardrobe, and throw down 
upon it the broad masses of their shadows, as they go sailing and sweep- 
ing by. The rainbow laves in it its many-colored feet; the sun loves to 
visit it, and the moon, and the glittering brotherhood of stars ; for they 
delight themselves in its beauty. The sunbeams return from it in 
showers of diamonds and glances of fire; the moonbeams find in it a 
pathway of silver, where they dance to and fro, with the breeze and the 
waves, through the livelong night. It has a light, too, of its own, — a 
soft and sparkling light, rivaling the stars; and often does the ship, 
which cuts its surface, leave, streaming behind, a milky-way of dim and 
uncertain lustre, like that which is shining dimly above. 

It harmonizes, in its forms and sounds, with both the night and the 
day. It cheerfully reflects the light, and it unites solemnly with the 
darkness. It imparts sweetness to the music of men, and grandeur to 
the thunder of heaven. What landscape is so beaut f'ul as one upon 
the borders of the sea? The spirit of its loveliness is from the waters, 
where it dwells and rests, singing its spells, and scattering its charms 
on all the coast. What rocks and cliffs are so glorious as those which 
are washed by the changing sea? What groves, and fields, and dwell- 
ings, are so enchanting as those which stand by the reflecting sea? 

If we could see the great ocean as it can be seen by no mortal eye, 



EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 263 

beholding at one view what we are now obliged to visit in detail, and 
spot by spot; if we could, from a flight far higher than the eagle's, and 
with a sight more comprehensive than his, view the immense surface of 
the deep, all spread out beneath us like a universal chart, — what an 
infinite variety such a scene would display! Here, a storm would be 
raging, the thunder bursting, the waters boiling, and rain and foam and 
fire all mingling together; and here, next to this scene of magnificent 
confusion, we should see the bright waves glittering in the sun, and, 
while the breezes flew over them, clapping their hands for very glad- 
ness, — for they do clap their hands, and justify, by the life and almost 
individual animation which they give, that remarkable figure of the 
Psalmist. Here, again, on this selfsame ocean, we should behold large 
tracts, where there is neither tempest nor breeze, but a dead calm, 
breathless, noiseless, and, were it not for the swell of the sea, which 
never rests, motionless. Here we should see a cluster of green islands' 
set like jewels in the midst of its bosom ; and there we should see the 
broad shoals and gray rocks fretting the billows and threatening the 
mariner. There go the ships, the white-robed ships : some on this 
course, and others on the opposite one ; some just approaching the 
shore, and some just leaving it; some in fleets, and others in solitude; 
some swinging lazily in a calm, and some driven and tossed, and per- 
haps overwhelmed, by the storm; some for traffic, and some for state ; 
some in peace, and others, alas ! in war. Let us follow one, and we 
shall see it propelled by the steady winds of the tropics, and inhaling 
the almost visible odors which diffuse themselves round the spice 
islands of the East; let us observe the track of another, and we shall 
see it piercing the cold barriers of the North, struggling among hills 
and fields of ice, contending with winter in his own everlasting domin- 
ion, striving to touch that unattained, solemn, hermit point of the 
globe, where ships may perhaps never visit, and where the foot of man, 
all-daring and indefatigable as it is, may never tread. Nor are the 
ships of man the only travelers that we shall perceive on this mighty 
map of the ocean. Flocks of sea-birds are passing and repassing, diving 
for their food or for pastime, migrating from shore to shore with 
unwearied wing and undeviating instinct, or wheeling and swarming 
round the rocks which they make alive and vocal by their numbers and 
their changing cries. 

How various, how animated, how full of interest, is the survey ! We 
might behold such a scene, were we enabled to behold it, at almost any 
moment of time, on the vast and varied ocean ; and it would be a much 
more diversified and beautiful one, for I have spoken but of a few par- 
ticulars, and of those but slightly. I have not spoken of the thousand 
forms in which the sea meets the shore, — of the sands and the cliffs, of 
the arches and the grottoes, of the cities and the solitudes, which occur 
in the beautiful irregularity of its outline; nor of the constant tides, 
nor the boiling whirlpools and eddies, nor the currents and streams, 
which are dispersed throughout its surface. The variety of the sea, 
notwithstanding the uniformity of its substance, is ever changing and 
endless. 

" The sea is His, and He made it.'.' And when he made it, he ordained 
that it should be the element and dwelling-place of multitudes of living 
beings, and the treasury of many riches. How populous, and wealthy, 



264 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

and bounteous, are the depths of the sea! How many are the tribes 
which find in them abundant sustenance, and furnish abundant sus- 
tenance to man. — Greenwood. 

A SUMMER SHOWER. 

At about 5J o'clock, on Friday evening, it began to rain. The drops 
came down so easily that it seemed as if they slipped down — slipped as 
a falling star slips noiselessly and serenely through the slippery mid- 
night; and they continued falling more and more rapidly, as if they 
were getting under an uncontrollable headway, until, at last, the water 
poured down in a torrent ; and thus it poured until the gutters roared, 
and every thing looked fresh again. At last, the cisterns of the sky 
were emptied; and then there sprang upon the heavens the most beau- 
tiful vision that our eyes ever beheld. A double rainbow spanned the 
eastern horizon, standing out in exquisite relief from a cool, gray 
ground, while the western sky was flooded and flushed with a golden 
glory, as if the walls of the Celestial City had been thrown down by a 
sudden convulsion, and the sacred effulgence burst out upon the world. 
It was a sight long to be remembered; and, while it was in the hight 
of its beauty, a long, magnificent roll of thunder swept over the sky — 
the reverberation of ten thousand heels in the celestial halls, stamping 
applause to the spectacle. — From an Illinois Ncivspaper. 

A CURTAIN LECTURE, BY MRS. CAUDLE. 
[Selected as being a fair specimen of elliptical, monosyllabic, strong, native English.] 

Bah! that's the third umbrella gone since Christmas. What were you 
to do? Why, let him go home in the rain, to be sure. I'm very certain 
there was nothing about him that could spoil! — Take cold, indeed! He 
doesn't look like one of the sort to take old. Besides, he'd have better 
taken cold than taken our only umbrella. — Do you hear the rain, Mr. 
Caudle? I say, do you hear the rain ? And as I'm alive, if it isn't St. 
Swithin's day ! Do you hear it against the windows? Nonsense; you 
don't impose upon me. You can't be asleep with such a shower as that ! 
Do you hear it, I say? — Oh, you do hear it ! Well, that's a pretty flood, 
I think, to last for six weeks ; and no stirring all the time out of the 
house. — Pooh! don't think me a fool, Mr. Caudle; don't insult me. 
lie return the umbrella ! Anybody would think you were born yester- 
day. As if anybody ever did return an umbrella ! There — do you hear 
it? Worse and worse. Cats and dogs, and for six weeks; always six 
weeks. And no umbrella! 

I should like to know how the^children are to go to school to-morrow. 
They shan't go through such weather, I am determined. No: they 
shall stop at home, and never learn any thing, (the blessed creatures !) 
sooner than go, and get wet ! And when they grow up, I wonder who 
they'll have to thank for knowing nothing, — who, indeed, but their 
father. People who can't feel for their own children ought never to be 
fathers. 

But I know why you lent the umbrella. Oh, yes; I know very well. 
I was going out to tea at dear mother's to-morrow ; you knew that, and 
you did it on purpose. Don't tell me; you hate me to go there, and 
take every mean advantage to hinder me. But don't you think it, Mr. 
Caudle. No, sir; if it comes down in bucket-fulls, I'll go the more. — 



EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 265 

No; and I won't have a cab! Where do you think the money's to come 
from? You've got nice notions at that club of yours. A cab, indeed! 
Cost me sixteen-pence, at least: sixteen-pence ! two-and-eight-pence ; 
for there's back again. Cabs, indeed! I should like to know who's to 
pay for 'em ; for /can't, and I'm sure you can't, if you go on as you do; 
throwing away your property, and beggaring your children — buying 
umbrellas! 

Do you hear the rain, Mr. Caudle ? I say, do you hear it ? But I don't 
care — I'll go to mother's to-morrow : I will; and what's more, I'll walk 
every step of the way ; — and you know that will give me my death. — 
Dorit call me a foolish woman; it's you that's the foolish man. You 
know I can't wear clogs; and with no umbrella, the wet's sure to give 
me a cold: it always does. Bat what care you for that? Nothing at 
all. I may be laid up for what you care, as I dare say I shall : and a 
pretty doctor's bill there'll be. I hope there will! It will teach you to 
lend your umbrella again. I shouldn't wonder if I caught my death: 
yes, and that's what you lent the umbrella for. Of course ! 

Nice clothe3 I'll get, too, trapesing through weather like this. My 
gown and bonnet will be spoiled quite. — Needn't / wear 'em then. 
Indeed, Mr. Caudle, I shall wear 'em. No sir; I'm not going out a 
dowdy to please you or anybody else. Gracious knows ! it isn't often 
that I step over the threshold ; indeed, I might as well be a slave at 
once, — better, I should say. But when I go out, Mr. Caudle, I choose 
to go like a lady. Oh! that rain — if it isn't enough to break in the 
windows. Ugh ! I look forward with dread for to-morrow ! How I am 
to go to mother's, I'm sure I can't tell; but if I die, I'll do it. — No, sir; 
I won't buy an umbrella. No, and you shan't buy one. Mr. Caudle, if 
you bring home another umbrella, I'll throw it into the street. I'll have 
my own umbrella, or none at all. 

Ha ! and it was only last week I had a new nozzle put to that 
umbrella. I'm sure if I'd have known as much as I do now, it might 
have gone without one. Paying for new nozzles, for other people to 
laugh at you ! Oh, it's all very well for you ; you can go 10 sleep. 
You've no thought for your poor patient wife, and your own dear 
children ; you think of nothing but lending umbrellas ! Men, indeed, 
call themselves lords of creation ! pretty lords, when they can't even 
take care of an umbrella ! 

I know that walk to-morrow will be the death of me, but that's what 
you want : then you may go to your club, and do as you like ; and then 
nicely my poor dear children will be used; but then, sir, then you'll be 
happy. Oh, don't tell me ! I know you will; else you'd never have 
lent the umbrella ! 

You have to go on Thursday about that summons; and, of course, you 
can't go. — No, indeed, you don't go without the umbrella. You may 
lose the debt for what I care — it won't be so much as spoiling your 
clothes — better lose it: people deserve to lose debts who lend umbrellas. 

And I should like to know how I'm to go to mother's without the 
umbrella? — Oh, don't tell me that I said I would go; that's nothing to 
do with it, — nothing at all. She'll think I'm neglecting her; and the 
little money we're to have, we shan't have at ail — because we've no 
umbrella. 

The children, too ! — (dear things ! — ) they'll be sopping wet ; for they 
23 



266 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

shan't stay at home; they shan't lose their learning; it's all their 
father will leave them, I'm sure. — But they shall go to school. Don't 
tell me I said they should nt ; (you are so aggravating. Caudle; you'd 
spoil the temper of an angel ; j they shall go to school ; mark that. And 
if they get their deaths of cold, it's not my fault : I didn't lend the 
umbrella. 

" At length," writes Caudle, " I fell asleep ; and dreamt that the sky 
was turned into green calico, with whalebone ribs; that, in fact, the 
whole world revolved under a tremendous umbrella ! " — J err old. 

J8®" Observe that the foregoing piece is not strictly correct ; but see p. 211. 

MANUELA. 

[Selected chiefly for its beauty and simplicity ; and to show, to some extent, tho 
musical powers of our language.] 

From the doorway, Manuela, in the sheeny ^Ipril morn, 
Southward looks, along the valley, over leagues of gleaming corn; 
Where the mountain's misty rampart like the wall of JE&en towers, 
And the isles of oak are sleeping on a painted sea of flowers. 

All the air is full of music, for the winter rains are o'er, 
And the noisy magpies chatter from the budding sycamore; 
Blithely frisk unnumbered squirrels, over all the grassy slope ; 
Where the airy summits brighten, nimbly leaps tlie antelope. 

Gentle eyes of Manuela ! tell me wherefore do ye rest 

On the oak's enchanted islands and the flowery ocean's breast ? 

Tell me wherefore, down the valley, ye have traced the highway's mark, 

Far beyond the belts of timber, to the mountain-shadows dark? 

Ah, the fragrant bay may blossom, and the sprouting verdure shine 
With the tears of amber dropping from the tassels of the pine, 
And the morning's breath of balsam lightly brush her sunny cheek, — ■ 
Little recketh Manuela of the tales of Spring they speak. 

When the Summer's burning solstice on the mountain-harvests glowed, 
She had watched a gallant horseman ri ing down the valley read ; 
Many times she saw him turning, looking back with parting thrills, 
Till amid her tears she lost him, in the shadow of the hills. 

Ere the cloudless moons were over, he had passed the Desert's sand, 
Crossed the rushing Colorado and the wild Apache land, 
And his laden mules were driven, when the time of rains began, 
With the traders of Chihuahua, to the Fair of San Juan. 

Therefore watches Manuela, — therefore lightly doth she start, 
When the sound of distant footsteps seems the beating of the heart; 
Not a wind the green oak rustles or the redwood branches stirs, 
But she hears the silver jingle of his ringing bit and spurs. 

Often, out the hazy distance, come the horsemen day by day, 
But they come not as Bernardo, — she can see it, far away; 
Well she knows the airy gallop of his mettled alazan, 
Light as any antelope upon the Hills of Gavilan. 

She would know him 'mid a thousand, by his Free and gallant air; 



EXTRACTS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 267 

By the featly-knit sarape, such as wealthy traders wear; 
By his broidered calzoneros, and his saddle gayly spread, 
With its cantle rimmed with silver, and its horn a lion's head. 

None like him the light riata on the maddened bull can throw ; 
None amid the mountain-canons track like him the stealthy doe; 
And at all the Mission festals, few indeed the revelers are 
Who can dance with him the jota, touch with him the gay guitar. 

He has said to Manuela, and the echoes linger still 

In the cloisters of her bosom, with a secret, tender thrill, 

When the bay again has blossomed, and the valley stands in corn, 

Shall the bells of Santa Clara usher in the wedding-morn. 

He has pictured the procession, all in holiday attire, 
And the laugh -of bridal gladness, when they see the distant spire; 
Then their love shall kindle newly, and the world be doubly fair 
In the cool, delicious crystal of the summer-morning air. 

Tender eyes of Manuela ! what has dimmed your lustrous beam ? 
'Tis a tear that falls to glitter on the casket of her dream. 
Ah, the eye of love must brighten, if its watches would be true, 
For the star is falsely mirrored in the rose's drop of dew. 

But her eager eyes rekindle, and her breathless bosom thrills, 

As she sees a horseman moving in the shadow of the hills: 

Now in love and fond thanksgiving they may loose their pearly tides, — 

'Tis the alazan that gallops, tis Bernardo's self that rides ! 

Bayard Taylor, 
"How soft the music of those village bells, 
Falling at intervals upon the ear 
In cadence sweet ; now dying all away, 
Now pealing loud again, and louder still, 
Clear and sonorous, as the gale comes on ! 
- With easy force it opens all the cells 
Where Memory slept. Wherever I have heard 
A kindred melody, the scene recurs ; 
And with it, all its pleasures and its pains." — Cowper. 

PARADISE LOST. 

[Selected as showing well how our language is tinctured with Latin, Greek, and Hebrew 
structure, and as containing sentences so long, inverted, and involved, that they will 
give, if mastered, ample assurance of the student's ability to cope with any other sen- 
tences.] 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 

Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man 

Restore us and regain the blissful seat, 

Sing, heavenly Muse, that on the secret top 

Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire 

That shepherd, who first taught the chosen seed, 

In the beginning, how the Heavens and Earth 

Rose out of Chaos : or, if Sion hill 

Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed 



268 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Fast by the oracle of God ; I thence 

Invoke thy aid to my adventurous song, 

That with no middle flight intends to soar 

Above the Aonian mount, while it pursues 

Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme. 

And chiefly thou, Spirit, that dost prefer 

Before all temples the upright heart and pure, 

Instruct me, for thou knowest; thou from the first 

Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread, 

Dovelike satst brooding on the vast abyss, 

And mad'st it pregnant: what in me is dark, 

Illumine; what is low, raise and support; 

That to the hight of this great argument 

I may assert eternal providence, 

And justify the ways of God to man. 

Say first, for Heaven hides nothing from thy view, 

Nor the deep tract of Hell; say first, what cause 

Mov'd our grand parents, in that happy state, 

Favored of Heaven so highly, to fall off 

From their Creator, and transgress his will 

For one restraint, lords of the world besides? &c. 

Immortal amaranth ! a flower which once 

In Paradise, fast by the tree of life, 

Began to bloom ; but soon, for man's offense 

To Heaven removed, where first it grew; there grows, 

And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life; 

And where the River of bliss, through midst of Heaven, 

Rolls o'er Elysian flowers her amber stream : 

With these, that never fade, the spirits elect 

Bind their resplendent locks, inwreathed with beams. 

Milton. 

If there is sufficient time, the student should be conducted through the First and 
Second Books of Paradise Lost ; applying, so far as possible, all the principles of this 
volume. 

39. PUNCTUATION. 

"At the opening of a new year it is pleasant — (tling-a-ling-a~Ung, 
rings the front-door bell ; and Bridget, having answered it, breaks upon 
our privacy, with, 'Plase, Sir, it's the butcher's boy with the bill.') — 
it is pleasant, we say, and profitable, to dwell upon those delightful 
memories of the past, — (tling-a-ling-a-ling : ' Plase, Sir, it's the baker's 
bill!') — which at this season throng in upon our memory, and ( tling- 
a-ling-a-ling -a-ling : ' Plase, Sir, it's the milliners girl left mistress's bill !' ) 
— and — and — What?" [The author is at last put out, and loses the 
thread of his sentimental musings, by the endless duns!] — Harpers 
Weekly, slightly varied. 

This remarkable sentence contains every mark, and well shows the value and im- 
portance of punctuation. Let the whole of it be entirely destitute of punctuation-marks, 
capitals, and Italics, and it would be almost unintelligible. 

Punctuation is the application of certain marks, or characters, to com- 



PUNCTUATION. 269 

position, in such a way as will present the sense and delivery to the best 
advantage. 

Delivery — at least such delivery as Reading requires — does have some influence on 
punctuation ; as, "Approach, and behold, while I lift from his sepulchre its covering! " 

Note. — No part of this work has given me more labor and perplexity, than Punctu- 
ation and Capitals. After very extensive research, I have been almost forced to conclude 
that there is, in these respects, no fixed aud absolute standard in our literature ; at least, 
not in regard to many kinds of expression. To do, however, the best in my power, I 
have determined to take the best publications from the six following cities, — Edinburgh, 
London, Dublin, Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, — also from Germany and France ; 
and to draw from them what seems to me the most reasonable, most consistent, and 
best-established system. The examples throughout this section have been collected and 
arranged with vast labor, and they are designed to exhibit every kind of phrases and 
sentences that can occur in English punctuation. Without copious illustrations, punctu- 
ation can not be learned ; and this collection of examples may be compared to a cabinet 
of minerals, and studied accordingly. But a previous knowledge of grammar is indis- 
pensable. 

As a specimen of the unsettled practice of authors and printers, let the following 
examples suffice : — 

1. "To be, or not to be, that is the question — Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to 
suffer The stings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of 
troubles, And, by opposing, end them ? To die — to sleep — No more ; and by a sleep to 
say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to ! — 'tis 
a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die — to sleep — To sleep ! — perchance to 
dream ! ay, there's the rub ; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, When 
we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause — there's the respect That makes 
calamity of so long life." — Edinburgh. 

2. " To be, or not to be : that is the question : — Whether 'tis nobler in the mind, to 
suffer The stings and arrows of outrageous fortune ; Or to take arms against a sea of 
troubles, And by opposing end them ? To die, — to sleep, — No more ; — and, by a sleep, 
to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to ; — 
'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die ; — to sleep : To sleep ! perchance to 
dream : ay, there's the rub ; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, When 
we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. There's the respect " &c. — 
London. 

3. " To be — or not to be — that is the question ! Whether 'tis nobler in the mind 
to suffer Tbe stings and arrows of outrageous fortune, — Or, to take arms against a sea of 
troubles, And, by opposing, end them. — To die, — to sleep ; — No more ; — and, by a sleep, 
to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to ; — 
'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished ! To die ; — to sleep ; — To sleep ! perchance to 
dream ; ay there's the rub ; For, in that sleep of death, what dreams may come, When 
we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause! There's the respect " &c. — 
Boston : Epes Sargent's Standard Speaker. 

4. " To be, or not to be, that is the question : Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to 
suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of 
troubles, And, by' opposing, end them. To die, — to sleep, — No more ; — and by a sleep, 
to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to ; 
'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die ; — to sleep : To sleep ! perchance to 
dream : ay, there's the rub ; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, When 
we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. There's" &c. — E. Sargent: 
Intermediate Speaker. 

5. " To be, or not to be ? That is the question : Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer 
The stings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or take up arms against a sea of troubles, 
And, by opposing, end them. To die — to sleep. No more ? and, by a sleep, to say we 
end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to ? 'Tis a 
consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die — to sleep : To sleep ! perchance to dream ! 
Ay : there's the rub, For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, When we have 
shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. There's the respect" &c. — New York : 
Mandeville. 

6. " To be, or not to be ; — that is the question. Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to 
suffer The stings and arrows of outrageous fortune ; Or, to take arms against a sea of 
troubles, And, by opposing, end them. To die — to sleep — No more ? — and, by a sleep, 
to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to — 
'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die — to sleep ; To sleep — perchance to 
dream ; ay, there's the rub — For in that sleep of death, what dreams may come, When 
we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. There's the "&c. — New YorJc. 

7. " To be, or not to be, that is the question : — Whether 'tis nobler in the mind, to 



270 BOOK SECOND--THE STANDARD. 

suffer The stings and arrows of outrageous fortune ; Or to take arms against a sea of 
troubles, And, by opposing, end them ? — To die, — to sleep, — No more ; — and, by a sleep, 
to say we end The heartache, and the thousand natural shocks, That flesh is heir to,— 
'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die ; — to sleep : — To sleep ! perchance 
to dream ; — ay, there's the rub ; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, 
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause : There's the respect " 
&c. — Philadelphia. 

8. " To be, or not to be ? That is the question. Whether 'tis nobler in the mind, to 
suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of 
troubles, And, by opposing, end them ? To die ; to sleep ; No more : and, by a sleep, 
to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to ; 
'tis a consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die ; to sleep ; To sleep ! perchance to 
dream — Ay, there's the rub ; For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, When 
we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. There's the respect " &c. — 
Cincinnati: McGuffey. 

In the 3rd example, put a comma after " not to be " before the dash, a comma after 
"ay" and consolidate "lieari-ache" and the punctuation will do. 

After devoting a long life to the study of grammar, in order to become the gramma- 
rian, Mr. Gr. Brown has given the last touches to his work, with such consistency as the 
following : — 

"An is used in preference to a, whenever the following word begins with a vowel 
sound; as, An art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn." 

" The article an or a implies unity, or one, and of course belongs to nouns of the sin- 
gular number only; as, A man, — An old man, — A good boy." 

" The noun thing, or its plural things, will suit almost any adjective ; as, A good thing — 
A bad thing — A little thing — A great thing — Few things — Many things — Some things — 
Fifty things." 



It may be well to remark, at the outset, that punctuation must nec- 
essarily vary with all the varieties of style; and that the same para- 
graph or discourse may be differently punctuated, and correctly too, 
according to the view that is taken of it. It has been said that all 
sentences of the same structure should be punctuated alike ; and, so far 
as it is practicable, this doctrine should be followed : yet I will venture to 
offer the following opinion on the entire scheme of auxiliary notation : — 

Capitals, Italics, and punctuation marks generally, have acquired, 
like words, various meanings; so that we are at liberty to use them, and 
do use them, much in the same way as we use words ; every person pre- 
senting his thoughts by their aid, of course with more or less advantage, 
according to his knowledge of thuir various meanings and uses. These 
restrictions should always be observed ; namely, not to use any notation 
unnecessarily, not to use one notation where a different one would ex- 
press the sense better, and not to use the same notation — as the dash is 
sometimes used — in contradictory senses. 



The full meaning of vocal discourse is presented chiefly by means of 
the modulations of the voice, — such as tones, emphases, and inflections 
(the rising, falling, and waving slides) , — and by pauses. Most of the 
punctuation marks serve to indicate both modulations and pauses. 

The principal marks of punctuation are twelve; the comma ( 5 ), the 
semicolon ( : ), the colon ( : ), the period ( . ), the interrogation point ( 1 ), 
the exclamation point (!), the dash ( — ), the curves ( ( ) ), the 
brackets ( [] ), the hyphen (-), the quotation marks ( " *> or ' * ), and 

the underscore ( ) — a mark showing what is designed to be in 

italics {Italics) , in small capitals (capitals ), or in capitals (CAPITALS.) 



PUNCTUATION. 271 

In applying these marks, discourse may be viewed as composed of 
paragraphs, sentences, clauses, phrases, words, and parts of words; all 
of which may be briefly termed parts. 

What point should be selected, depends chiefly on the sense, the 
degree of connection between the parts, and the pause required. 

The pauses are relative rather than absolute. The semicolon requires 
a pause double that of the comma ; the colon, double that of the sem- 
icolon ; and the period, double that of the colon, and sometimes even 
still longer. Most of the other points require pauses that depend 
chiefly on the sense. Grave, solemn discourse requires longer pauses 
than such as is lively and spirited. 

We shall treat of Punctuation, so far as convenient, in two distinct 
methods. 

1. We shall begin with discourse as a whole, and briefly show how it may 
be divided into parts. This is the method which every person naturally 
follows, to some extent, in composing, or in afterwards punctuating his 
writings. 

2. We shall treat of each mark of punctuation, showing all its vari- 
ous uses. This method begins rather with the parts of discourse, and it 
serves well as a means of testing the accuracy of the punctuation 
resulting from the first method. 

FIRST VIEW. 

The division of his discourse into volumes, books, parts, cantos, 
verses, chapters, sections, and sentences, is left chiefly to every writer's 
own taste and judgment. 

A paragraph always begins anew, and consists of one or more sen- 
tences, comprising usually all that relates to one subject or to some dis- 
tinct part of the subject. Paragraphs are usually kept apart by short 
breaks or blank spaces. 

Ex. — "Costly apparatus and splendid cabinets have no magical power to make 
scholars. • In all circumstances, as a man is, under God, the maker of his own fortune, 
so is he the maker of his own mind. 

The Creator has [so] constituted the human intellect that it can only grow [only] by 
its own action ; and by its own action and free will it will certainly and necessarily 
grow. Every man must, therefore, educate himself." — D. Webster. 

" Discourse is a continued series of thoughts, each expressed by an assemblage of 
words called a sentence. 

A sentence, considered as a whole, either declares something, asks a question, 
expresses a command, or contains an exclamation." — Greene. 

" He was perfumed like a milliner ; m 

And 'twixt his finger and his thumb 
He held a pouncet-box, which ever and anon 
He gave his nose. 

And still he smiled and talked ; 
And, as the soldiers bare dead bodies by, 
He called them untaught knaves, unmannerly, 
To bring a slovenly, unhandsome corse 
Betwixt the wind and his nobility." — Shakspeare. 

A sentence must be complete in sense and construction with reference 
to what precedes or follows it. It is, in general, so much of the author's 
discourse as he chooses to present as one thought. 

Sentences are either independent in sense, or related. 

To give a sprightlier turn to the discourse, or to avoid disagreeably 



272 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

iong sentences, or where the delivery is slow and deliberate, parts 
slightly connected in sense, or even connected by conjunctions, may be 
separated into distinct sentences. 

A word, or a longer part of a sentence, used for an entire sentence, 
Bust be punctuated as if it were the entire sentence. 

At the end of every sentence is placed a period ; if the sentence is a 
question, an interrogation point ; and if it is expressive chiefly of emo- 
tion, an exclamation point. "Where these points do not keep the senten- 
ces sufficiently distinct and apart, a dash may be added. The break at 
the end of a paragraph supersedes the additional dash. 

" The minister of finance has presented a most alarming* picture of the state of our 
affairs. He has assured us that delay must aggravate the peril ; and that a day, an 
hour, an instant, may render it fatal. We have no plan that can he substituted for 
that which he proposes. Do Gentlemen hope to escape sacrifices and taxation by plung- 
ing into national bankruptcy? And what is bankruptcy but the most cruel, the most 
iniquitous, most unequal and disastrous of imposts? Two centuries of plunder and 
abuse have dug the abyss which threatens to engulf the nation. It must be filled up, — 
this terrible chasm. But how? Here is a list of proprietors. Choose from the wealth- 
iest, in order that the smallest number of citizens may be sacrificed. But choose ! 
Strike ! Immolate, without mercy, these unfortunate victims ! Hurl them into the 
abyss ! — It closes ! 

You recoil with dismay from the contemplation." &c. — Mirabeau. 
" Captain Roland, greatly disgusted. — Coiide write such stuff! — I don't believe it." 
Bidwer. 

" Mt. 19 -f- . Tender-eyed blonde. Long ringlets. Cameo pin. Gold pencil-case 
on a chain. Locket. Bracelet. Album. Autograph book. Accordeon. Reads Byron, 
Tupper, and Sylvanus Cobb, junior, while her mother makes the puddings. Says, 
'Yes? ' when you tell her anything." — 0. W. Holmes. 

Clauses, or parts equivalent to clauses, are separated by the colon, 
when the degree of connection or the pause required is intermediate 
between the semicolon and a full stop. 

What comes after a colon usually follows as something additional 
belonging to the same grasp of thought; as something illustrative, 
explanatory, or allied in sense; or as something that shows more fully 
the speaker's mind in reference to what precedes. The colon often 
shows simply that the subject of discourse is resumed by being pre- 
sented in an other or a clearer light. 

The parts separated by the colon, generally make perfect sense by 
themselves. 

Note. — The colon was formerly used more than at present : modern writers use 
in stead of it the period, the semicolon, or the dash. I believe it is also more frequently 
found in our poetry than in our prose. 

Ex. — " Lightning takes the readiest and best conductor; so does the electrical fluid: 
lightning burns ; so does electricity : lightning sometimes destroys life; animals have 
also been killed by lightning." — Magazine. 

" Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed 
and digested: that is, some books are to be read only in parts ; others to be read, but 
not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly and with diligence." — Bacon. 

" A wicked man, in his iniquitous plans, either fails or succeeds : if he fails, disap- 
pointment is embittered by reproach ; if he succeeds, success is without pleasure, for, 
when he looks around, he sees no smile of congratulation." — Harper's Magazine. 

" He said to the men who carried away his trunk to the boat : ' Go, and fetch back 
my trunk ; I will not go away if my mother is to be made unhappy by it.' " — Irving' s 
Washington. 

' Labor and rest, as day and night, to men ' ; We have but faith : we can not know ; 
Su< cessive ; and the timely dew of sleep, For knowledge is things we see ; 

Now Jailing, with soft slumbrous weight, inclines And yet we trust it comes from Thee, 
Our eyelids : other creatures all day long A beam in darkness : let it grow." 

Rove idle, unemployed, and less need rest : Tennyson. 



PUNCTUATION. 273 

Man hath his daily work of body or mind " With diadem and sceptre high advanced, 
Appointed, which declares his dignity, The lower still I tall ; only supreme 

And the regard of Heaven on all his ways ; In misery : such joy ambition finds. " 
While other animals inactive range, Milton. 

And of their doings God takes no account." — Milton. 

Clauses, or parts of clauses, whether serial or related, are separated 
by the semicolon, when the degree of connection or the pause required 
is intermediate between the comma and the colon. This generally occurs 
when a comma is required within one or more of the parts ; and fre- 
quently, when there is, at the end of each, a suspended close in the sense. 

The semicolon is often preferred to the colon because the connective 
is expressed ; or because the latter part does not seem to grow out of the 
former, or to be suggested by it ; or because the parts are coordinate, 
distinct, and accumulative, or similar in structure, or have a commou 
dependence on something else. 

The semicolon is often preferred to the comma because the connective 
is omitted, because a more marked distinction is to be observed, or 
because the mind supplies from the first part enough with each subse- 
quent part, to make this a full sentence, or a portion complete in sense. 

Ex. — " I know not if [whether] a more bloody Indian fight ever occurred on the soil 
of the United States : the town was set on fire ; and a witness of the scene, doubtless 
greatly exaggerating the loss, relates that two thousand five hundred Indians were slain, 
suffocated, or burned." — Bancroft. 

" The lower orders always have it in their power to rebel against their superiors ; 
and occasionally they will do so, and have done so, and occasionally and justly carried 
elections against gold, and birth, and education." — Macaulay. 

" On the land were large flocks of magpies and American robins ; whole fleets of 
ducks and geese navigated the river, or flew off in long streaming files, at the approach 
of the canoes ; while the frequent establishments of the pains-taking and quiet-loving 
beaver, showed that the solitude of these waters was rarely disturbed, even by the all- 
pervading savage." — Irving. 

"He suffered much oppression; he was often imprisoned ; he was finally compelled 
to go into exile." — Macaulay. 

" The disposition to derision and insult is awakened by the softness of foppery, the 
swell of insolence, the liveliness of levity, or the solemnity of grandeur ; by the sprightly 
trip, the- stately stalk, the formal strut, and the lofty mien; by gestures intended to 
catch the eye, and looks elaborately formed as evidence of importance." — Johnson. 

" A salad should be, as to its contents, multifarious ; as to its proportions, an artistic 
harmony ; as to its flavor, of a certain pungent freshness." — Magazine. 

"If you would know the value of money, go and try to borrow some ; for he that goes 
a borrowing, goes a sorrowing." " Old boys have playthings, as well as young ones ; 
the difference is only in the price." " Monosyllables are words of one syllable ; as, John, 
man, boy.'''' 

" Avoid in youth luxurious diet ; 
Restrain the passions' lawless riot ; 
Devoted to domestic quiet, 

Be wisely gay ; 
So shall you, spite of age's fiat, 

Resist decay." — Horace Smith. 

I. The comma is used to indicate a shorter pause, and closer connec- 
tion in sense, than the semicolon indicates. 

II. The comma separates parts not complete in sense, and yet not 
perfectly united in sense or delivery. 

1. Compound clauses too closely related for the semicolon, and their 
parts too closely for the comma, are parted by the comma. ( Clause or 
sense closed.) 

2. The simple clauses of compound sentences, and the clauses of com- 



274 BOOK SECOND — THF STANDARD. 

plex sentences unless very closely connected, are separated by the comma 
if they are too closely related for the semicolon. (Clause or sense 
closed. ) 

3. To show that a word or group of words is separated by something 
else from that to which it belongs or relates, the comma is used. Indeed, 
the comma often connects parts by setting off what separates them. 

(Sense broken.) 

4. The presence of an emphatic or interrupting word or phrase, or 
the absence of a connecting word or phrase, is often indicated by the 
comma. (Sense broken.) 

5. A part (unless a mere connective) relating rather to the whole of 
the rest of the sentence or clause, or suggesting a suppressed clause, is 
usually set oif by the comma or some other point (Sense broken.) 

6. A part thrown out of its logical order, or the unimpassioned 
arrangement, is frequently set off by the comma. (Sense broken. — See 
3 above.) 

7. A modifying or qualifying word is not usually separated from that 
to which it immediately relates. (Sense broken.) 

8. The sub-parts of longer parts are not usually separated by the comma, 
if the longer parts themselves can not be separated by a greater point 
than the comma. 

9. To make a part relate in common to more parts than the one next 
to it, the comma is used. ( Sense extended.) 

10. To prevent a part from being understood as relating to what it 
does not relate, or to prevent it from relating to more parts than the 
one next to it, the comma is often used. (Sense withheld.) 

Note.— The foregoing are rules of rules— not the best rules — but, so far as possible, the 
essence of all the rules and illustrations I have ever read on the subject. I have not 
room to illustrate them fully: let them be remembered; and they will exemplify them- 
selves, with experience and practice. The full scope of rule 3rd, however, it may be 
necessary to show; for this rule applies to all serial parts, as well as to parts thrown 
in parenthetically. " Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have 
the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be setoff by the comma." 
" Adjectives should be set off by the comma." "John, Henry, and Thomas, brought 
large, ripe, and juicy apples." In this last example, each previous nominative or 
adjective is separated by the subsequent one from the word to which it relates. 

Ex. — " He, therefore, that feels himself alarmed by his conscience, anxious for the 
attainment of a better state, and afflicted by the memory of his past faults, may justly 
conclude that the great work of repentance is begun, and hope, by retirement and 
prayer, the natural and religious means of strengthening his convictions, to impress 
upon his mind such a sense of the divine presence, as may overpower the blandishments 
of secular delights, and enable him to advance from one degree of holiness to another, 
till death shall set him free from doubt and contest, misery and temptation." — Johnson. 

" There, upon a point of hind, at the entrance of the haven, a loft}' cross was erected, 
bearing a shred, with the lilies of France and an appropriate description." — Bancroft. 

"From the hills in his jurisdiction, he could behold, across the clear waters of a 
placid sea, the magnificent vegetation of Porto Rico, which distance rendered still 
more admirable, as it was seen through the transparent atmosphere of the trop- 
ics."—!^. 

" It was supposed to be an island, and received the name of Florida from the day on 
which it was discovered, and from the aspect of the forests, which were then brilliant 
with a profusion of blossoms, and gay with the fresh verdure of early spring." — Id. 

" He that attends to his interior self, 
That has a heart and keeps it, has a mind 
That hungers, and supplies it, and who seeks 
A social, not a dissipated life, 
Has business." 



PUNCTUATION. 275 

To mark a significant pause between parts too closely connected in 
sense to be separated by the comma, the dash is sometimes used. 

Ex. — "We are — slaves ! The bright sun rises to his course, and lights a race of — 
slaves! He sets, and his last beams fall on — a slave. * * # Yet this — is Rome, that 
sat on her seven hills, and from her throne of beauty ruled the world ! " — Mitford. 
" This bond — doth give thee here — no jot of blood." — Shaltspeare. 
" The war is inevitable ; and — let it come ! " — P. Henry. 

" Is it like ? — like whom ? — 
The things that mount the rostrum with a skip 
And then — skip down again." — Cowper. 

Discourse may be viewed as having still two other pauses, which are 
not marked : the rhetorical and the ccesural. 

This rhetorical pause occurs where punctuation marks are usually 
inserted when required by the sense ; as, " Success in life | consists in 
the proper and harmonious development of those faculties | which God 
has given us." 

The caBSural pause occurs within the lines of most poetry, agreeably 
dividing it into proportionate or significant parts. In good poetry, the 
csesural pause usually coincides with the rhetorical or , other pauses. 

Ex. — " As some tall cliff | that lifts its awful form, 

Swells from the vale, | and midway leaves the storm, 
Though round its breast | the rolling clouds are spread, 
Eternal sunshine | settles on its head." — Goldsmith. 

The rhetorical pause mentioned above, and the csesural pause, may 
both be termed the rhetorical pause, as being the pause whose peculiar 
office is, to improve the delivery. Or, to go still further, all discourse 
may be viewed as having two kinds of pauses ; the rhetorical and the 
grammatical. The rhetorical pause is often not represented ; sometimes 
it is represented by the dash; and sometimes by the other punctuation 
marks along with the grammatical pause : in poetry, it is used some- 
times merely for the sake of melody. 



The interrogation or the exclamation point supersedes the comma, the 
semicolon, or the colon, as well as the period, if required by the sense 
to express inquiry or emotion. 

Questions or exclamations directly quoted, or entering like single 
words into the structure of a sentence, are written as they were or 
would be, when uttered alone. 

Ex. — " Are we not intellectual ? are we not rational? — no more cakes and ale." — 
Magazine. 

" But what are lands, and seas, and skies, to civilized men, without society, without 
knowledge, without morals, without religious culture ? and how can these be enjoyed, in all 
their extent, and all their excellence, but under the protections of wise institutions, and 
free government." — Webster. 

" How do you decline Who! Which? What? Thatf As?"—G. Brown. 

" flow do you compare far? near? fore? hind? in? out?''''— -Id. 

" How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood ? — the indicative ? — the potential? 
— the subjunctive? — the imperative? " — Id. 

" Washington! First in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen ! 
Washington is all our own ! ;i — Webster. 

" Arm ! arm ! it is — it is — the cannon's opening roar ! " — Byron. 

" Blood ! blood ! he found on every side, but nowhere found his child ! " 

" ' Death-hound ! by thee my child's devoured ! ' the frantic father cried." 

"An adverb answers to the question, When? Where? How much? How?'''' — G. 
Brown.'" 

" But the question How are we to raise the money ? has not been thought of." 

" The common hiss, ' Down with him ! Down with him ! — Take him out ! Take him 
out ! ' was heard on every side." 



276 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

Parts that are not at all or but slightly related to the main thought 
or discourse, and that break or interrupt the tenor of it too much to be 
incorporated with it, are set off by the dash, the curves, or the brackets. 
The brackets are generally used to inclose only what is inserted, or 
interpolated, by another. 

Within the inserted part may be used any point required by the sense. 
If the parts between which the inserted part is put, required separation 
by a point, then only is this point placed before each parenthetic mark. 
But the point required by a change of structure, at the end of the in- 
serted part, supersedes other points. 

If the inserted part is very closely related to the preceding part, or 
too closely for the required point to precede it, the point is placed after 
the entire parenthesis or insertion. 

Ex. — "It behooves me to say that these three (who, by the way, are all dead) pos- 
sessed great general ability, and had respectively received a good education." — Harper's 
Magazine. 

" This book is written, or supposed to be written, (for we would speak timidly of the 
mysteries of superior beings,) by the celebrated Mrs. Hannah More."— S. Smith. 
" For the bee never idles, but labors all day, 
And thinks (wise little bee !) work better than play." 
" I gave (and who would not have given ?) my last dollar to the miserable beggar." 
" Know then this truth (enough for man to know) : 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 

" The Frenchman, first in literary fame, 
(Mention him, if you please. Voltaire ? — The same.) 
With spirit, genius, eloquence, supplied, 

Lived long, wrote much, laughed heartily, and died." — Cowper. 
1 Orthoepy, a word derived from the Greek orthon (upright) and ep5 (I speak), signi- 
fies the right utterance of words." — Sargent. 

" The entrance for vessels — they lie snugly opposite the town — is difficult and danger- 
ous." — Eclectic Magazine. 

" The door flew open, and, behold ! there entered the bear, — the huge, shaggy beast, — 
with his clanking chain." 

"Brother Coffin, shall I trouble you for a pinch of your — [Talcing snuff— ] Havan- 
nah? Devilish strong. [Exit]." — Comedy. 

Parts that do not have the coherence, fullness, or regular structure 
of discourse proceeding in an uninterrupted flow from the same subject ; 
are usually distinguished by the dash. 

The dash is also used sometimes for other points, when these are so 
used elsewhere in the sentence as to make a different point desirable ; 
and sometimes it is annexed to other points to lengthen the pause a little, 
especially where the sense would not allow the next greater point. 

Ex. — " First, see my portmanteau safe to my room — and Eosalie — lavender sheets — 
aired — snow — snug supper — every thing that I call for, comfortable — eh ? " — Magazine. 

" But you are hungry — want a breakfast — turn into a restaurant — call for ham, eggs, 
and coffee— then your bill— six dollars ! " — California. 

" W*e are all well — hope your family is so. Remember me to them." — J. Adams. 

" Another wave lifts the schooner — another fearful crash — she rolls over — her decks 
are rent asunder — her crew are struggling in the water — all is over." — Harper's Magazine. 

" But there is this conclusive remark against it — that it has no degree of diminution, 
and the form which has such degrees is no inflection of the adjective." — G. Brown. 

" It thunders ; — but it thunders to preserve." — Young. 

" The possessive case may denote the relation of persons ; as, ' William's cousin ; ' — 
or the relation of the doer to the thing done ; as, ' Solomon's Temple ; ' — or the relation 
of a whole to its parts ; as, ' a horse's head.' " — Greene. 



PUNCTUATION. 277 

" Give me another horse. — Bind up my wounds. — 
Have mercy, Jesu ! — Soft ! I did but dream. — 
coward Conscience ! how dost thou afflict me ! 
The lights burn blue. — It is now dead midnight. 11 

ShaJcspeare , s Richard III. 

Parts loosely accompanying a piece of discourse, or loosely thrown 
into it ; and parts used elliptically as the chief points sufficient to sug- 
gest the intended train of thought, — are punctuated variously. Their 
punctuation is regulated by custom, and the six principles given below. 

Ex.-— "Wells, William H., M. A. ; ' Wells's School Grammar; 12 mo, pp. 220 : 1st 
Ed., Andover, 1846; 113th Thousand, 1 1850." " The Danger of Delay.— A Dialogue. 
The Danger of Delay — A Dialogue. The Danger of Delay : A Dialogue." " My Novel ; 
or, Traits of English Character." "Absent — morning — I — here — horse — flight— do you 
comprehend? " Such expressions will be noticed more carefully hereafter. 



Punctuation is influenced by — 1. The sense; 2. The delivery, or the 
pause required; 3. The points or marks elsewhere required; 4. The 
connective or suppressed words ; 5. The length of the parts to be punc- 
tuated ; 6. The position of the parts. (The latter two are essentially 
comprised in the four preceding them.) 

1. " The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians. The troops landed and killed 
a hundred Indians. Alphonso Karr, a celebrated writer, distinguished for his taste, and 
knowledge in botany — distinguished for his taste and knowledge in botany. I can not 
violate my oath to support the Constitution. I can not violate my oath, to support the 
Constitution. Go while thou mayst ; avoid the dreadful fate. Go ; while thou mayst, 
avoid the dreadful fate. I said that he is dishonest, it is true ; and I am so^ry for it. I 
said that he is dishonest ; it is true, and I am sorry for it. Why did you not come to us 
in the beginning of the night ? Wiry, did you not come to us in the beginning of the 
night ? Shame ! where is thy blush ! 0, shame ! where is thy blush ? If you will 
go in the evening, you can behold something worth seeing. If you will go, in the even- 
ing you can behold something worth seeing. The great principles of government which 
are easily understood, are known everywhere. The great principles of government, 
which are easily understood, are known everywhere. So, pleased at first, the towering 
Alps we 'try. So pleased, at first, the towering Alps we try. So pleased at first, the 
towering Alps we try. What do you think ? — I'll shave you for nothing, and give you 
some drink. What ! do you think I'll shave you for nothing, and give you some drink ? 
She was, like the rest of human beings, in haste to be admired. She was like the rest 
of human beings in haste to be admired. Aristides was called, by the Athenians, just ; 
i. e., by them at least. Aristides was called by the Athenians just ; i. e., he must havebeen 
an upright man. John Jones says, he is waiting for you. John Jones, says he, is waiting 
for you. John, Jones says he is waiting for you. 0, how canst thou renounce the 
boundless store of charms which Nature to her votary yields ? 0, how canst thou re- 
nounce the boundless store of charms which Nature to her votary yields ! How very 
much has that country changed in the last ten years. How very much has that country 
changed in the last ten years ! How much has that country changed in the last ten 
years ? " " Yes, sir ; " " No, sir ; " " How do you do, sir." Here the comma is inserted 
merely on account of the sense, no pause being observed in the delivery. 

" Gentlemen," said the orator, taking off his hat, and waving it in a courteous and 
inviting manner, while he wiped his brow with a faded cotton handkerchief, — " Gentle- 
men ! may I beg your attention for a few moments ? " Observe how well the increased 
earnestness and emotion of the speaker are here denoted by putting an exclamation point 
after the second " Gentlemen." 

2. " Homer, on the other hand, is above all things human — he sings by the conscious 
and indwelling energies of nature." " Homer, on the other hand, is above all things 
human: he sings by the conscious and indwelling energies of nature." "Homer is 
above all things human. He sings by the conscious and indwelling energies of nature." 
" Yes, you shall." " Yes ; and for you too." " Yes : he has done all this, and yet you 
are not satisfied." " William, please to hand me that saddle." 

" Mr. Speaker, — 

I incline to think the gentleman's motion is out of order." 
"Mr. Speaker: — 

It is with regret that I am again forced into this debate. I had hoped " &c, &c. 



278 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

3. " Since our journey began, it had rained in torrents, and now both horse and rider 
refused to go a step farther ; the beast because he sank up to his knees in mud, and the 
rider because he was wet to the bone." 

"But the imperative form may also be negative : as. ' Touch not; taste not; handle 
not.'" "An adjective limits or qualifies; as, ' That boy is more industrious than his 
brother.' " " That's right, my girl ; now I think I may trust you." 

4. " Study to promote the happiness of mankind : it is the true end of yonr creation." 
" Study to promote the happiness of mankind ; for it is the true end of your creation." 
" Let it appear so ; make your vaunting true." " Let it appear so, and make your vaunt- 
ing true." " The cool, sequestered paths of life." " The cool and sequestered paths of 
life." " From law, arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." 

5. " They bounded ; they fought ; they screamed ; they tore ; they ran howling round 
and round the circle." — Croly. " I came, I saw, I conquered." " There was fire above 
and below the house." " Good men are not always found in union with, but sometimes 
in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." " Teach, urge, threaten, lec- 
ture him." " He often won, but never could retain, the affections of the fair." 

G. " To God, nothing is impossible." " Nothing is impossible to God." " To secure 
his election, it is said that votes were bought." "It is said that votes were bought to 
secure his election." " Undoubtedly, such reports are unworthy of belief." " Such re- 
ports are undoubtedly unworthy of belief." 

Before proceeding any farther, it may be well to recall to the stu- 
dent's mind the following facts : — 

That sentences are composed of clauses, phrases, and words; that 
these parts are construed either as coordinate or serial parts, or as prin- 
cipal parts and dependent parts; that every sentence must have prin- 
cipal parts — that is, parts containing some subject-nominative or finite 
verb; that sentences usually have modifying parts, and are sometimes 
completed £y explanatory parts. 

That there are independent parts ; elliptical parts ; repeated parts ; 
adjuncts; relative clauses ; conjunctive clauses; adjectives and adjective 
phrases ; participles and participial phrases ; adverbs and adverbial 
phrases and clauses; apposition or explanatory words, phrases, and 
clauses; adverbs, conjunctions, and interjections, interrupting, modify- 
ing, or connecting. 

SECOND VIEW. 

1. PERIOD. 

(Sentences independent) " Be slow to promise, and quick to 
perform. Winter discovers what summer conceals. Catch the bear, 
before you sell his skin. First deserve, and then desire. The best 
physicians are Dr. Diet, Dr. Quiet, and Dr. Merry man." — Proverbs. 

( Sentences relating to the same subject.) " It is the assassin's 
purpose to make sure work. Jle explores the wrist for the pulse. He 
feels for it, and ascertains that it beats no longer ! It is accomplished. 
The deed is done. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes 
out through it as he came in, and escapes." — Webster. 

(Sentences allied in sense.) "The character of Washington is 
among the most cherished contemplations of my life. It is a fixed stat- 
in the firmament of great names, shining without twinkling or obscu- 
ration, with clear, steady, beneficent light. It is associated with all 
our reflections on things near and dear to us." — Webster. 

(Sentences connected by conjunctions.) "It may be that the 
submissive loyalty of our fathers was preferable to that inquiring, cen- 
suring, resisting spirit which is abroad. And so it may be that infancy 



PUNCTUATION. 279 

is a happier time than manhood, and manhood than old age. But God 
has decreed that old age shall succeed to manhood, and manhood to in- 
fancy. Even so have societies their law of growth. 1 ' — Macaulay. 

( Phrases for distinct sentences.) " Strata and laminae may be 
distinguished from joints, 1. By the alternations of different materials 
in the former. 2. By a difference of organic remains in the successive 
layers. 3. By ripple marks and tortuosities. 4. By a difference in 
color of successive portions of rock." — Hitchcock. I should rather use 
the semicolon to separate such phrases. 

(Fragmentary parts: Phrases or words used elliptically for dis- 
tinct sentences, or sufficiently significant alone; headings, titles, signa- 
tures, §c.) "The gunpowder overboard. Out with the boat! Here." 
" Very respectfully, yours, John Griscom." " Bolivar S. Head, Colum- 
bia, Missouri." u St. Louis, August 1st, 1857." "Sergeant (J.) Select 
Speeches of. 8vo. Philadelphia. 1832. Price $1.00." "Contents." 
" Part IV. — Scottish Universities — Defects and Remedies." " 190.' 
" Select Passages in Verse. True Glory — Milton. Consolation for a 

Friend's Death— Id. Truth— Cowper 410" (page). "'The 

Dead Canary,' engraved by Joliet." " ' The Tender Wish,' by Jardinier." 
" On some of the Properties of Ice near its Melting Point. By Prof. 
Forbes." "Life of Montgomery. By Mrs. H. C. Knight, Authoress of 
' Lady Huntington and her Friends.' With a new Portrait and Vignette 
on Steel. 12mo. Cloth, $1.25." " Oriental and Western Siberia. 
A Narrative of Seven Years' Explorations and Adventures in Siberia, 
Mongolia, &c. By Thomas Atkinson. New York : Harper and Broth- 
ers. 1858. 8vo, pp. 533. New Haven : E. Downes." " Journal of the 

Franklin Institute. Devoted to . Edited by . Vol. 66, No. 

391. Third Series. Philadelphia: Published by . 1858." "Thurs- 
day, 13th May. — Dr. Seeley, President, in the Chair. — Lay Majority 14. 
But one balloting." 

u Archbishop. What is your business with me, my friend? 

Gil Bias. I am the young man who was recommended to you by 
your nephew, Don Fernando." 

" Opinions of the Press." "A most valuable addition to our litera- 
ture." — Spectator. " (To be Continued.)" Written by the author. 
" [To be continued.'] " Inserted by the printer. " Postage on the Review 
is four cents per Number. ( See cover, on the outside.)" " Copartner- 
ship Notice — Dissolution." "Wanted — A good Housekeeper." "From 
Punch." " Dr. B. Bruns, Chairman." 

E. B. Cordell, ) „ . . Wm. H. Buffington, 

James Minor, ) ommissioner (Signed.) Alfred Morrison, 

John M. Richardson. 

"For Sale." "Woods, Christy, & Co. Wholesale and Retail." 
" Iron-Factory." " Appollo Garden." 

Such phrases are frequently expressed wholly in capitals; and the 
parts often placed under one another, having their relative importance 
distinguished by capitals varying in size. 

(Abbreviations.) " Sir David Brewster, K. H., LL. D., F. R. S., L. 
& E." "Albany, N. Y., Aug., 1858." "7 T. 3 cwt. 2 gr. 8 lb. 3 oz." 
"Samuel Breckenridge, Esq., addressed the assembly." "Hon. James 



280 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

S. Green." " Mr. and Mrs. Lindsay." " On the 4th inst. he disappear- 
ed." "Vol. XXXVL— July, 1858.— No. 1." 

The abbreviating period supersedes no point except the final period, 
and the comma in compound numbers. 

" To Joseph Rogers, A. M." " In St. Louis, Mo." " 8 men bought 
17 T. 18 cwt. 3 qr. 16 lb. of sugar, which they divided equally. What 
was the share of each man ? " — D. P. Colburn. 

\ Abbreviations not read in full — no period.) " 20 per cent advance." 
" Rare Ben Jonson ; " " Gen. Tom Thumb; " " Sam Houston ; " " Dick 
Johnson;" " Sue Jones." " Will Hardman had three sons; Tom, Ned, 
and George." — Hawksworth. 

Some writers omit the period when the abbreviation ends with the 
last letter of the word; as, " Dr Vaughan," " State vs Clanahan." This 
practice is not well authorized, unless the contraction is marked by the 
apostrophe; as, "Sup'tof Com. Schools." 

(Figures or letters introducing enumerated parts.) "118. Practical 

Jokes 250 p."= Lesson 118th treats of Practical Jokes. But, 

" 118 Practical Jokes 250 p.," conveys a very different meaning. 

"Lesson LXI. — On the Government of the Tongue." "I have two 
good reasons : 1. I can not give my attention to the business ; 2. I have 
no money to spare to invest in it." " Of this species there are two vari- 
eties; — (a.) The preposition and present participle; (b.) The prepo- 
sition and perfect participle." 

(When not thus introductory.) "Murray's Gram., 8 vo, p. 250; 12 
mo, p. 200." " Isa., lv, 3; Ezek., xviii., 20; Mic, vi, 7." These are 
better written thus than in the following manner : " Murray's Gram., 
8vo., p. 250.; 12 mo., p. 200." "Isa. lv., 3.; Ezek. xviii., 20.; Mic. 
vi., 7." The period after such numbers is altogether unnecessary. 

(Decimals from whole numbers.) "42.75 yds. for $9,055 -f-." 

Such expressions as 1st, 2d, 2dly, 4th, 5ths, &c, do not take the 
abbreviating period, because they are not so much abbreviations as they 
are cardinal numbers made ordinal. 

2. COLON. 

(Clauses. — Several clauses slightly related, to be brought into one sen- 
tence; no connective.) "That was enough: the spark had fallen : the 
train was ready : the explosion was immediate and terrible." — Macaulay. 

"Property is private, individual, absolute. Trade is an extended and 
complicated consideration : it reaches as far as ships can sail or winds 
can blow: it js a great and various machine. To regulate the number- 
less movements" &c. — Chatham. The parts are more closely related to 
one another than to what precedes or follows them ; hence, no period. 

" It is an intensely cold climate that is sufficient to freeze quicksilver : 
the climate of Siberia is sufficient to freeze quicksilver: therefore the 
climate of Siberia is intensely cold." — Whalely. 

" Twas vain : the wild waves lashed the shore, return or aid preventing : 
The waters wild rushed o'er his child, and he was left lamenting." 

Campbell. 

( Two parts separated, having seldom a connective.) " Teaching is a 
work of the highest charity ; for he that teaches another, gives alms to 
his understanding : he clothes the nakedness of his understanding, and 
relieves the wants of his impoverished reason." 



PUNCTUATION. 281 

"We may be directed from a distance: a guide must accompany and 
keep close to us." — Whately.( — distance; but a guide — ) 

" With regard to the faults of others, however, we say I fear: ' 'I fear 
he may be led into such and such an action.'" ( — fear ; as, I fear — ) 

" ' Confessing ' is oftener applied in reference to a fault than either 
'owning' or Acknowledging:' indeed, strictly speaking, it almost al- 
ways implies some error." ( — or acknowledging ; and, indeed — ) 

" Go sometimes to the house of mourning, as well as to the house of 
feasting: graceful in youth is the tear of sympathy, and the heart that 
melts at the tale of woe." ( — -feasting ; for graceful — ) 

" Our good and evil proceed from ourselves: death appeared terrible 
to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato." (How so? Why 
so ? Explain more fully what you mean.) 

" Dear Welsted, mark, in dirty hole, 
That painful animal, the mole : 
Above ground never born to grow ; 
What a mighty stir he keeps below ! " — Pope. 
u Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners ; the voluptu- 
ous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the 
virtuous can have friends." — Johnson. 

"What a fool am I, to drudge any more in this woollen trade! for a 
lawyer I was born, and a lawyer I will be: one is never too old to 
learn." — Arbuthnot. (Additional remark; the reason.) 

" Whoever feels great pain, naturally hopes for ease from a change of 
posture; he changes it, and finds himself equally tormented : and of the 
same kind are the expedients by which we endeavor to obviate or exclude 
those uneasinesses to which mortality will always be subject." Here 
the connective is expressed, but a greater point than the semicolon is 
required. 

" Enough is shown ; a cypress, not a bosom, 
Hides my poor heart : so let me hear you speak." — Shak. 
" Without a clear, faithful articulation, there can be no good elocu- 
tion : nay, it is often tedious to hear a person speak whose articulation 
is defective or confused." — Sargent. 

u Small service is true service while it lasts; 
Of friends, however humble, scorn not one: 
The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, [ Wordsworth. 

Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun." 
Here the colon sets off the illustration, or separates the principal sub- 
ject from its figure. 

" Bad news to me : 
Thus are my blossoms blasted in the bud, 
And caterpillars eat my leaves away." — Shak. 
" No more — your apology is baser than your perfidy : there is no 
truth; no virtue, in man." — Magazine. 

" l We should perhaps be burdensome to you,' said he, addressing the 
girl: 'how far is it to the next inn ? ' " — Id. (More closely related in 
delivery than in sense.) 

"Is he a Churchman? then he's fond of power: 
A Quaker ? sly : a Presbyterian ?. sour : 
A smart Free-thinker? all things in an hour." — Pope. 
(Parts introductory from parts explanatory or complementary. Full 

24 



282 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

clauses.) "Patrick Henry wound up by one of those daring flights of 
declamation for which he was so remarkable, and startled the House by 
a warning flash from history: ' Caesar had his Brutus; Charles, his 
Cromwell ; and George the Third — ("Treason ! treason ! " resounded from 
the neighborhood of the Chair) — may profit by their example, 7 added 
Henry. ' Sir, if this be treason (bowing to the speaker), make the 
most of it.' " — Irving. 

"This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth 
The tender leaves of hope ; to-morrow blossoms, 
And bears his blushing honors thick upon him; 
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost." — Shak. 
"There are two questions which [that] grow out of this subject: 1st, 
How far is any sort of classical education useful ? 2ndly, How far is 
that particular classical education adopted in this country useful?" — 
Sidney Smith. 

" These, then, are the thoughts against which you should carefully 
guard: such as are peevish and discontented, anxious and fearful, pas- 
sionate and quarrelsome, silly and trifling, vain and fantastical, gloomy 
and melancholy, impure, profane, and blasphemous." — Heme. 

The two parts thus separated are often closely related in grammatical 
sense; and one or both are frequently fragmentary or elliptical. The 
former part usually has such words as folloivs, following, thus, this, 
these, in it, or suggests them. The latter part is often an example, illus- 
tration, or something quoted. 

"Of cruelty to animals, let the reader take the following specimen : — 

Running an iron hook into the intestines of an animal ; presenting 

this first animal to another as his food; and then pulling this second 

creature up and suspending him by the barb in his stomach." — Sidney 

Smith. ( Appositive.) 

"The common use of language requires that a distinction be made 
between morals and manners: the former depends upon internal dispo- 
sitions; the latter, upon outward and visible accomplishments." — 
Beattie. 

" < The Press I— What is the Press ? ' I cried ; 
When thus a wondrous voice replied : 
In me all human knowledge dwells," &c. — Montgomery. 
(Parts more or less fragmentary. ) "To sum up all: If we must" &c. 
" Four things come not back: the spoken word ; the sped arrow ; the 
past life; and the neglected opportunity." — Omar. 

"Such, Omen of Athens! were your ancestors: so glorious in the 
eye of the world; so bountiful and munificent to their country; so 
sparing, so modest, so self-relying, to themselves." — Demosthenes. 

" Washington was obedient: obedient to his mother ; obedient to his 
teachers; obedient to his own sense of duty, and to God : s laws." — Irving. 
Here the semicolon and dash ( ; — ) would perhaps have been better 
than the colon. 

"She was, moreover, a very shrewd, sensible woman, and deeply 
pious — pious in the most excellent way: really, vitally, seriously." — 
Georgia Scenes. 

"No: this is not learning: it is chemistry or political economy — not 
learning." — Magazine. 



PUNCTUATION. 283 

"Well : this is a puzzling affair, truly." 

"'Again: 'But as our accent consists in stress only ' " &c. "Again, 
he says: 'But as' " &c. 

" Mr. Wirt then rose, and began thus : — 

Alumni of the University, ladies, and gentlemen : — 

The honor," &c. 

"Mr. Editor:" (Followed by a long pause, a long sentence, or a 
paragraph of several sentences.) "Mr. Editor," (Followed by a short 
pause or sentence. — The same two remarks apply to again, when intro- 
ductory, and to other words used in the same way.) 

"The false syntax of articles properly includes every passage in 
which there is any faulty insertion, omission, choice, or position of this 
part of speech. For example: 'When the verb is a passive, the agent 
and object change places.' Better: 'When the verb is passive, the 
agent and the object change places.' 'Pronoun means for noun, and is 
used to avoid the too frequent repetition of the noun.' Say rather: 
' The pronoun is put for a noun, and is used to prevent too frequent a 
repetition of the noun.' Or : The word Pronoun means for noun ; and 
a pronoun is used to prevent too frequent a repetition of some noun." — 
G. Brown. 

"Conjunctions: And, or, but, 11 &c. " Ls, Its, ltst; halt, halts, halts t" 

"Terms: Three Dollars per Year, invariably in Advance." 

"Boundaries. — Northern: Canada; — eastern: the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence ',— southern: Nova Scotia and the Bay of Fundy; and — western: 
the St. Croix River and the State of Maine." — Cotton's Atlas. Here I 
think the comma, or the comma followed by the dash, would have been 
more appropriate than the colon; and elsewhere, simply the semico- 
lon. 

[The subject in close connection with what is said of it.) "Kansas: 
what can you say of its boundaries?" — barren's Geography. "Ray's 
Arithmetics : Just published in a revised form," &c, &c. — Smith. I am 
not sure that this punctuation is well authorized. 

[Person or thing from the locality ; or a second reference from the first.) 
"London: Printed and Published at the Office, 198, Strand, by" &c. 
"A Layer of Slate in Hornblende: Cornwall, England." — Hitchcock. 
"London: Partridge and Co. — Edinburgh: Southerland and Knox." 
"Philadelphia: Chas. Desilver & Co." "Clarendon: Johnson's Dic- 
tionary." "Shak: Richard III." "Edgar A. Poe : The Pioneer." 

[Abbreviations.) "Yours, truly. Chas: D. Drake." "Jno: W. 
Weathersfield, Commission Merchant." " To the Hon. Jas : Briggs." 

When a contracted name, like the foregoing, consists of more letters 
than one, I have frequently seen the colon used as the abbreviating 
mark ; but the practice is not w r ell authorized. Rather use the period. 

[Numbers — proportion.) "2 : 4 : : 3 : 6 "=2 is to 4 as 3 is to 6. 

For separating such fragmentary parts as some of the foregoing, the 
period is often preferred when the parts are placed below one another 
in stead of being arranged in a line. 

3. SEMICOLON. 

Complete Clauses. 
[Structure and subject-nominatives different.) "A love of equality is 



284 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

another very strong principle in a republic; therefore it does not 
tolerate hereditary honor or wealth ; and all the effect produced upon 
the minds of the people by this factitious power [,] is lost, and the gov- 
ernment weakeued; but, in proportion as the government is less able 
to command, the people should be more willing to obey." — British Essay-* 
ists. (Connective expressed.) 

[Addition.) "All industry must be excited by hope; and as the stu- 
dent often promises no other reward to himself than praise, he is easilv 
discouraged by contempt." — Johnson. 

"Napoleon was an early riser; so were Frederick the Great, Charles 
the Twelfth, and Washington." (Connective, and, omitted.) 

"There is no condition which is not disquieted either by the care of 
gaining or by that of keeping money; and the race of man may be di- 
vided in a political estimate between those who are practising fraud, 
and those who are repelling it." 

" He must advance or recede; and it was impossible to advance with- 
out peril, or to recede without humiliation." 

(Cause.) " Nothing now remains but murmurs and remorse; for if 
the spendthrift s poverty be imbittered by remembering that he was 
once rich, how must the idler's obscurity be clouded by remembering 
that he once had lustre." (Connective expressed.) 

"Keep thine heart with all diligence; for out of it are the issues 
of life." The use of the semicolon here supposes a very considerable 
pause, — a significant pause; otherwise, the comma should have been 
preferred. 

"Aspire not to public honors, enter not into the palaces of kings ; thy 
wealth will set thee above insult, let thy moderation keep thee below 
envy." — Johnson. (Connective omitted.) 

( Comparison.) "As any action or posture long continued, will disfig- 
ure the limbs; so the mind likewise is crippled and contracted by per- 
petual attention to the same set of ideas." 

" When the nominatives are connected by and, the verb agrees with 
them in the plural; as, ' True rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly 
allied; " 

(Contrariety or contrast.) " The roads of science are narrow, so that 
they who travel them, must either follow or meet one another; but in 
the boundless regions of possibility, which Fiction claims for her do- 
minion, there are surely a thousand recesses unexplored, a thousand 
flowers unplucked, a thousand fountains unexhausted, combinations of 
imagery yet unobserved, and races of ideal inhabitants not yet described." 
(Connective expressed.) 

"That the world is overrun with vice, can not be denied; but vice, 
however predominant, has not yet gained an unlimited dominion." 
(Latter subject in the former clause.) 

" The miser grows rich b} r seeming poor; an extravagant man grows 
poor by seeming rich." (Connective omitted.) 

" Luther resisted the Roman church for its immorality; Calvin, for its 
idolatry." 

"Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist: in the one 
we most admire the man; in the other, the work." — Pope. 

(Adverbial connective.) "The voyages of Smith, the enterprise of Ra- 



PUNCTUATION. 285 

leigh, and the compilations of Eden and Willis, had filled the world 
with wonder; while weighty reasons, often and seriously discussed, in- 
/ clined the Pilgrims to change their abode." — Bancroft. 

More examples might be given, having other conjunctions or adverbs 
.expressed or understood, as connectives; but the examples given, must 
suffice. 

[Structure somewhat similar.) " But in the month of July, the sea was 
tranquil ; the skies were clear ; no storms were gathering ; the air was 
agitated by- none but the gentlest breezes ; and the English commanders 
were in raptures with the beauty of the ocean, seen in the magnificence 
of repose, gemmed with islands, and expanding in the clearest transpa- 
rency from cape to cape." — Bancroft. 

[Structure partially similar.) "Yet no mines of Peru were discover- 
ed ; no ornaments of gold adorned the rude savages ; their wealth was 
the harvest of corn, and wigwams were their only palaces ; they were 
poor and independent; they were hardy and loved freedom." (No con- 
nective. A colon should perhaps have been preferred after " palaces.'') 
" That deeper shade shall break away ; 

That deeper sleep shall leave mine eyes; 
Thy light shall give eternal day; 
Thy love, the rapture of the skies." 
[Structure similar.) "He that walketh uprightly, walketh surely; 
but he that perverteth his ways, shall be known." 

"No product here the barren hills afford 
But man and steel, the soldier and his sword; 
No vernal blooms their torpid rocks array, 
But winter lingering chills the lap of May; 
No zephyr fondly woos the mountain's breast, 
But meteors glare, and stormy glooms invest." 
It is, indeed, very frequently, a certain similarity in the structure of 
the parts, that suggests the propriety of separating them by the semi- 
colon; especially, if the comma is required within one or more of the 
parts. 

[Subjects allied.) "The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; 
tragedy represents a disastrous event ; comedy ridicules th<* vices and 
follies of mankind ; pastoral poetry describes rural life ; and elegy dis- 
plays the tender emotions of the heart." 

" The vegetation of that southern latitude struck the beholders with 
admiration ; the trees had not their paragons in the world ; the luxuri- 
ant vines, as they clambered up to the loftiest cedars, formed graceful 
festoons; grapes were so plenty [plentiful] upon every little shrub, that 
the surge of the ocean, as it lazily rolled in upon the shore with the quiet 
winds of summer, dashed its spray upon the clusters; and natural arbors 
formed an impervious shade, that not a ray of July could penetrate." — 
Bancroft. 

Perhaps the colon would have been a more suitable point after " ad- 
miration.' ' 

[Subjects the same.) " The y in my, when this word is emphatic, has the 

long sound of y in type; but w 7 hen not emphatic, it has the short sound of 

y in hymn. 1 - — bar gent. [I should prefer to pronounce my always like thy.~\ 

"There is a kind of anxious cleanliness which I have always noted as 



286 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

the characteristic of the slattern ; it is the superfluous scrupulosity of 
guilt, dreading discovery, and shunning suspicion; it is the violence of 
an effort against habit, which, being impelled by external motives, can 
jot stop at a middle point." 

'•'I have always,' says Ledyard, 'remarked that women in all coun- 
tries are civil and obliging, tender and humane ; that they are ever inclined 
to be gay and cheerful, timorous and modest; and that they do not hes- 
itate, like meil, to perform a generous action.' " 

(Subjects the same, and structure similar.) "Every thing grows old; 
every thing passes away; every thing disappears." 

" Without dividing, he destroyed party; without corrupting, he made 
a venal age-unanimous." 

"Listen to the advice of your parents; treasure up their precepts; 
respect their riper judgment; and endeavor to merit the approbation of 
the wise and good." 

"If disastrous war sweep our commerce from the ocean, another gen- 
eration may renew it; if it exhaust our treasury, future industry may 
replenish it; if it desolate and lay waste our fields, still, under a new 
cultivation, they will grow green again, and ripen to future harvests. 
But who shall reconstruct the fabric of demolished government? " — 
Webster. 

"She died in beauty, like a rose blown from its parent stem ; 
She died in beauty, like a pearl dropped from some diadem ; 
She died in beauty, like a lay along a moonlit lake; 
She died in beauty, like the song of birds amid the brake." 

(Subject distributed.) "The Indians are taken by surprise; some are 
shot down in their cabins; others rush to the river and are drowned ; 
others push from the shore in their birchen canoes, and are hurried down 
the cataract." 

(Interrogative sentence.) "If it was intended for us as well as you, 
why has not the Great Spirit given it to us; and not only to us, but why 
did he not give to our forefathers the knowledge of that book, with the 
means of rightly understanding it?" 

(Exclamatory sentence.) "Oh, it was impious; it was unmanly ; it 
was poor and pitiful ! " 

(Clause elliptical.) "The pronoun / and the interjection must be 
written in capitals ; also the first letter of words to which it is designed 
to give particular prominence." 

" If you want a thing done, go ; if not, send." 

" The ioundation of the mold is also various ; [:] sometimes clay, then 
gravel and stones; and sometimes marl." 

Phrases and Dependent Clauses/* 

(The subject should rarely or never be separated from its predicate by the 
semicolon.) 

(Subjects parted.) "The same vigor of thought; the same form of 
expression; the short sentences; the calm, bold, and collected manner; 
the air of solemn dignity ; the deep, sepulchral, unimpassioned voice, — 
all have been developed, not changed, even to the intenser bitterness of 
his irony."— Wildes Description of Webster. 

*These semicolons are often superseded, in popular usage, by the dash. 



PUNCTUATION. 287 

♦'To give an early preference to honor above gain, when they stand in 
competition; to despise every advantage which can not be gained with- 
out dishonest arts ; to brook no meanness, and stoop to no dilsimula- 
tion, — are the indications of a great mind." 

"The laugh of mirth which vibrates through the heart; the tears 
which freshen the dry wastes within ; the music which brings childhood 
back ; the prayer that calls the future near ; the doubt which makes 
us meditate ; the death which startles us with mystery; the hardships 
that force us to struggle; the anxiety that ends in trust, — these are the 
true nourishment of our natural being." 

[Predicates parted.) a Nitella was always tricked out rather with 
nicety than elegance; and seldom could forbear to discover, by her un- 
easiness and constraint, that her attention was burthened, and her im- 
agination engrossed." 

" As a traveler, Smith had roamed over France ; had visited the shores 
of Egypt; had returned to Italy ; and, panting for glory, had sought the 
borders of Hungary, where there had long existed an hereditary war- 
fare with the followers of Mahomet." — Bancroft. 

[Objectives parted.) " We do not desire that our land should furnish 
for the orator and the novelist, for the painter and the poet, age after 
age, the wild and romantic scenery of war; the glittering march of 
armies and the revelry of the camp ; the shrieks and blasphemies, and 
all the horrors of the battle-field ; the desolations of the harvest and the 
burning cottage; the storm, the sack, and the ruin of cities." 

" True gentleness teaches us to bear one another's burdens; to rejoice 
with those who rejoice; to weep with those who weep; to please every 
one his neighbor for his good; to be kind and tender-hearted; to be pit- 
iful and courteous ; to support the weakly ; and to be patient towards 
all men." 

"They represented that Halifax loved the dignity and emoluments of 
office ; that, while he continued to be president, it would be hardly pos- 
sible for him to put forth his whole strength against the government ; 
and that to dismiss him from his high post, was to emancipate him from 
all restraint." — Macaulay. 

[Relative clauses.) " She was, in other words, a buxom widow, fair, 
fat, and forty ; who did not wholly forget herself in taking care of the 
fortunes of her daughter." 

"Knowledge is praised and desired by multitudes whom her charms 
could never rouse from the charms of sloth ; whom the faintest invitation 
of pleasure draws away from their studies ; to whom every method of 
wearing out the day is more eligible than the use of books ; and who 
are more easily engaged by any [other] conversation than such as may 
rectify their notions or enlarge their comprehension." — British Essayists. 
[Adverbial clauses.) " When I call back to my mind the grandeur and 
beauty of those almost uninhabited shores ; when I picture to myself 
the dense and lofty summits of the forest, that every where spread along 
the hills, and overhung the margins of the stream ; when I see that no 
longer any aborigines are to be found there, and that the vast herds of 
elks, deer, and buffaloes, which once pastured on these hills and in these 
valleys, have ceased to exist ; when I reflect that this grand portion of 
our Union is now more or less covered with villages, farms, and towns, 
where the din of hammers and machinery is constantly heard ; that the 



255 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

woods are fast disappearing under the axe by day and the fire by night; 
that hundreds of steamboats are plying to and fro, over the whole length 
of our majestic rivers ; when I remember that these extraordinary changes 
have all taken place in the short period of twenty years, — I pause, won- 
der, and, although I know all to be true, can scarcely believe its reality." 
— Audubon. 

The same punctuation applies to other adverbial and to similar con- 
junctive clauses. 

[Adjective phrases.) "Lord Macaulay's style is always lucid and 
picturesque; terse and elegant, if not quite melodious; and richly 
adorned with the graces which are found in antithetical and metaphori- 
cal expressions." — Review. 

11 Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong without rage; without o'erflowing, full." — Denham. 

" False in institutions, for he retrograded; false in policy, for he de- 
based ; f ilse in morals, for he corrupted ; false in civilization, for he 
oppressed." 

(Participial phrases.) " The sky was serene; displaying only a few 
little copper-colored clouds, like reddish vapor, which were moving with 
a rapidity surpassing that of birds in their flight." 

" Mercer was upright, intelligent, and brave; esteemed as a soldier 
and beloved as a man, and by none more so than by Washington." — 
Irving. 

"The desire of perfection, springing always from moral power, rules 
even the sword, and escapes unharmed from the field of carnage ; giv- 
ing to battles all they can have of lustre, and to warriors their only 
glory; surviving martyrdoms, and safe amid the wrecks of states." 

" Examine ; said to be from the Latin examen, the tongue or beam of 
a balance." 

"Charles the Twelfth of Sweden; born, 1682; killed by a cannon- 
ball, 1718." 

(Infinitives.) " When evils can not be avoided, it is wise to contract 
the interval of expectation ; to meet the mischiefs which will overtake 
us if we fly; and to suffer only their real malignity without the con- 
flicts of doubt, and anguish of anticipation." 

(Adjuncts.) " Sir, your throne can not stand secure upon the princi- 
ples of unconditional submission and passive obedience; on powers 
exercised without the concurrence of the people to be governed; on acts 
made in defiance of prejudices and habits; on acquiescence procured by 
foreign mercenary troops, and secured by standing armies." — Burke. 

Parts More or Less Fragmentary or Elliptical. 

(Parts in apposition, or parts resumptive and explanatory.) "His plan 
was original ; it is as full of genius as of humanity. It was a voyage 
of discovery ; a circumnavigation of charity." — Burke 

"And now began the nomadic march of the adventurers; a numerous 
band of horsemen, besides infantry completely armed; a force exceed- 
ing in numbers and equipments the famous expeditions against the em- 
pires of Mexico and Peru." — Bancroft. 

" There is another set of people, who are not the most comfortable 
companions in the world ; such as are ever more anxious about what is 



PUNCTUATION. — SEMICOLON. 289 

to happen, — fearful of every thing, and apprehensive of the worst." — 
Home. 

"Eloquence is action; noble, sublime, and godlike action." — 
Webster. 

" This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institutions, the 
dear purchase of our fathers, are ours ; ours to enjoy, ours to preserve, 
ours to transmit." — Webster. 

" Happy, thrice happy, he who relies on the eternity of the soul ; who 
believes." 

"Neither of you has the brogue ; neither." 

" There are three persons ; the first, the second, and the third." 

"There are three cases; namely, the nominative, the possessive, and 
the objective." 

"He is my major-domo ; that is, my stewart, or superintendent over 
household affairs." 

"Inestimable. Too valuable or excellent to berated; being above 
all price; as, inestimable rights." — N. Webster. 

"The Minstrel; or, The Progress of Genius." - (Title of a poem.) 
"The City; its Sins and Sorrows." Here some would have preferred 
the colon. 

" Step to your sister, bid her make herself easy ; go, and comfort her, 
go." 

" I assure you I will never go to see her ; no, not I." 

"I will never give my consent to such an undertaking; never, never, 
never." 

" Among the oaks I observed many of the most diminutive size ; some 
not above a foot high, yet bearing bunches of small acorns." — Irving. 

"No; I will never abandon what I believe to be right." 

"Yes, yes; it is so, it is so." 

" No matter ; we can get along without him." 

" Well ; this is a little the worst news I ever heard of him." 

" Again ; this skill in small wit, like skill in small arms, is very apt 
to beget a confidence which may prove fatal in the end." 

[Independent phrase.) "Speak for yourself, my son; we are ready to 
hear you." "Go, go, my good fellows; do not let the poor man 
drown." 

Some writers would have preferred, in several of the foregoing 
examples, the dash ( — ), the comma and dash (, — ), or, in some, even 
the semicolon and dash ( ; — ), to the semicolon. 

(Enumerated Parts.) "Barnum's Hotel. — Pres. Hudson, Colum- 
bia, Mo.; Prof. Geo. Mathews, do.; Dr. Lewis, Glasgow, Mo." &c. 
" Towns and Cities. — Jefferson City, 5,000 inhabitants; St. Louis, 150,- 
000; "&c. "References. — Right Rev. Bishop Meade, Virginia; Right 
Rev. Bishop Cobbs, Alabama ; Hon. Jas. S. Green, Mo." " Active list, 
319; reserved list, 42." "White, 51,150; colored, 13,823; probationers, 
7,719." "Rio, 9 cents; Maracaibo, 12 cents ; Java, 15c." " 100 bbls. 
sweet Malaga wine; 25 bbls. cherry bounce; 25 bbls. Bourbon whis- 
key." "Steamship Persia, Liverpool; Atlanta, Charleston; Lady 
Franklin, Savannah; Seaman's Bride, Geneva." "Goods for traveling 
dresses; Laced mittens, great variety; Kid gloves, all sizes;" &c. 
" Sheep, dull at $1.50 to $2 ; receipt 14,000." " Campbell vs. Goodall ; 

25 



290 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

goes to the foot of the docket. ? Conner vs. Holmes; continued. State 
vs. John O'Neil, larceny ; dismissed. State vs. Charles Keene, larceny ; 
admitted to bail. State vs. Geo. Floyd, murder; committed." " May 
5th. — In sight of Santa Fe ; made an early start; came to a fine 
spring; shot an antelope: saw a herd of wild horses;" &c. "Left 
Boston when ; by what route; stopped at what places on the way ; 
took rooms at what house; events of the first day; the top of Mount 
Washington; a Sabbath among the mountains ; to Franconia; return." 
— Atlantic Monthly. "A dress of blue silk; plain, high body; the 
waist and point of a moderate length ; the skirt long and full, with two 
broad flounces pinked at the edge. ,, — Harper s May. " Boundaries. — 
Northern, the Lake and State of Michigan; eastern, Ohio; southern, 
Kentucky;" &c. " Wanted immediately — Farm hands; wood-choppers; 
carriage-drivers; " &c. " Wanted — An assignee, for one half of a val- 
uable invention; choice of two; must have means sufficient to procure 
a patent ;"&c. "To support. Syn. — To bear; hold up; sustain; 
maintain; endure; verify; substantiate; countenance; patronize; keep; 
back; second; uphold; succor; relieve; encourage; favor; nurture; 
nourish; cherish; shield; defend; protect; assist; forward." " Words: 
Good, better, best; chair, chairs: rob, robbed, robbing, robber. 1 ' 
" Phrases : 'In the next place,' 'much elated by success; 1 'on the 
contrary.' Short sentences having no point within them : ' Snow is fall- 
ing ; ' ' The wind is whistling." " 

"Contributors: Oliver W. Holmes; Mrs. Sigourney; Bryant, the 
poet; Gilmore Sims. Esq." 

PERIOD, COLON, SEMICOLON, COMMA. 

Sentences should not be too long and involved. 

Ex. — " The territorj' conferred on the patentees in absolute property, 
with unlimited jurisdiction, the sole powers of legislation, the appoint- 
ment of all officers and forms of government, extended in breadtli from 
the fortieth to the forty-eighth degree of north latitude, and in length 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific; that is to say, nearly all the inhabited 
British possessions to the north of the United States, all New England, 
New York, half of New Jersey, very nearly all Pennsylvania, and the 
whole of the country to the west of these States, comprising, and at the 
same time believed to comprise, much more than a million of square 
miles, and capable of sustaining far more than two hundred millions of 
inhabitants, were by a single signature of King James, given to a cor- 
poration within them, composed of about forty individuals." — Bancroft. 

This is a very clumsy, unwieldy sentence; and when the reader has 
got to its end, he has probably forgotten how it began. Better thus: — 

The territory conferred on the patentees in absolute property, with 
unlimited jurisdiction, the sole powers of legislation, the appointment of 
all officers and forms of government, extended in breadth from the 
fortieth to the forty-eighth degree of north latitude, and in length from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific. It embraced nearly all the inhabited British 
possessions to the north of the United States, all New England, New 
York, half of New Jersey, very nearly all Pennsylvania, and the whole 
of the country to the west of these States, comprising, and then believed 
to comprise, much more than a million of square miles, and capable of 



PUNCTUATION. — THE FOUR POINTS. 291 

sustaining far more than two hundred millions of inhabitants. All this 
vast region was, by a single signature of King James, given to a corpo- 
ration within it, composed of about forty individuals. 

Remark. — Macaulay has perhaps surpassed ail our other prose 
writers in the proper length of sentences, and in the judicious inter- 
mixture of long ones and short ones. 

So many short independent sentences should not be accumulated as to 
make the discourse too fragmentary. 

Ex. — " After some hours' sailing, a storm of snow T and rain begins. 
The sea swells. The rudder breaks. The boat must now be steered 
with oars. The storm increases. Night is at hand. To reach the har- 
bor before dark, as much sail as possible is borne. The mast breaks 
into three pieces. The sail falls overboard. But the tide is favorable." 
Better : — 

After some hours 1 sailing, a storm of snow and rain begins. The sea 
swells; the rudder breaks; the boat must now be steered with oars; the 
storm increases; night is at hand; to reach the harbor before dark, as 
much sail as possible is borne; the mast breaks into three pieces; the 
sail falls overboard; — but the tide is favorable. 

The semicolon or the colon is sometimes used to separate clauses where 
the period might be used. 

Ex. — " Virtues have no country, or, rather, they are of every country ; 
it is God who inspires them, and humanity which profits by them.' 7 
( — of every country. It is God who — ) 

" These are not words of rage, or transient passion: remember them, 
be wise, and look to yourself." ( — transient passion. Remember — ) 

These points are generally preferred to the period, — 

1. When the writer wishes to amplify, or to accumulate as much as 
possible into one sentence. 

2. When he wishes to avoid a tiresome accumulation of short inde- 
pendent sentences, or to impart greater sprightliness to his discourse. 

3. When he wishes to show that the parts have a common depend- 
ence; or that they are slightly related to one another, at least more than 
they are related to the pi evious or to the subsequent part of the discourse. 

Ex. — This thin, transparent substance, [glass,] so light and fragile [, ] 
is one of the most essential ministers of science and philosophy, [; ] and 
has become indispensable to the daily routine of our business, our wants, 
and our pleasures. It admits the sun and excludes the wind, answering 
the double purpose of transmitting light and preserving warmth; it 
carries the eye of the astronomer to the remotest region of space; 
through the lenses of the microscope it develops new worlds of vitality, 
which, without its help, must have been but imperfectly known; it re- 
news the sight of the old, and assists the curiosity of the young; it em- 
powers the mariner to descry distant ships and to trace far-off shores, 
and the lounger to make the tour of the circles from his stall; it pre- 
serves the light of the beacon from the rush of the tempest, and softens 
the flames of the lamps upon our table; it supplies the revel with those 
charming vessels in whose brightness we enjoy the color as well as the 
flavor of the wine; it protects the dial, whose movements it reveals; it 
enables the student to penetrate the wonders of nature, and the beauty 



292 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

to survey the marvels of her person ; it reflects, magnifies, and dimin- 
ishes; as a medium of light and observation, its uses are without limit; 
and, as an article of mere embellishment, there is no form iuto which it 
may not be moulded, or no object of luxury to which it may not be 
adapted. " — Bentley s Magazine. 

" A school-boy is puzzled with a difficult sum : a riddle puzzles those 
who try to guess it: we are perplexed by the subtleties of a casuist, or 
in the midst of conflicting opinions: a rustic is embarrassed in the pres- 
ence of his superiors, or the traveler in trying to speak a foreign 
tongue." — Whately. 

" He spoke: and, to confirm his words, outflew 
Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs 
Of mighty cherubim ; the sudden blaze 
Far round illumined Hell: highly they raged 
Against the Highest, and fierce with grasped arms 
Clashed on their sounding shields the din of war, 
Hurling defiance towards the vault of Heaven." — Milton. 

" The comparative degree of an adjective or adverb requires than after 
it: as, 'That is better than this;' ' She seemed more lovely than ever; ' 
1 It is more than I expected.' " — Picket. 

A superior point is often preferred because the next inferior is used to 
subdivide the parts to be separated. 

A superior point is often preferred because the connecting word has 
been omitted before which the next inferior point would have been 
proper. 

The colon frequently separates two related parts having no connective, of 
which the latter seems to be derived from the former: it suggests an- 
other gush from the same source. The semicolon frequently separates 
parts not so related, but coordinate and accumulative, or having a com- 
mon dependence on something else: it suggests the gathering flow of 
many waters from the same mountain. 

"The pride of wealth is contemptible; the pride of learning is piti- 
able; the pride of dignity is ridiculous; but the pride of bigotry is in- 
supportable." Here the dash would have been too sentimental; the 
comma would have slurred the mutter over too lightly; the colon would 
have suggested a different connection in thought ; the period would have 
been too deliberate; but the semicolon gives due distinction to the parts, 
and the greatest energy to the whole sentence. 

" My comrade, on the contrary, made himself quite one of the family; 
laughed and chatted with them." Here the insertion of and before 
"laughed" would require the comma; the insertion of Ae, the colon. 

"Where are they who taught these stones to grieve; where are the 
hands that hewed them; and the hearts that reared them ? " 

"Where are they who taught these stones to grieve; where are the 
hands that hewed them, and the hearts that reared them ? " Here the 
first part of the latter sentence is contrasted with the other two parts 
jointly; but in the former, the three parts are regarded alike, — that is, 
" The dead, their friends, and they who were not their friends, have alike 
passed away." 

"The bill passed without amendment ; though it never received the 
royal assent." 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 293 

" The bill passed without amendment, though it never received the 
royal assent." 

Here the former sentence does not make the royal assent a customary 
previous requisite to the. passage of bills; while the latter may suggest, 
that the royal assent was usually given or needed before they passed 
into law. 

" Glass is impermeable to water, suffers no diminution of its weight 
or quality by being melted down, is capable of receiving and retaining 
the most lustrous colors, is susceptible of the most perfect polish, 
can be carved or sculptured like stone or metal, never loses a fraction 
of its substance by constant use, and, notwithstanding its origin, is so 
insensible to the action of acids that it is employed by chemists for pur- 
poses to which no other substance can be applied." — Bentley's Magazine. 
Here the parts separated, make incomplete sense; while those in a sim- 
ilar paragraph previously given on the same subject, are complete in 
sense. Compare the two paragraphs. 

u :such is war!" refers to the rest of the same sentence; but 
".Such is war!" refers to several preceding sentences, or to the entire 
previous discourse. This remark applies also to other expressions used 
in a similar way. 

4. COMMA. 

There seems to be in use a redundant mode of punctuating, and also a 
sparing one; (called, by printers, close punctuation and free punctuation;) 
which difference is particularly observable in the use of the comma. 

Ex. — " He then, with great effort, did, by sheer strength, sustained 
by determination, move the mass, from the position it, at first, occupied, 
to one, at least forty yards distant, and. but for impediments, would, had 
time been given him, have moved it, with ease, and precision, to the po- 
sition, where, for the progress of the work, it was required." — Punctua- 
tion made Plain. 

" A cool and philosophical observer would undoubtedly have pronoun- 
ced that all the evil arising from ail the intolerant laws which Parlia- 
ment had framed w 7 as not to be compared to the evil which would be 
produced by a transfer of the legislative power from the Parliament to 
the sovereign." — Macaulay. 

The Germans use the latter or free mode of punctuating; and 
there seems to be some tendency among the English to adopt it too. We 
shall endeavor to pursue a middle course between the two modes. 

(Clauses. — Clauses too closely relattd to be separated.) " The study of 
the history of most other nations fills the mind with sentiments not un- 
like those w r hich the American traveler feels on entering the venerable 
and lofty cathedral of some proud old city of Europe." — Verplanck. 

" I am lodged in a house that affords me conveniences and comforts 
which even a king could not command some centuries ago." 

"Men of literature found it necessary to contribute their occasional 
effusions to a paper in which they were sure to be read by those who 
could realize and understand the various species of ironical remarks 
practised on the devotees of fashion." 

" It is then impossible to doubt what his conduct would have been if 
his people had suffered him to proceed without any check." 



294 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

"It was evident that a considerable time must elapse before judgment 
could be given in so great a number of cases." 

"The burning heart of Burns bears as little resemblance to the lively 
intellect of Beranger as the lightning does to the lamp." — Eclectic Maga- 
zine. 

" The toad never sped better than when he did his own errand." 

"He had treated with contempt the suggestion that an extreme case 
might possibly arise which would justify a people in drawing the sword 
against tyranny." 

" We do not look to the question whether he has children to be bene- 
fited by the education for which he pays." 

( Compound clauses separated.) " Suppress the first desires of evil as soon 
as they arise, and extinguish the spark before it spreads." " We weep over 
the dead because they have no life, and over the living because they have 
no perfection." " No errors are so trivial but they deserve to be mended, 
and no sin is so slight but it should be repented of and renounced." " Chau- 
cer most frequently describes things as they are, Spenser as we wish 
them be, Shakspeare as they would be, and Milton as they ought to be." 

( Clauses separated, conjunctive or adverbial ; connective sometimes under- 
stood and sometimes expressed; cl uses sometimes elliptical.) " My manhood 
should have borne the fruits of wisdom, and behold it has crowned itself 
with the gray sorrows of experience." (Structure and subjects different.) 

The clauses may be bound together in sense by any of the different 
relations which conjunctions and connecting adverbs can express; name- 
ly, simple continuance, alternativeness, comparison, concession, condi- 
tion or doubt, contrariety or reservation, cause or reason, consequence or 
inference, purpose or motive, lime, place, manner, emphasis, &c. — See 
Book First. 

" And let no one imagine, as too many are apt to do, that it is a mat- 
ter of indifference what thoughts he entertains in his heart." " If it be 
in the spring of the year, and the young grass has just covered the 
ground with a carpet of delicate green, and especially if the sun is rising 
from behind a distant swell of the plain, no scene can be more lovely to 
the eye." "But occasions are past, the hour of their reckoning is nigh 
at hand, even now my twilight is coming on, and my hopes are darkening 
into regrets." (Structure somewhat similar.) "There mountains rise, 
and circling oceans How." "The morning was pure and sunny, the 
fields were white with daisies, the hawthorn was covered with its fra- 
grant blossoms, the bee hummed about every bank, and the swallow play- 
ed high in the air about the village steeple.'' — Irving. (Structure simi- 
lar; subjects allied.) "The rain fell in sheets, the thunder rolled, the 
lightning Hashed fierce and lurid, and the wind swept in gusts over the 
thicket as though [as if] it would uproot it altogether." — Id. "He is a 
better man who wisely speaks, than he who talks at random." " No 
sooner are we supplied with every thing that nature demands, than we 
sit down to contrive artificial appetites." (Same subject, throughout.) 
" Work while you work, and play while you play." "As the little cloud 
sailed along, she saw below her the poor laborers toiling 'in the sweat 
of their brows,' while she was wafted along by the light breath of mor- 
ning, free from care and toil." " Tide life, tide death, 1 come without 
delay." "How wretched, were I mortal, were my state." 



PUNCTUATION.— COMMA. 295 

Observe that a clause may frequently either precede another, or follow 
it, or be embossomed in it. 

" What you leave at your death, let it be without controversy, else 
the lawyers will be your heirs." " If sinners entice thee, consent thou 
not." "Too much attention can not be paid to accuracy of articula- 
tion at a time when the organs of speech are pliable, and the most 
lasting impressions are produced." "Sometimes a bear will dance by 
himself, while the others squat down and look on as if criticising the per- 
formance." "Mary's mouth costs her nothing, for she never opens'' it 
but at others' expense." " Notwithstanding the rout and precipitate 
retreat of the American army, Sir William Howe did not press the pur- 
suit, but passed the night on the field of battle, and remained the two 
following days at Dilworth, sending out detachments to take post at 
Concord and Chester, and seize on Wilmington, whither the sick and 
wounded were conveyed." "Solomon built his temple of the tallest 
cedars, and surely God does not wish to build up his church with indo- 
lent blockheads." " As great and good in peace as he was great and 
good in war, King Alfred never rested from his labors to improve his 
people." "When I have got together as much wealth as lean wel.\ 
desire, I will make a purchase of the finest house I can find." "I had 
gone up the river nearly two miles, when, coming to a little stream 
which emptied into the larger, I turned into explore it." "And yet, 
after all, it is man, it is mind, it is intelligent spirit, that gives to this 
grand theatre of the material universe all its worth, all its glory ! " 
" Since life is short, let us not be too solicitous about the future." "I 
can not succeed, unless my friends assist me." 

"Truths would you teach to save a sinking land, 
All shun, none aid you, and few understand." — Pope. 

"If a more perfect union was formed, if justice was administered, if 
domestic tranquillity was secured, if the common defence was provided 
for, if the general welfare was promoted, it was all for the attainment 
of this. end." " As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made 
alive." "Though grass was abundant, yet hay is scarce and dear. 7 
"Whatever we ardently wish to gain, we must in the same degree be 
afraid to lose." " Where the carcass is, there will the eagles be gath- 
ered together." " So violent were the wind and rain, that our wheat 
was destroyed." "Whether he is guilty or guiltless, he should be driv- 
en out of the neighborhood." " Whatever may be the quantity of sleep 
required, early rising is essential to health, and promotes longevity." 
" Either a sterner course must be pursued with him, or he must be sent 
to some other school." " 1 go, but I return." " When you hear this, 
then fly." " No great travelers are we, yet have we seen something of 
this habitable globe." " When public bodies are to be addressed on 
momentous occasions, when great interests are at stake, and strong pas- 
sions excited, nothing is valuable in speech, farther than it is connected 
with high intellectual and moral endowments." 

" Whatever talents you may possess, whatever advantages you have 
received from nature and education, with whatever perfections you may 
be endowed, expect the suffrage of only a small portion of mankind." 
" As goods when lost, we know are seldom found, 
As fading gloss no rubbing can excite, 



296 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

As flowers when dead are trampled on the ground, 

As broken glass no cement can unite, 

So beauty, blemished once, is ever lost, 

In spite of physic, painting, pains, and cost." — Shak. 
Here some punctuators would have preferred a semicolon after 
"unite." 

" Such a state of things, do what he will, can not last long." "But 
his "force, such as it was, marched unopposed through the country." 
" The clouds looked, as it were, with joyance on the beautiful scenery 
below." " This account, it is said, was found by a Whig bookseller." 
" Bright as he is, he is not so brilliant as his brother." " Wealth is of 
no real use, except it be well employed." " The more we have, the 
more we want." " Such was the terrible explosion of the boat, that not 
a life was saved." " Such as the youth is, such will be the man." 

{Elliptical.} "The day I did not sweep the house, there came to it 
one I did not expect." " Be determined that no trial shall overcome 
your patience, and no impediment conquer your perseverance." " If 
so, the worst might well be expected." "Say, shall my little bark 
attendant sail?" "What a hush in the forest, as if the winds were 
frozen!" "The wind was the keenest, and the snow the deepest, that 
ever annoyed a traveler." " The wise man is happy when he gains his 
own approbation, and the fool when he recommends himself to the 
applause of others." " And there was now no talk, no hope, no work, 
but dig gold, wash gold, refine gold, load gold." " Husbands were torn 
from their wives, and children from their parents." " Mirth is short 
and transient, cheerfulness Sxed and permanent." " Silence is some- 
times more significant than the most noble and most expressive elo- 
quence, and is on many occasions the indication of a great mind." 
" Here naked rocks and empty wastes were seen, 
There towering cities and the forest green." — Pope. 
" There was a greater variety of colors in the embroidery of the 
meadows, a more lively green in the leaves and grass, a brighter crystal 
in the streams, than what I ever met with in any other region." " The 
variety of wild fruits and flowering shrubs is so great, and such the pro- 
fusion of blossoms with which they are bowed down, that the eye is 
regaled almost to satiety." " In proportion as nations get corrupt, more 
disgrace will attach to poverty, and more respect to wealth." "The 
ideas which he had accumulated, existed in his head, not as a huge 
chaos, but as clear and well-organized systems, illustrative of every 
subject, and subservient to every call." 

The parts of the sentence, including dependent clauses. 
(The principal parts.) ( The subject not separated from the predicate.) 
" It is certain that success naturally confirms us in a favorable opinion 
of ourselves." " There trees and intermingled temples rise." " Here 
naked rocks and empty wastes were seen." "The real security of 
Christianity is to be found in its benevolent morality." "One cry of 
grief and rage rose from the Avhole of Protestant Europe." " Surely 
never was there so pretty a smile." " Perhaps in this neglected spot is 
laid Some heart once pregnant with celestial fire." "Here rests his 
head upon the lap of earth A youth to fortune and to fame unknown." 
A comma after "earth " would make the sentence read as if " head " 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 297 

were the subject of "rests." "A proud, conceited, simpering spark now 
talked of this, and then of that.'' "A bee among the flowers in spring is one 
of the most eheerful objects that can be looked upon." I should rather 
insert a comma between "spring" and "is." So, "The ability to read 
aloud in an easy and agreeable manner A ought to rank first among the 
physical and intellectual accomplishments of the young." So, "To 
think correctly A is a great accomplishment." So, "Let men say what- 
e'er they will, Woman, woman A rules them still." "Bitter resentment 
and cruel apprehension took the place of love and confidence." "The 
blossoms of spring and the fruits of autumn give pleasure to the soul." 
"Every lawyer in high practice was overwhelmed with briefs." "The 
good taste of the present age has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation 
of the English language." "When the simple and fervent love-poets of 
our pastoral 'times first applied to the maiden the words 'my bonny 
birdie,'" &c. "To be contents his natural desire." "The variety of 
wild fruits and flowering shrubs is so great, and such the profu- 
sion" &c. "Did a father and a mother ever watch over him?" "At 
once came forth whatever creeps." "The poet Milton was blind." 
"Bishops Jewell and Burnet rose every morning at 4 o'clock." "All 
such attempts to tax the Americans must be vain." "A word once 
uttered can never be recalled." "Dangers avoided inspire trust in 
Providence." 

[The subject separated from the predicate.) "He that has much nose, 
thinks every one speaks of it." "He who wants to be rich in a year, 
comes to the gallows in half a year." " He that falls in love with him- 
self, will have no rivals." "The common charge against those who rise 
above their condition, is pride." "The officer who commanded the 
army to which I was attached, was old and experienced." "As many as 
wish to go, may go." "Whoever considers the weakness both of himself 
and of others, will not long want persuasives to forgiveness." "What- 
ever contents you, will also content me." "Whatever is, is right." 
" Who does nothing, knows nothing." " The eye, that sees all things, 
sees not itself." '* Divide and conquer, is a principle equally just in 
science as [and] in policy." " To talk intentionally in a manner above 
the comprehension of those we address, is pedantry." " To be always 
attentively observing what is passing around them, is one of the means 
by which men improve their circumstances." " To maintain a steady 
course amid all the adversities of life, marks a great mind." "That 
wonder is the effect of ignorance, has been observed." " That it is so, 
has been made evident." "That you have wronged me, doth appear in 
this." "What the design of these men was, has never been ascertained." 

"Let us stick to the broad, common highway, and do our best there, 
was the instinctive feeling of the man." "Trees growing at the base of 
mountains, are taller than those on the summit." "The defendant 
served, moved to set aside the summons." " A man devoted to his busi- 
ness, prospers." "A noun used without an article to limit it, is taken in 
its widest sense." " The carriage and horses necessary to conduct you 
there, will be here early in the morning." "That man, unassisted, has 
done more than many others in double the time." "Rochester, disap- 
pointed and muttering, consented to serve." " Her magnificent hair, 
black and glossy as a raven's wing, fell in thick clusters almost, to her 
knees." "Bodily exercise, especially in the open air, is of the greatest 



298 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

importance to health." "Sir Isaac Newton, on being asked how he 
had discovered the system of the universe, replied, ' By continually 
thinking upon it.'" "The mother, to save her infant, sacrificed her- 
self." "George Washington, when a boy, had made preparations to go 
to sea, as a midshipman." " Wealth, wealth, is the chief aim of most, 
people." "Honor, affluence, and pleasure, seduce the heart." "Do not 
honor, affluence, and pleasure, seduce the heart?" "Homer, the great- 
est poet of antiquity, is said to have been blind." "You, my friend, 
will need another cupful." "The poor and the rich, the weak and the 
strong, have all one Father." " No disturbance, however, took place." 
"Dajr after day, and, at last, hour after hour, rolled heavily away." 
"Flames above, around, beneath, and within, devoured the edifice." 

Some punctuists rarely separate the verb from its subject, or the 
similar parts connected by a conjunction. 

"But truth A and virtue A and religion A would fall with him." "The 
streets, the balconies A and the very house-tops A were crowded with 
gazers." "Whoever sins A is the slave of sin." "Whatever is done 
skillfully A appears to be done easily." "The disputes between the 
majority which supported the stadtholder and the minority headed by 
the magistrates of Amsterdam A had repeatedly run so high that blood- 
shed seemed inevitable." — Macaulay. "It was impossible that a con- 
spiracy so widely spread as that of which Churchill was the head A could 
be kept altogether secret." — Id. 

In the foregoing sentences, we would have inserted the comma where 
the carets are. But in the following and such examples, the comma is 
perhaps properly omitted from the sub-parts, because the longer parts 
themselves admit only the comma. 

" The voyages of Gosnold A and Smith A and Hudson, the enterprise of 
Raleigh A and Delaware A and Gorges, the compilations of Eden A and 
Willis A and A Hakluyt, had filled the commercial world with wonder." — 
Bancroft. " How completely the relation in which the king stood to 
his Parliament and to his ministers A had been altered by the Revolu- 
tion, was not at first understood even by the most enlightened states- 
men." — Macaulay. " That men who are in the habit of breaking faith A 
should be disturbed when they mean to keep it, is a part of their just 
and natural punishment." — Id. "Since life is itself uncertain, nothing 
which has life for its basis A can have much stability." In the following, 
the comma was needlessly omitted to show that but one person was 
wanted: " Wanted — X first-rate cook A washer A and ironer, to do the 
work of a family of four persons." The article not repeated, makes 
the meaning sufficiently clear. 

When the latter part of the clause is very short, and when the two 
clauses are bound together by a relative pronoun relating to both, it 
may sometimes be better to omit the comma. "But the most deeply 
injured of all who survived the evil times A was absent." "Then came 
forth A whatever creeps." "Whatever improves him A delights him." 
Here many would insert the comma where the carets are. 

When the entire subject is a clause, or has a clause, a long phrase, or 
parts requiring the comma; or when it ends in a noun that might be 
read as the nominative; or when a word precedes the verb that would 
otherwise be of doubtful character or reference, — it seems best to separ 
ate the subject from its predicate. The pause seems to have at least 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 299 

this advantage, — that it gives the speaker a little time to select the proper 
form of the verb; and the hearer, to comprehend fully what it is of which 
something is about to be said. 

Before or after a part that usually rejects the comma, it is frequently 
inserted merely because it is also required within the part. " Industry, 
honesty, and temperance, are essential to happiness." " The number 
of those royalists, who, if James would have acknowledged his mistakes 
and promised to observe the laws, were ready to rally round him, was 
very large." ( — those royalists who were ready — ) "Every letter, every 
rumor, that found its way from St. Germains to England." (Every letter 
that found — ) "It is certain, that, in the declension of taste and sci- 
ence, language will degenerate." It is certain that language will 
degenerate. 

(Subjects not parted.) "Seed-time and harvest shall never fail." 
" The little boy and the old Indian chief were great friends." " Neither 
the love of fame nor the fear of shame can make him stoop to an unjust 
action.'' " The second and the third epistle of John are each but one 
short chapter." " To feel no guilt and to fear no accusation, is the pre- 
rogative of innocence." " That the king would retreat or that the people 
would lay down their arms, was not to be expected." 

(Subjects parted.) " Hedges, trees, groves, gardens, orchards, woods, 
farm-houses, huts, halls, mansions, palaces, spires, steeples, towers, and 
temples, all go wavering by, as the steed skims along, to the swelling or 
sinking music of the hounds, now loud as a clear regimental band, now 
faint as an echo." — Prof. Wilson. 

" His magnificence, his taste, his classical learning, his high spirit, the 
grace and urbanity of his manners, were admitted by his enemies." — 
Macaulay. 

" But, in truth, that amplitude and acuteness of intellect, that vivacity 
of fancy, that terse and energetic style, that placid dignity, half courtly, 
half philosophical, which the utmost excitement of conflict could not for 
a moment derange, belonged to Halifax, and to Halifax alone." — Id. 
Observe that the relative clause refers to each particular, otherwise the 
semicolon should have been used. 

" Wild mirth, wild love, wild despair, all the big passions of a giant, 
glow in the songs of Burns." — Review. " Neither men, nor animals, nor 
vegetables, can live, if the air which surrounds them is not constantly 
renewed." " No virtue, no eminence, conferred security." "Love, and 
love only, is the loan for love " " Strong proofs, not a loud voice, pro- 
duce conviction." "Prudence, as well as courage, is necessary to over- 
come obstacles." " Not a loud voice, but strong proofs produce convic- 
tion." "My poverty, but not my will, consents." "None, but thou, 
can aid us." " Can pleasures, or riches, or honors, cure a guilty con- 
science?" "Were not Homer, Virgil, and Horace, early risers?' 7 
" l\Ien and women, the old and the young, the resisting and the helpless, 
were all massacred." " The industrious, the active-minded, the enthusi- 
astic in pursuit of knowledge or gain, are up betimes at their respective 
occupations." " That distinguished lawyer, statesman, and philosopher, 
was not one of the party." "There was a native dignity, a reality, an 
English genuineness about the man, legible in his whole life, and very en- 
gaging." I should rather put a comma before " about," and a semicolon 
before " legible." " On that side are toil, hunger, nakedness, the 



300 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

drenching storm, and death." " Never did a single encouraging re- 
mark, a bright hope, or a warm wish, cross my path." " There is no 
ambition however petty, no wish however absurd, that by indulgence 
will not be enabled to overpower the influence of virtue." "And all 
that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave." " The wit whose vivacity con- 
demns slower tongues to silence, the scholar whose knowledge allows 
no man to fancy that he instructs him, the critic who suffers no fallacy 
to pass undetected, and the reasoner who condemns the idle to thought 
and the negligent to attention, are generally praised and feared, rever- 
enced and avoided." " AVhat worlds, and systems of worlds, exist beyond 
the solar system ; and what various beings inhabit them, if any, — must 
forever remain a mystery with us." " ' This picture of my friend,' and 
1 This picture of my friend's,' suggest very different ideas." 

" To be wise in our own eyes, to be wise in the opinion of the world, 
and to be wise in the sight of our Creator, are three things so very dif- 
ferent as rarely to coincide." " To spread suspicions, to invent calum- 
nies, to propagate scandal, requires neither labor nor courage." 

(Predicates not parted.) " Here thy temple was and is." "Reproof 
either hardens or softens its object." " This man he had both feared and 
hated." " The proper authorities were overlooked or but slightly ex- 
amined." " He was sent back to Scotland and brought to trial." " Not 
an eminent orator has lived but is an example of it." " Where more is 
meant than meets the eye." " He betrayed as well as bribed the man." 
{Predicates parted.) " I wash, rinse, scour, cook, brew, make up the 
beds, and do all myself." " Bailie seems also to have been upon the 
spot, and expressly confirms the testimony of Burnet." " Slowly and 
sadly they climb the distant mountains, and read their doom in the 
setting sun." " But no such rule had ever been, or ever would be, 
formed." Here the comma is needed before " formed," to show that it 
relates to both " be" and " been." " The water was as bright and clear, 
and deemed as precious, as liquid diamonds." The comma before " as" 
shows that the phrase refers to both the preceding phrases. " I have 
seen all, heard all." 

"He who acquainteth others with his moan, 

Adds to his friend's grief, but not cures his own." 
" He tried each art, reproved each dull delay, 

Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way." — Goldsmith. 
" Wept o'er his wounds, or, tales of sorrow done, (being done, ) 
Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won." — Id. 
Observe that "or" refers to "shouldered," and how the omission of 
the comma after it would change the sense. " Go to the ant, thou slug- 
gard; consider her ways, and be wise." "All such attempts to tax the 
Americans must be vain, must be fatal." "A promise should be given 
with caution, and kept with care." Here the latter phrase is added sig- 
nificantly or as a sort of afterthought. " One eye had lost its pupil, and 
was glaring." " Strike till revenged, or fall." " He is, and ought to be, 
one of the directors." Were the comma omitted after "is," the sense 
would be — is to be and ought to be — "Thus language, in its successive 
stages, is not made, but grows." " Neither has he been treated with 
humanity, nor received any compensation whatever." " One calm sum- 
mer's evening, as he climbed a commanding ridge, and looked out upon 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 301 

the remote venerable mountains and the nearer ample plains, and caught 
a glimpse in the distance, of the Ohio, which bounded the land of his 
affections with majestic grandeur, his heart exulted in the region he had 
discovered." — Life of Boone. Notice the punctuation of the foregoing 
sentence carefully. " The prairies of Iowa are covered with a rich coat 
of grass, forming excellent pasturage, and are not unfrequently inter- 
spersed with hazel thickets, and sassafras shrubs, and in the season of 
flowers are decked with a brilliant garniture of honey-suckles, jessa- 
mines, wild-roses, and violets.'' — Colton. 

( Predicate-nominative not set off.) " The love of money is the root of 
all evil." " The world in which we live, is not our home." " Wash- 
ington was appointed commander-in-chief." " To be elected to the legis- 
lature was the highest object of his ambition." " To analyze a sentence 
is to name its constituent parts." 

[Predicate-nominative sei off.) "One of the greatest secrets in compo- 
sition is, to known when to be simple." " Their service was, to grind the 
corn and carry the baggage." "And all our knowledge is, ourselves to 
know." "The basis of our political system is, the right of the people to 
make and alter their constitutions of government." "Our intention is, 
to start early in the morning." " The phrase being, 'Not to know one- 
self.' " " The consequence is, that most animals have acquired a fear of 
man." " The great mystery about the theft was, that the door was 
found still locked as before." "But the question is, are these examples 
correct in syntax." — G. Brown. "All that a man gets by lying, is, that 
he is not believed when he speaks the truth." "The question that is to 
be discussed to-night by the speakers, is, ' Would the Extension of our 
Territory endanger our Liberties? ' " 

[Predicate-nominatives separated.) "Money is the bane of bliss, and 
source of woe." Without the comma, "bane " would refer to "source of 
woe" as well as to "bliss." "Learning is the ally, not the adversary, 
of genius." "Truth is not a stagnant pool, but a fountain." " To die for 
truth is not to die for one's country, but for the whole world." 

( Objective not separated from its verb.) "No other country could show 
such skillful and wary leaders of parties." " Who gives and takes the 
color of the rose." "The nation considered him as the proper chief of 
the administration." "He determined to keep the entire direction of 
maritime affairs in his own hands." " We would resist, repel them, if 
they encroached on our lands." "We would oppose, resist, and repel 
such intrusion." "What is now called a ministry he did not think of 
forming." When the related parts form by inversion the extremities of 
the same clause, they are usually punctuated as if they stood in juxta- 
position. "Such a horse I would never buy." "I would never buy such 
a horse." "Do you know whether the mail has arrived?" 

(Objective separated from its verb.) "The locusts injured, destroyed, 
whatever they touched." "We would oppose, resist, repel, such intru- 
sion." "I had written to their mother in England, that the children 
were in extreme danger." "It requires but little reflection to perceive, 
that whatever veils a future world, and contracts the limits of exist- 
ence within the present life, must tend to diminish the grandeur of man." 
"'Knowledge is power,' says the father of modern philosophy.' " "Out 
spoke the hardy Highland wight, 'I'll go, my chief — I'm ready.' " "On 



302 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

being rescued, he exclaimed, 'What a fool was I, not to distinguish a 
monkey from a bear.' " 

( Objectives parted.) "The soil produces corn, tobacco, hemp, wheat, 
and grass, remarkably well." "Here he brought her the choicest food, 
the finest clothing, mats for her bed, and sandal-wood oil to perfume 
herself." "Evening brings the wanderer to his home, the child to his 
mother's arms, the ox to his stall, and the weary laborer to his rest." 
"The males evidently have not the quick sensibilities, the acute percep- 
tions, of most other races." "I never knew what he did, where he lived, 
or what became of him." "He intended to move to the West, to pur- 
chase him a farm, and to end his days on it in peace and quiet." "The 
hurricane even tore down enclosures that had been /ately made, trees 
that had stood for ages, and mansions that had been built of stone." 

(Serial parts.) No point is used to separate but two similar parts 
having a connective, and depending on the same part in common, unless 
one of the parts is strongly emphatic or parenthetic, or requires an 
unusual pause. 

A point is used to separate serial parts having a common dependence, 
when there are more than two parts, when the connective between two 
parts is omitted, when there is something belonging to one of the parts 
only that might otherwise be. improperly referred to the other also, and 
sometimes when the parts are very long. 

(Relative clauses.) "The few who [that] had escaped untouched, could 
scarcely relate the nature of the terrible trap into which they had been 
decoyed." (Restrictive, hence unpointed.) "He was a man whom 
nothing could turn aside from the path which duty pointe 1 out." "It is 
Poverty who cultivates the fields and prunes the trees." "He deserved 
neither the reproaches which had been cast upon him while the event 
was doubtful, nor the praises which he received when it had proved 
happy." Observe that both the relative and the adverbial clauses in 
the foregoing sentence are restrictive. "Every man that has felt pain, 
knows how little all other comforts can gladden him to whom health is 
denied." "Such men as he is, are never contented." "I plucked such 
plums as w^ere ripe." "No society, of which moral men are not the 
stamina, can endure long." Here the comma before "of" prevents 
obscurity or ambiguity. "The town lay at the foot of a hill, which he 
climbed." Here the relative is not restrictive. 

The comma is often used even before restrictive relatives because it is 
also required within one or both the parts. 

"' Tis being, and doing, and having, that make 
All the pleasures and pains of which mortals partake." 
" A mimic I knew, who, to give him his due, 
Was exceeded by none and was equaled by few." 

"Oh, the fool, the silly fool, who trusts what man may be." " I will 
sell you whatever you wish to buy." " As we are, in a great measure, 
what our forefathers made us, so our posterity will be what we make 
them." "Whoever sins, must suffer." "Whoever is not contented in 
poverty, would not be perfectly happy with riches." "It is such men 
as he is, that bring the party into disrepute." " Where is the mother, 
who would willingly forget the infant that has perished like a blossom 
from her arms?" Though the latter partis long, I should still have 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 303 

omitted the comma after "mother." "While we revere the memory of 
our gallant and virtuous ancestors, we never will, we never can, sur- 
render those glorious privileges, for which they fought, bled, and con- 
quered." It is not clear whether the last clause is restrictive or not; 
but if it is, 1 should have omitted the comma after "privileges." 

(Adjectives and adjective phrases.) "It is a very profitable and agree- 
able business." "Indians are of a tawny or cinnamon color." "He 
used very forcible but courteous language." "A rich and handsome 
young lady she was." " He has bought two large beautiful gray horses." 
Here each adjective modifies all that follows it. "Molest her ancient 
solitary reign." "How jocund did they drive their teams afield." 
Here the adjective refers also to the verb. "The hand of the diligent 
maketh rich." "Thou makest 1 he earth soft with showers." "Leave 
the lily pale, and tinge the violet blue." "All men agree to call vinegar 
sour, honey sweet, and aloes bitter." "Dappled horses turn white." 
" Johnson came to London poor and friendless." " Aristides was called 
by the Athenians just." "Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of 
death." ( — the dull and cold ear — ) " A rose's brief, bright life of joy." 
"It is morning, and a morning sweet, fresh, and delightful." — Webster. 
( — a morning that is — . Restrictive relative.) "Search the records of 
our own race, and point me if you can, to a scene more grand, more 
beautiful." "Oh wretched state! Oh bosom black as death!" "A 
man diligent in business, prospers." "The occupant of the house 
opened the door, and beheld before him a stranger, pale and haggard." 
( — a stranger, who was pale and haggard. The relative, not restrictive.) 
" There was a Grecian liberty, bold and powerful, full of spirit, elo- 
quence, and fire." "The whole world swarms with life, animal and 
vegetable." "The virgin, comely as the dewy rose." "The flowers, so 
fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental, seem to have been tastefully dis- 
posed to adorn the scene." ( — flowers, which are so fragile, — ) "We 
dislike all misery, voluntary or involuntary." (An adjective, " all," pre- 
cedes the noun; besides, the latter part is rather equivalent to a clause 
that adds something.) "Far above us towered an iron-bound coast, 
dark, desolate, barren, precipitous, against which the long, rolling swell 
of the Pacific broke with a dull, disheartening roar." " A virgin of 
eighteen, straight and tall, bright, blooming, and balmy, seems, to our 
old age, a very beautiful and delightful object." Here "straight" 
and " tall " do not refer to " eighteen," but to " virgin " ; hence the com- 
ma before "straight." "Henry died in the Roman rather than in the 
Protestant faith." — Macaulay. Here " faith " is too short to admit the 
comma, especially as the sense is sufficiently clear without the comma. 
"They were received without distinction in public, and consequently in 
private, payments." "This street is an important, if not the principal, 
highway in the city." "Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, 
vain." " The air was clear, calm, and bracing." " Calm, attentive, and 
cheerful, he confutes more gracefully than others compliment." "Then 
followed a Ion/, a strange, a glorious conflict of genius against power." 
"Hamilton was more declamatory, imaginative, and poetical; Burr, 
clear, pointed, concise, and compact." " But envy is so base and detest- 
able, so vile in its original, and so pernicious in its effects, that the pre- 
dominance of almost any other quality is to be preferred." "The man 
that is prudent, energetic, will succeed." " Feeble, abortive, and fleeting 



304 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

has been the time that I have passed.' : "Feeble, abortive, fleeting, has 
been the time that I have passed." 

" Thou art, and wert, and shall be, glorious, great, 

Life-giving, life-sustaining Potentate." 
" Unthinking, idle, wild, and young, 

I laughed and danced, I talked and sung; 

And, proud of health, of freedom vain, 

Dreamed not of sorrow, care, or pain." 
" Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest; 

Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood." 
" Correct with spirit, eloquent with ease, 

Intent to reason, or polite to please." 
"The little, round buds unfolded into broad white blossoms in the 
June sunshine; and, when they had fallen, the tiny green fruit grew 
larger day by day, until it hung ripe, and red, and beautiful, from the 
stem. Now when I see a little, ragged, untaught child, it always makes 
me think of the little, lonely blossom that was born to wintry days, and 
could bear no fruit." 

" High upon a bough, might have tempted a brute, 

Large, glossy, and black, hung the beautiful fruit." 
" There, in the twilight cold and gray, 
Lifeless but beautiful he lay." 
[Participles and participial phrases.) "The Avork is not worth the 
labor and money expended upon it." (Restrictive.) " He had a daugh- 
ter, betrothed to a chief." (He had but one daughter.) "He had a 
daughter betrothed to a chief" (He had more daughters than one.) 
"He had a beautiful daughter, betrothed to a chief." ( — , and she was 
betrothed to — ) " And thus every act of kindness done, whether 
acknowledged or not, opens a well-spring of happiness in the doer's 
own breast." "Done" is restrictive, "acknowledged" is not. "There 
are twenty-six senators, distinguished for their wisdom, not elevated by 
popular favor, but chosen by a select body of men." "Is it not a mel- . 
ancholy thing to see a man, clothed in soft raiment, lodged in a public 
palace, and endowed with a rich portion of other men's industry, using 
all the influence of his splendid situation, however unconsciously, to 
deepen the ignorance and inflame the fury of his fellow-creatures?" — S. 
Smith. Observe that "distinguished" is not restrictive, and "clothed" 
does not relate to "see." and is parenthetical, and hence set off; and 
that "using," thougli^Pestrictive, is separated from the noun "man" 
by intervening words. "To work they went, lopping, hewing, clear- 
ing." "Our recruits stood shivering, and rubbing their hands, in 
groups on the deck of their troop-boat." The comma after "shivering" 
prevents it from governing "hands." "The tree fell thundering to the 
ground." (Fell how?) "Germany, exasperated, deserted his cause." 
( — , having been exasperated — ) " On the brink where the river, shud- 
dering, makes its awful plunge." ( — , first shuddering, then makes — ) 
" The most accomplished women, generally speaking, make the worst 
wives." "And behold, a certain lawyer stood up, and tempted him, 
saying, ' Master, what shall I do to inherit eternal life.' " " William 
had compassion on him, and was fearful that he would perish, lying 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 305 

there in the road exposed to the bleak winds." "It flowed through my 
garden, murmuring its plaintive song." " He departed this life, aged 
thirty-five years." "Their name, their years, spelt by the unlettered 
muse." " On the fourth morning, Seged rose early, refreshed with 
sleep, vigorous with health, and eager with expectation." "The blast 
seemed to bear away the sound of the voice, permitting nothing to be 
heard but its own wild howling, mingled with the creaking and rattling 
of the cordage, and the hoarse thunder of the surges, striving like savage 
beasts for our destruction." "Ores are called native or natural com- 
pounds, being produced by nature." "The people being thus aban- 
doned by their king, put out of his protection, declared in a state of 
rebellion, and treated as enemies, the social compact which had united 
the monarch to his subjects was at an end." " Halifax, mortified by 
his mischances in public life, dejected by domestic calamities, disturbed 
by apprehensions of an impeachment, and no longer supported by royal 
favor, became sick of public life, and began to pine for the silence and 
solitude of his seat in Nottinghamshire an old Cistercian abbey buried 
deep among woods." — Macaulay. "Thus saying, the soldier sank upon 
his shield and died." " Having nothing else to do, I went." 

' " Tired of his toilsome flight, and parched with heat, 
He spied, at length, a cavern's cool retreat." 

" Singing through .the forests, Rattling over ridges, Shooting under 
arches, Rumbling over bridges," &c. " Having the inward life, men can 
not conceal it; having divine treasures, they will not hoard them." 
" Supper being ended, our host left us." " Physicians, the disease once 
discovered, think the cure half wrought." 

" The service past, around the pious man, 
With ready zeal, each honest rustic ran." 

Remark. — The student should observe that all kinds of modifying 
words, phrases, and clauses, have such a resemblance to one another in 
structure, as to be in many respects punctuated alike ; — that they are 
usually left unpointed when restrictive ; that they are usually set oif 
when parenthetic; and that they are usually set off when separated a 
considerable distance, or by much intervening matter, from the part or 
parts to which they relate. 

[Infinitives and infinitive phrases.) " To decide is for you." " I know 
her to be intelligent." I know that she is intelligent. "I eat to live." 
" I eat, that I may live." Here the comma seems to be necessary, to 
prevent "eat" from governing "that." "The little fellow was very 
ambitious to excel his companions." " I think your father would be 
pleased to hear of your getting the prize." "All intoxicating drinks 
are proved by modern science to be deeply injurious to health." " He 
is to go." " The property of rain is to wet, and of fire to burn." 
" Pope was not content to satisfy; he desired to excel, and therefore 
always did his best." " I were content to play with thy rich tresses all 
a summers day." " His works were written too carelessly to be long 
remembered." "Attempts have been made to prove him of illustrious 
descent." "Though poor in skill to rear them." "One word is too 
often profaned for me to profane it." " You did well then not to sell 
your farm." " The women here seem to have little to do but to dress 
and visit." " I bought this house to accommodate my friend." " I 

26 



306 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

bought this house from my neighbor, to accommodate my friend." " I 
bought this house, in order to accommodate my friend." " He is so 
young as to be unqualified." "He is so young and inexperienced in 
the business, as to be unqualified." "The king felt an earnest desire 
to heal old grievances, to secure the personal rights and property of the 
colonists, and to promote their prosperity." " Imagination, a licentious 
and vagrant faculty, unsusceptible of limitations and impatient of 
restraint, has always endeavored to baffle the logician, to perplex the 
confines of distinction, and to burst the inclosures of regularity." " I 
looked in over the glass windows at the top of the hives, to see the bees 
make honey." "To make this clear, I must tell you an old story." 
"Burns, to be justly judged, must be estimated by the times in which 
he lived." "Sir, to meet, to check, to curb, to stand up against him, 
we want arms of the same kind." "She is, to be sure, a very pretty 
woman." " He is, to say the least against him, a very insignificant fel- 
low."' "To be plain with } r ou, I do not wish to employ you." "He 
was a man very worthy to be trusted, but not always very careful 
about his own business." " To soften, not to wound, the heart." " It is 
as possible to become pedantic by fear of pedantry, as to become trouble- 
some by ill-timed civility." "Excessive discipline has a tendency to 
suffocate, rather than to develop, original genius." The comma before 
"original" prevents "suffocate" from becoming an intransitive verb. 
" To be always afraid of losing life, is, indeed, scarcely to enjoy a life 
that can deserve the care of preservation." 

( Adjuncts.) " I was rocked in the same cradle by the same maternal 
hand." Too closely related to admit the comma. " Is there not a dis- 
play of infinite goodness in the grateful vicissitudes of the seasons? " 
" We accuse him of having given up his people to the merciless inflic- 
tions of the most hot-headed and hard-hearted of prelates." " Gladly 
would we pour into thy bleeding bosom the balm of consolation." "How 
dare you breathe that air which wafted to the ears of Heaven the groans 
of those who fell a sacrifice to your accursed ambition ! " "Flung into 
life in the midst of a revolution that quickened every energy of a peo- 
ple who acknowledge no superior, he commenced his course a stranger 
by birth, and a scholar by charity." "That bliss which centers only in 
the mind." " He was one day in a field near a stream where several 
geese were swimming." "It appears to have been designed by Creative 
Providence, that every human being should chiefly depend on the 
means within himself, for his own subsistence and advancement in the 
world/-' "It was a sultry September afternoon in the year 18 — ." 
" Then let him look proudly on the results of his persevering efforts." 
(Final phrase closely related to something preceding.) " Now fades the 
glimmering twilight on the sight." "The voters of the county elected 
him to represent them in the next legislature of the State." " I shall 
quickly make two hundred of it, by selling it in retail." (Final 
phrase not so closely related to preceding parts.) " A merchant was 
once riding home from a fair, with a knapsack of money behind him." 
" Amurath IV forbade the use of snuff, under penalty of having the 
nose cut off." "He addressed the crowd, with but very little good to 
the cause." Here the comma prevents the adjunct from relating to 
"crowd," and makes it relate to "addressed." "He read poetry and 
novels, instead of his law." Here the comma marks greater distinc- 
tion. "He was the owner of a mill, and not of a tavern." "Religion 



PUNCTUATION. COMMA. 307 

\ 

dwells not in the tongue, but in the heart." "Such arts always flourish 
well, both in peace and in war." "Time should be well improved, espe- 
cially by the young." " Greenland lies to the north-east of the continent, 
from which it is separated by Baffin's Bay and Davis Strait." (Relative 
clause not restrictive.) "The pedant is therefore not only heard with 
weariness, but with malignity." "Are you in jest, or in earnest?" 
"A man can not be justified in deceiving, misleading, or overreaching 
his neighbor." (Final parts, serial.) "The attraction of the prairie 
consists in its extent, its carpet of verdure and flowers, its undulating 
surface, its groves and the fringe of timber by which it is surrounded." 
" Brazil is regarded as a land of mighty rivers and virgin forests, palm- 
trees and jaguars, anacondas and alligators, howling monkeys and 
screaming parrots, diamond mines, revolutions, and earthquakes." — 
Review. " George Washington was born in Virginia, on the 22d of 
February, 1732." "It is the fate of industry to be equally endangered 
by miscarriage and success, by confidence and despondency." " Who 
has ever been able to define the exact boundary between courage and 
rashness, between prudence and avarice, between liberality and prodi- 
gality." "He possessed a clear and penetrating understanding, with a 
spirit of patient inquiry; untiring perseverance, with great mobility ; 
indefatigable activity, with fearless courage." — Bancroft. Here the 
comma seems to have been used, before the adjuncts, to show that they 
are referred in thought to the preceding verb. " Blocks and walls of 
silver are bordered by and spring out of chasms of darkness." No 
comma is needed. "A great crowd of particulars that either press 
through, or lodge themselves in, their understanding." Here the com- 
ma is necessary before "their," to show that the same objective relates to 
both the preceding prepositions. " Upon such implied covenants as 
are annexed to, and run with, the reversion." — Chitty. "Knowledge is 
power ; but it is one of the slowest, because one of the most durable, 
of agencies." (Final adjunct relating to previous parts in common.) 
"The relations of nouns, verbs, or modifying words, to other words." 
"The good man is alive to all the sympathies, the sanctities, the loves, of 
social existence." — Wilson. " The good man is alive to all the sympathies, 
the sanctities, and the loves of social existence. 1 ' — Wilson. But, "Syntax 
treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words 
in sentences." — G. Brown. "The classics possess a peculiar charm, from 
the circumstance that they have been the models, I might almost say 
the masters, of composition and thought, in all ages." Notice the fore- 
going sentence carefully. " These two hundred drachmas will in a little 
while rise to four hundred, which of course will amount in time to 
four thousand." (Intermediate parts too closely related in sense to 
what they modify, to be detached.) "It has been usual on occasions 
like the present, to give a history of the wrongs endured by our fathers." 
The intermediate adjunct is more closely related, in sense, to what 
precedes it than to what follows it. "The ocean, in its mighty heavings, 
makes you serious.' (Intermediate part parenthetic.) " Vanity, of all 
the passions, is the most unsocial." "The sun, with all its attendant 
planets, is but a very little part of the universe." " Your obstinate 
folly, in refusing to take good advice, was justly punished." " Lord 
Bacon, in whose vigorous mind the truths of political wisdom had been 
sown by Burleigh in deep furrows, cherished the established worship." 
" Every day sends out, in quest of pleasure and distinction, some heir 



308 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

fondled in ignorance, and flattered into pride." " At the corner of 
the garden stood a tall poplar." (Adjunct next to the verb.) "When 
statesmen, heroes, kings, in dust repose." "For them no more the blaz- 
ing hearth shall burn." (Initial adjunct relating to the last word.) 
" Three days ago the accident happened." " Of neither of these persua- 
sives have the effects been great." "To the perusal of authors of the 
second class I shall now proceed." "Over these matchless talents, pro- 
bity threw her brightest lustre." (Two nouns, " talents " and "pro- 
bity," coming together) "Of making many books, there is no end; 
and much study is a weariness to the flesh." Without the comma, 
"their " might be referred to "making." 

"From the soft vernal sky to the soft grassy ground, 
There was beauty above me, beneath, and around." 
"In other words, he gave his attention to it, and occupied his thoughts 
about it." Omit the comma after "words," and the adjunct will relate 
to "gave" only. "To a great extent, the same is true of literary pur- 
suits." "To her, many a soldier, on the point of accomplishing his am- 
bition, sacrifices the opportunity." " One hot summer morning a little 
cloud rose out of the sea, and glided lightly, like a playful child, through 
the blue sky and over the wide earth, which lay parched and languish- 
ing from the long drought." Here the initial adjunct seems to relate to 
"rose' 1 rather than to the entire sentence. "Some years ago, a fire 
broke out in one of our towns, and raged so violently that much damage 
was d'one." Here the initial adjunct seems rather to relate to all the 
rest of the sentence. "x\mong those who have endeavored to promote 
learning and rectify judgment, it has been long customary to complain 
of the abuse of words." (Initial part containing a clause.) " Never 
within the memory of the oldest, not even on that evening on which it 
was known that the army of Scotland had declared for a free parliament, 
had the streets been in such a glare with bonfires." " On that plain, in 
rosy youth, they had fed their fathers flock." "In her family, in her 
court, in her king, she remained equally mistress." (Initial series.) 
"Among the most remarkable of her attributes, is justice." (Inversion.) 
"Justice is among the most remarkable of her attributes." "Like 
music heard in a dream, the pleasures of our youth pass away." "The 
pleasures of our youth pass away like music heard in a dream." 
"The less pleasing .task now devolves upon me, of bidding you, in the 
name of the nation, adieu." " The less pleasing task of bidding you, in 
the name of the nation, adieu, now devolves upon me." 

(Adverbial or conjunctive parts; words, phrases, or clauses.) "Precept 
has generally been posterior to performance." (Connection too close for 
the comma. — See a previous Remark on modifying parts; also compare 
the structure of parts in this section, with the structure of adjuncts in 
the last section.) "They set out on their journey before the sun rose." 
"Do you know whether he is at home." "He has acted in the affair as 
an honorable man should act." "There was little more conversation 
until supper came." "The ark of God was never taken till it was sur- 
rounded by arms of earthly defenders.''' "Edwin saw how happy the 
old bird was with her nestlings." "A false friend and a shadow attend 
only while the sun shines." " We will remain wheresoever you shall 
require us to remain." "Some very good boys study lessons in the 
history of their country and in English grammar very faithfully in- 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 309 

deed." " He thought he had never seen any thing quite so beautiful 
before." "Tell me when it was that you saw him." "You are cer- 
tainly in the wrong."' " They will surely reverence my son." "Imper- 
ceptibly and swiftly life passes away." Perhaps there should have 
been a comma after " swiftly." "A wise man may appear like a fool 
in the company of a fool." Perhaps better: "A wise man in the com- 
pany of a fool, may appear like a fool." "He cometh forth like a 
flower." " The righteous shall flourish like the palm-tree ; he shall 
grow like the cedar on Lebanon." " That man is as wise as he is good." 
" He is more prudent than his father was." " Avoid a slanderer as you 
would a scorpion." "There is nothing humbler than ambition when it 
is about to climb." " A good name is rather to be chosen than great 
riches." " What could be more absurd than to dissolve such a Parlia- 
ment at a juncture when every moment was precious? " "He was so 
solitary that he was glad at the approach of any living being." "And 
yet Columbus has given us cogent reasons for believing that it is prac- 
ticable to reach the eastern coast of India by sailing in a western direc- 
tion." "Tory writers have with justice remarked that the language of 
these compositions was as servile as any thing that could be found in 
the most florid eulogies pronounced by bishops on the Stuarts." "He 
informed them whence we came, whither we were going, who we were." 
"His character is such as to destroy all confidence in his promises." 
"The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow on the mountain." 
"These are the rules whereby you should live." "Wherever there is 
wealth there will be dependence and expectation, and wherever there 
is dependence there will be servility." Here I should rather have used 
a semicolon between the longer parts, and a comma in each of them. 
"Praise is seldom paid with willingness even to incontestable merit, 
and it can be no wonder that he who calls for it without desert, is 
repulsed with universal indignation." I should rather have used a 
semicolon after merit. " Thus in Peru it rains once ; perhaps, in a 
mau's lifetime." Were a comma placed after "thus" and one after 
" Peru," the sentence would be too fragmentary to read well. " Yet, 
remember, while you are deliberating, the season, now so favorable, 
may pass away, never to return." (Parts detached or separated.) 
"Well, but, Theodosia, child, you are quite unreasonable." "Yes, he is 
a miracle of genius, because he is a miracle of labor." "Unhappily, 
James, in stead of becoming a mediator, became the fiercest and most 
reckless of partisans." " There, lightly swung, in bowery glades the 
honeysuckles twine." " Here, all is confusion ; there, all is order and 
beauty." "Certainly, only let me know what it is." "Why, whither, 
Adam, wouldst thou have me go?" "But, why, ye Romans? Whence 
} our mute anger? " "A plot, a plot! a horrid plot! Mr. A., says my 
larber this morning. It is a plot, first, because there is British gold in 
it; secondly, because there is a woman in it; thirdly, because there is 
a Jew in it; fourthly, because I don't know what to make of it." — J. 
Adams. "There comes into the world, now and then, a great man." 
" So, in indirect questions; as, 'Tell me when he will come.' " " There 
are two kinds of law; namely, common and statutory:' "But, unfor- 
tunately for us, the tide was ebbing already." (An intervening phrase 
separates the conjunction from that to which it belongs.) " But, if you 
will tell me how, I will avoid it." "But such thoughts, if they rose in 
his mind, he firmly suppressed.'' "But he said, 'Nay; lest while ye 



310 BOOK SECOND THE STANDARD. 

gather up the tares, ye root up also the wheat with them." "And, if I 
can, I will come also.'"' " Yet, when he had nothing against the world 
but a handful of soldiers, he did not fall." "And, when Rome herself 
fell in the end, all fell together." "They set out early, and, before the 
dawn of day, arrived at the destined place." "It was then doubted 
whether it could be done again ; or, if done, whether it could be made 
of any great value." — Fulton. "Hence, in the first place, you should 
examine the title." "Higher still and higher from the earth thou 
springest." (Extremes related.) 
" And fast before her fathers men three days we've fled together; 

For, should he find us in the glen, my blood would stain the heather." 
" His horsemen hard behind us ride ; should they our steps discover, 

Then who will cheer my bonny bride when they have slain her lover?" 

Sometimes a word is set off or not set off, according as it has rather 
the nature of a conjunction or that of an adverb. 

" She danced while he played." " He worked, while you, on the con- 
trary, trifled away your time." "Again, we conceive that natural 
theology, though not a demonstrative, is yet a progressive, science." 
"Indeed, soon after the school was opened, the classes consisted of four 
hundred boys, about one half of w T hom were Protestants." " ' I'll not 
believe it,' said the boy boldly." A comma before "boldly" would 
make it relate to "believe." " You did not see him then." " You did 
not see him, then?" "What he did, he did patiently, accurately, and 
thoroughly." " Why, what's the matter?" " If you would keep your 
secret from an enemy, tell it not to a friend." " He now scarcely wished 
for freedom, for in the world he had met with nothing but cruelty and 
oppression, while here all w r as affection and peace." " Where the plain 
is large, the forest outline is in the far perspective, like the dim shore 
when beheld at a distance from the ocean." " The petals of the flower 
wither, that fruit may form." Without the comma, "wither" and 
"fruit" might be read too closely in connection. "Faster and faster 
went the fiddle, and higher and higher jumped the dancers." " When I 
urge this measure of recalling the troops from Boston, I urge it on the 
pressing principles that it is necessarily preparatory to your peace and 
order." " Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also." "As 
far as the east is from the west, so far has he removed our transgressions 
from us." 

When adverbs or adjuncts are near the words which they modify, or 
when they interrupt but little the connection of other words, it is gen- 
erally best not to set them off by the comma. 

When a conjunction or an adverb is separated, by an intervening part, 
from the part to which it belongs, the comma is used. 

" The Government was consequently forced to connive at outrages and 
exactions." " Pensive memory then retraces scenes of bliss forever 
fled." "Britain saw him thus advance." " Yet, rich as morn of many 
a hue, The tulip's petals shine to view." " Silence and darkness reign 
around, but, lo! the break of day." " So, in regions wild and wide, we 
will pierce the savage woods." " They knew their powers not, or, as 
they learned to know, perverted them to evil." " But, swifter than the 
frighted dove, Fled the gay morning of my love." " Once, at high noon, 
amidst a sultry calm, looking around for comfort, I descried, far on the 
green horizon's utmost verge, a wreath of clouds.'' " The crystal icicles, 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 311 

like pendulous drops, adorn every bush." " He gave the ideal, too, of 
truth and beauty." " If we cry, like children, for the moon, like chil- 
dren we must cry on." " Yes, let the scorn turn on me like a trodden 
snake." " Well, to be sure, how much 1 have fagged through! Hap- 
pily, that is all over now." " Verily, verily, I say unto you." " Thus 
my prison moments, sweetly, swiftly, glide away." " These, then, are 
the thoughts against which you must carefully guard." " Always, there- 
fore, have something to do." "Therefore have I written to him." 
" Perhaps we shall never see him again." u We shall perhaps never see 
him again." " We shall never, perhaps, see him again." " However, I 
will not shrink, however great the responsibility may be." " He is too 
bad to be sent there too." "Also horses and mules sometimes take this 
disease." "'Nay,' said he meekly, 'I did not mean to offend you; so 
far from it, that, hearing you condemn yourself so grievously, 1 intended 

to comfort you, and to say that, except a few faults' 'And what 

faults?' interrupted she, continuing to speak, however, lest he should 
catch an interval to tell them." 

[Parts in apposition or in the same case ; parts resumptive or explanatory.) 
"I myself saw it." "Ye men of AltoYf!" "Thou traitor, hence!" 
" Governor Sterling Price." " The boy Henry." " The poet Burns." 
"The emperor Augustus." "Matthew the publican." "The terms 
reason and instinct. 11 " The conjunctions and, or, and but. 11 " My deter- 
mination to be one of the party." " The belief that the soul is immor- 
tal." "The conviction that it is best for every one to be contented with 
bis sphere in life." "At Bushnell the booksellers." "At Bushnell's, 
the bookseller." " My banks they are furnished with bees." " Insensi- 
ble creatures, it is all that they know." " Plutarch calls lying the vice 
of slaves." " The darkness he called night. 11 " The gentle Sydney lived 
the shepherd's friend." " Price three dollars per copy." The firm of 
" Pearson Brothers and Co." contains the brothers of a family named 
Pearson; but the firm of " Pearson, Brothers, and Co.," has a man in it 
named Brothers. " The great orator Cicero was killed." " The great 
orator, Cicero, was killed" =The great orator (I mean Cicero) was 
killed. " The twin sisters, Music and Poetry, are my delight." " It is 
related of Tecumseh, the Indian warrior and prophet, that he would keep 
a promise even towards an enemy." "An excellent and well-arranged 
inner is a most pleasing occurrence, and a great triumph of civilized 
life." " Walter, the second son, is a captain in the army." " But Time, 
the greatest calmer of human passions, softened the asperities of con- 
troversy." 

" One honest John Tomkins, a hedger and ditcher, 
Although he was poor, did not want to be richer." 
" The little playfellow was the only friend, the only companion, that 
he had upon earth." " Dying, he sighed, 'God save you all, and me, a 
sinner, save.' " " He was there, and his elder sister, Kate." " What 
then will the honest bee do, poor thing?" "I have, he said, fourteen 
reasons for obeying his Majesty's command, a wife and thirteen chil- 
dren." " Higher and higher than ever rose the tower of Belus, 
soars and sings the lark, the lyrical poet of the sky." "That great 
speech of Webster's, the reply to Hayne." " It is a long, long poem, that 
Fairy Queen of Spenser's." " The vessel roiled in the trough of the 
sea, the sport of the wind and the waves." " During three weeks the 



312 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

gazettes were filled with accounts of the solemnities by which the 
public joy manifested itself, cavalcades of gentlemen and yeomen, pro- 
cessions of sheriffs and bailiffs in scarlet gowns, musters of zealous 
Protestants, with orange Hags and ribbons, salutes, bonfires, illumina- 
tions, music, balls, dinners, gutters running with ale and conduits 
spouting claret." — Macaulay. u One remedy there was, quick, sharp, 
and decisive, a remedy which the Whigs had been too ready to employ." 
— Macaulay, (Some punctuators would prefer a semicolon after "de- 
cisive" ; but the intervening adjectives are evidently considered paren- 
thetic.) "Till looked out the joyous Spring, looked out and smiled." 
"The school is well adapted to give a thorough education, useful and 
ornamental." " It is foolish to lay out money in a purchase of repent- 
ance." — Franklin. "The grammarian's duty is to exhibit the language 
as it is, not to attempt to make it what he fancies it should be." " It is 
the highest object of the statesman to make laws that will develop the 
resources of his country." "It hurts a man's pride to say, ' I do not 
know.' " Observe that Rule XI applies to most of the infinitives in the 
last few sentences. " I have but a short time to live; my mode of life 
has rendered it impossible that I should survive." (Close connection 
in sense. ) " It is scarcely to be imagined how soon the mind sinks to 
a level with its condition." " It is through inward health that we enjoy 
all outward things." " It ought to be constantly inculcated on the 
young, that industrious habits are essential to success." (Parts rather 
long. ) " It is for you to decide, whether this freedom shall yet survive, 
or be covered with a funereal pall." Were the comma omitted before 
" whether," " be covered " might seem to relate to " you." "There pre- 
vails an opinion among men, that all appearance of science is particu- 
larly hateful to women." (Intervening adjunct; though the comma is 
perhaps unnecessary.) " The story is perhaps too delicate for thy ear; 
suffice it, that I came, saw, and loved." (Suffice what?) " The opin- 
ion, that the soul is immortal, has been almost universally entertained." 
I should rather have omitted the comma before "that"; the clause, 
however, breaks the connection between the subject and its verb, and 
may here be used parenthetically rather than restrictively. " The vastly 
more significant idea, that the earth is a globe, had by no means 
become incorporated into the general intelligence of the world." 

( Paris independent or absolute.) "And so, Don Gomez, you will not 
accompany us? " " Friend John, what's wanted ? " " Nay, there can be 
no harm in a little mirth." "0, sir, you do not ken the law — the law 
is a sort of hocus-pocus science, that smiles in your face while it picks 
your pocket." "0, yes, I do." "'No, no, Gerald,' said he, 'there are 
too many of them.' " " Ah, Diamond ! Diamond! thou little knowest 
the mischief thou hast done." " Ye living flowers, that skirt the eternal 
frosts!" "Fade, ye wild-flowers, memorials of my doom!" "Thou 
whining budget of quack medicines, why not take up thy boarding in 
an apothecary's shop?" "To you, Osman, I consign half the city; to 
you, Mustapha, the remainder." " To be a .merchant, the art consists 
more in getting paid than in making sales." "The speaking being at 
an end, we returned." " Front to front, their horns locked, every mus- 
cle strained, they were fighting as only bulls can fight " 

" The rising morn through dim mist breaking, 
The flickering east with purple streaking." 



PUNCTUATION. — COMMA. 313 

" Nocturnal silence reigning, a nightingale began." 
[Inverted arrangement. — See Adjuncts.) " To such men, nothing is 
too sacred." " Pope, Alexander ; a famous British poet." "Williams, 
Henry; attorney at law, Philadelphia, Penn." " But you will go, nev- 
ertheless." "You are caught, though." "First, Fear his hand, its skill 
to try, Amid the chords bewildered laid." " In rustic solitude 'tis sweet, 
The earliest flowers of spring to greet." "When on the mountain's 
azure peak Alights her fairy form." (Related parts in contact.) "From 
these delightful fountains flow Ambrosial rills of pleasure." " On hal- 
cyon wings our moments pass." (Extremities related.) "Round love's 
Elysian bowers The fairest prospects rise." " In eye, and on lip, his 
high confidence smiled." (Two distinct adjuncts.) "Through shades 
and solitudes profound The fainting traveler found his way." A com- 
ma after "profound" would tend to make the adjunct an absolute 
phrase relating to " traveler." 

(Parts elliptical.) "So, if you will not return, I know who will." 
" The Andes, for example, and other mountains." " He was, no doubt, 
innocent." " Silence, base rebel ! " " Why, sir, I have not been in bed 
five minutes after sunrise, these thirty years." " I love, and will love 
you, forever." "Sooner, perhaps, than you imagine." "He might, 
what? " " No child's play, to make a breach here." " Blow high, blow 
low, each puff will bring grist to my mill." " Who is she, pray ? " 
" What, though in solemn silence all Move round this dark terrestrial 
ball." "Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis something, nothing." 
"As a race, they have withered from the land." "But strength of 
mind is exercise, not rest." "A peal of gunpowder was heard on the 
water, and another, and another." 

" The knell, the shroud, the mattock, and the grave, 
The deep damp vault, the darkness, and the worm! " — Young. 
" Hark! a yell, a shriek, a barbarous dissonance, loud and yet louder, 
that echoes from the mountain to the sea ! all is still as night, all deso- 
late." " Hence, to the realms of Night, dire demon, hence ! " 
Augustus M. Harris, Esq., Believe me, my dear Acland, 

No. 15, Seventh Street, ever affectionately yours, 

Philadelphia, J. Ruskin. 

Penn. 
" The ship Ann Alexander, Captain S. Deblow, sailed from New Bed- 
ford, the first of June, 1850, for a cruise in the South Pacific, in search 
of whales." "St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 1st, 1857." " Martin Tucker Smith, 
Esq., M. P., Chairman." " In St. Peter's, Dublin, Captain John H. L. 
Kerr, 26th Regt., M. N. I., second son of the Rev. John Kerr, Rec. of 
Kilkirren, co. Galway, to Matilda Marianne Clara, only dau. of Robt. 
Hustan, esq., M. D., Hanover-house, Garlow." — Dublin Magazine. 

(Parts repeated.) "Still, still the same as in the years gone by." 
"Verily, verily, I say unto you." "On, on, ye brave." "It is a long, 
long, long poem, that Fairy Queen of Spenser's." "Well, well, never 
mind, thou'lt come and eat a morsel of dinner with us." 

Remark. — I think when the repeated part singly used would require 
a comma, the comma is properly placed after each repetition; otherwise it 
should be omitted after the last, unless the repeated word is a nominative. 

27 



314 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

"Come, Anna! come, the morning dawns. " But, "Softly, softly, 
blow ye breezes"; "Merry, merry, go the bells"; "Quickly, quickl}", 
come away," — should rather be, "Softly, softly blow ye breezes"; 
"Merry, merry go the bells;" "Quickly, quickly come away." "But 
surely, surely you have not done this rash, this precipitate thing ? — How 
rash, how rash, Patty? I don't understand thee." "Ay, ay, clean 
straw and a dark cell." " Home, home, without delaying." " So, so, 
so, so." "Hush, hist, do not bawl." "He, he, he, I have lent it out 
at two per cent, by the hour, to a gambler." "Now, now, hold fast." 
"A foe to wine ! 'tis true, 'tis true." " I, I, I, am the man." "Burrow, 
burrow, like a mole." 

" Fallen, fallen, fallen, fallen, 
Fallen from his high estate, and weltering in his blood." — Dryden, 
" Shut, shut the door, good John ! fatigued I said, 
Tie up the knocker; say I'm sick, — I'm dead." — Pope. 

[Enumerated parts.) "United States — Imports from: Cotton, to- 
bacco, wheat, flour, rice, skins and furs, hides, staves, &c. "Exports 
to: Cotton, linen, and woollen manufactures, hardware, cutlery, earth- 
enware, salt, brass and copper, apparel, books," &c. " Father, brother, 
husband, son, — where are they?" "ZZlong; as in tube, tune, tulip." 
" So, la, fa, fa, fa." " One, two, three, four, live, six." 

(Numbers into periods.) Population of the United States, 25, 289, 450. 

(Omitted in large numbers expressed in words.) "Five million six 
thousand four hundred and twenty." 

5. INTERROGATION POINT. 

(Questions independent.) "Can that ascendency be maintained? 
Taught so long, but uninstructed still, wherefore, in the same fatal pol- 
icy, with an infatuated pertinacity, do you disastrously persevere? 
Can you wish, and, if you wish, can you hope, that this unnatural, gall- 
ing, exasperating ascendency should be maintained? Things can not 
remain as they are. To what expedient will you fly?" — Shell. 

(Questions related.) "Is this reason? Is it law? Is it humanity?" 
— Wirt. 

(Questions declarative in form.) "Surely, sir, we have seen you be- 
fore?" " You will sell me that farm of yours?" " He admitted the 
validity of the deed, when you produced it?" " You live here?" 

(Questions more or less fragmentary or elliptical.) " They say, if the 
bill is rejected, Government must ' stop.' What must stop ? The laws ? 
the judicial tribunals? The legislative bodies? The institutions of the 
country? No, no, sir! all these will remain and go on." "And really, 
Mr. Ringgold, you wish to make me your wife? You are in earnest in 
what you have said? — Have I not told 3^011 a hundred times? By my 

words Words! I hold words of little value in matters of this 

kind. — If you will accept my hand? — Your hand, sir? If you would 
win a woman, you should offer your heart — hearts, not hands, for me." 
— Magazine. (Remember that the dash sometimes indicates different 
speakers.) "Sir? Bring your horse?" "Who? when? where? An- 
swer me quickly." "What would content you? Talent? No. En- 
terprise? No. Courage? No. Virtue? No. The men whom you 
would select, should possess, not one, but all of these." 



PUNCTUATION. — INTERROGATION POINT. 315 

( Questions repeated or reiterated.) " Where is it, Jack? Where is it? 
— Where is it? taken from us, it is." — Shak. "Have you found it? 
Have you found it?" "You did not hear the conversation, then? Did 
you?" "Where was he? Where? I did not hear what you said." 

(Questions direct, each forming a part of a clause.) " In the hight of 
my power, I said to Defamation, Who will hear thee? and to Artifice, 
What canst thou perform? But, my son, despise not thou the malice 
of the weakest; remember that venom supplies the want of strength, 
and that the lion may perish by the puncture of an asp." ( Said what ?) 
"What is it? thought John." (Thought what?) "'What is the mat- 
ter?' said I softly; ' is any thing amiss?'" "'How much have you 
got ? ' whispered the miller to his next neighbor. — ' Ten pieces,' said the 
latter. The miller said nothing." "On their banner was inscribed, 
1 Who would not die to save his country? ' " (Subject-nominative.) "Is 
the law constitutional? is the subject for discussion to-night." " Adverbs 
of time answer the questions, When? How long? How often?" (Ap- 
positives. ) 

( Question indirect, forming part of a clause ; — no interrogation point.) " I 
know not who he is, whence he came, or whither he is going." " Do 
you know who he is, whence he came, or whither he is going." (Still 
indirect.) "He asked me why I wept." (Indirect.) "He asked me, 
' Why do you weep? ' " (Direct.) " Let us consider, first, of what use 
it will be; and, secondly, what it will cost." "Let us consider, first, 
Of what use will it be? and, secondly, What will it cost? 11 "When Di- 
ogenes was asked what kind of wine he liked best? he answered, 'That 
which is drunk at the cost of others. 7 " — British Essayist. (Wrong: it 
should be, — wine he liked best, he answered, — ' That <J*c.) 

(Interrogation point within the sentence.) " Is any among you afflicted? 
let him pray." If any among you is afflicted, let him pray. (Comma 
superseded.) "What sayest thou, Charles? for I am marching hence." 
Compare this with " Say what you have to say, Charles; for I am wait- 
ing." (Semicolon superseded.) " Will you analyze the following com- 
pound words? Seahorse [sea-horse], timepiece, windmill, nevertheless." 
(Colon superseded.) "Who will not cherish the following sentiment 
of Clay ? ' I would rather be right than President.' " Consider carefully 
whether the interrogation or the exclamation point makes the parts 
equivalent to distinct sentences or not, and capitalize accordingly; i.e., 
capitalize according to the points superseded. 

When may the interrogation point be used within the sentence, and 
also at the end of it ? and when should such a sentence be divided into 
tivo or more separate, distinct questions? These points are not always 
easily decided. 

If the speaker utters distinct and unconnected though related ques- 
tions, it is generally best to distinguish them even by capitals. 

Ex. — "Does he hunt? Does he shoot ? Is he in debt? Is he tem- 
perate? Does he attend to his parish?" — Sydney Smith. "Who intro- 
duced the bill? Who advocated it? Who passed it?" — Macaulay. 

When distinct and complete questions are to be represented as more 
closely related to one another than to what precedes or follows them, 
and especially when they all admit a single answer, they are all gath- 
ered into one sentence, with the interrogation point after each. 

Ex. — " Shall the gospel be preached by men paid by the state? shall 



316 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

these men "be taken from the lower orders and be meanly paid? shall 
they be men of education and learning? and shall, there be some mag- 
nificent endowment to allure such men into the church." — Sydney Smith. 
This sentence might have been divided into four; though the parts are 
more closely related to one another than to what precedes or follows 
them. 

When two or more questions admit of different or distinct answers, 
and have connectives, or are used elliptically, with such dependence on 
something in common that they can not well stand alone, they may all 
be gathered into one sentence, with the interrogation point after each. 

Ex. — "Is my name Talbot? and am I your son? and shall I fly? " — 
Shak. " What's your name, sir ? of what nation are you? and of what 
place?" " Is it possible that on so little acquaintance you should like 
her ? that but seeing, you should love her? and loving, woo? and, woo- 
ing, that she should grant?" — Shak. "Is there no honor in generos- 
ity? nor in preferring the lessons of conscience to the impulses of 
passion? nor in maintaining the supremacy of moral principle, and in 
paying reverence to Christian truth?" — G. Brown. 

"What are the interjections of joy? — of praise? — of sorrow? — of 
grief?"— Id. 

" To purchase heaven has gold the power ? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour ? 
In life can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold? — 
No: all that's worth a wish or thought, 
Fair virtue gives unbribed, unbought." — Sargent 1 s Reader. 

" As the gentleman has thus settled the definition of Aristocracy, I 
trust that no man will think it a term of reproach; for who, among us, 
would not be wise ? who would not be virtuous ? who would not be above 
want?" — Livingston. This sentence could not be punctuated so well in 
any different way. 

"Whom did these most dastardly enemies despise? — us, consuls, or 
you, citizens? " 

It is generally best, when we can do so with equal propriety, to 
divide long interrogative sentences into distinct sentences; or else to 
use some inferior point within, and the interrogation mark only at the 
end. The author himself, knowing his own meaning, can have little 
difficulty in determining what he should put into a distinct question. 

"Doth thy heart heave with emotions of thankfulness to God, for 
making the earth so fair, so redolent of beauty, in its garniture of flow- 
ers? and for having scattered these silent teachers up and down the 
world as orators of perfume, and links of beauty, to bind our souls to 
nature in all times and wheresoever we may be?" (After "flowers," 
the semicolon would be more appropriate than the interrogation point.) 

The interrogation point is sometimes inserted with the curves, to 
doubt the truth of something without formally saying so. 

Ex. — " If the immortal Bacon — ' the wisest, greatest, meanest (?) of 
mankind' — disgraced the judgment-seat, and stained his own great 
name, — not, we believe, to prevent, but to expedite, justice, — was not 
bribery, which stained the ermine on infinitely meaner shoulders, also 
the vice of his time? " — Review. 



PUNCTUATION. — EXCLAMATION POINT. 317 

To make a declarative sentence a little more emphatic than usual, it 
is sometimes stated in the interrogative or exclamatory form, without 
the interrogation or exclamation point. 

Ex. — "To be a rebel and a schismatic, was surely not all that ought 
to be required of a man in high employment. What would become of 
the finances, what of the marine, if the Whigs who could not understand 
the plainest balance-sheet were to manage the revenue, and Whigs who 
had never walked over a dock-yard to fit out the fleet." — Macaulay. 

" Canst thou command the Lightnings (, ? ) that they may go, and say 
unto thee (, ? ) 'Here we are'"(.?!) How should this sentence be 
punctuated ? The initial clause is either interrogative or exclamatory ; 
and the final clause, declarative or exclamatory. If the initial clause is 
interrogative, the interrogation point alone should be used, and at the 
close ; for the question is not complete before the end is reached, and 
two points ( . ? or ? ? ) can not be used together: if the initial clause is 
exclamatory, being but a stronger mode of saying, — " You can not do 
this," — the exclamation point alone should be used at the end. Thus : 
"Canst thou command the Lightnings, that they may go, and say unto 
thee, ' Here we are ' ? " or rather, " Canst thou command the Lightnings, 
that they may go, and say unto thee, ( Here we are ' ! " (Compare this 
sentence with those under the heading " Interrogation point within the 
sentence.} 

6. EXCLAMATION POINT. 

The exclamation point is put after parts expressing emotion, — such as 
surprise, joy, grief, anger, &c, — very much as the interrogation point is 
put after parts denoting inquiry. 

[Exclamations; independent sentences.) "How are remote nations 
brought near ! How is distance abridged ! How does this abridgment 
make men more like brothers ! Thanks to railroads; Europe will soon be 
no larger than France was in the middle ages! Thanks to steamships; 
we now traverse the ocean more easily than we could the Mediterranean 
once ! Yet a few years more, and the electric concord shall encircle the 
globe, and unite the world! " — Victor Hugo. 

[Exclamations related; interrogative inform.) "What intense longings 
rise in the heart ! What pictures crowd the imagination ! What a spell 
comes over the whole soul ! " 

( Exclamations declarative inform.) a My mind was wrapped in impen- 
etrable gloom ! My eyelids seemed pressed downward with an invinci- 
ble burden ! My eyeballs were ready to burst from their sockets ! " 
" Thou wouldst not have me make a trial of my skill upon my child ! " 
(Declarative and interrogative in form.) 

(Exclamations imperative inform.) "Raise the veil, if there is one? 
which conceals the poverty of this Union, when there were but thirteen 
States ! Raise the veil that conceals the rags of our soldiers of the 
Revolution ! Lift the lid of the chest which contains the poverty of our 
beginning." — Smith. 

(Invocations, or addresses.) " Thy doom is sealed, presumptuous slave ! " 
" Silence, base rebel ! " "0 blessed Health ! Thou art above all gold and 
treasure ! " " Spare me, merciful God ! " " Conscript Fathers ! I do 
not rise to spend the night in words." 



318 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

" Strike, as I struck the foe! Strike, as I would 
Have struck these tyrants I Strike deep as my curse ! 
Strike, and but once!" — Byron. 

[Parts more or less fragmentary or elliptical.) "'Strange,' murmurs 
the dying invalid, looking out from his window upon the world — 
1 strange ! how the beauty and mystery of all nature are heightened by the 
near prospect of that coming darkness which will sweep them all away ! 
The very limitation of the term of enjoyment has much to do with the 
exquisiteness of life's pleasures. It is the perishing blossom that is so 
preeminently beautiful!" 

u Such a chirping and twittering ! Such diving down from the nest, 
and flying up again ! Such a wheeling roand in circles, and talking to 
the young ones all the while ! " — Sydney Smith. 

" What was the cause of our wasting forty millions of money, and 
sixty thousand lives ? The American war ! What was it that produced 
the French rescript, and a French war? The American war! For 
what are we about to incur an additional debt of twelve or fourteen 
millions? This cursed, cruel, diabolical American war! " — Fox. 

" Illustrious man ! — deriving honor less from the splendor of his situa- 
tion than the dignity of his mind!" "Brave, benevolent, wonderful 
old man!" "Gentlemen, what does this mean! Chops and tomato 
sauce ! Yours, Pickwick ! Chops ! Gracious heavens ! And tomato 
sauce! Gentlemen, is the happiness of a sensitive and confiding female 
to be trifled away by such shallow artifices as these ? " 

( Quoted fragments, or echoed parts made exclamatory.) " l Tried and 
convicted traitor'! Who says this?" "'Traitor' ! I go ; but I return." 
Observe that the quotation mark precedes the exclamation point. 
" l Banished from Rome ! ' What's banished but set free " &c, should be, 
"' Banished from Rome'! what's banished" &c. "'To be whipped'! 
What's his fault? Wilt thou make a trust a transgression? The trans- 
gression is in the stealer." 

(Exclamations directly quoted, and forming part of a simple sentence.) 
"'Here we go! here we go!' cried he, throwing up his arms; 'faster, 
Henry ! faster ! ' " " ' To the guillotine ! to the guillotine ! ' exclaimed the 
female part of the rabble." Observe that the quotation mark follows 
the exclamation point. "Then the first sound went forth, 'They come, 
they come!'" "'Tramp! tramp!' was suddenly heard on the stairs. 
Who could it be?" (What was heard?) "We should realize, by act, 
the words 'awake ! arise! ' in as quick and immediate succession as they 
were uttered by the poet." 

When should the exclamation point supersede other points within the 
sentence? When should it be preferred to the interrogation pointy at the 
end of the sentence? How should interjections be punctuated? 

These questions relate to difficulties that can not be always easily 
decided, but generally best by the author himself. He should first con- 
sider whether the sentence is sufficiently emotional for the point; and 
then in what part or in how much of the sentence the emotion is chiefly 
comprised, putting the point at the end of such part. As to the length 
of the sentence, or as to how much shall be put into one sentence, the 
same principles will apply here that apply to interrogative sentences. 

Ex. — " A desperate resolution ! the weather was extremely rough ; 
the oldest mariners had not seen more outrageous seas." (Only the first 



PUNCTUATION. — EXCLAMATION POINT. 319 

part sufficiently emotional.) "But then, my dear, you were a lovely 
creature ! and, by candle-light, no body would have taken you for above 
five and twenty." " And then there are my Italian songs! which every 
body allows I sing with taste." " Brutus. Urge me no more: I shall 
forget myself: have mind upon your health: tempt me no further ! " 
(Rises in emotion to the end.) "Ah, bless me! how her gracious heart 
would ache, if she were to hear this tale." (Simply, "Her gracious 
heart would ache, if" &c. — declines in emotion to the end.) "0 death ! 
dark hour to hopeless unbelief! hour to which, in that creed of despair, 
no hour shall succeed ! being's last hour! to whose appalling darkness 
even the shadows of an avenging retribution were brightness and relief 
— death ! — what art thou to the Christian's assurance." (First parts all 
strongly emotional ; latter part simply equivalent to " But the Christian 
has no cause to fear thee.") "Well, to be sure, how much I have 
fagged through ! — the only wonder is, that one head can contain it 
all ! " (Long intervening pause; both parts highly emotional.) " How 
ugly a person appears, upon whose reputation some awkward aspersion 
hangs ! and how suddenly his countenance clears up with his char- 
acter! " 

(Farts distinct; different things of wonder ; long clauses, yet connected ; 
both parts equally emotional.) home! magical, all powerful home! 
how strong must have been thy influence, when thy faintest memory 
could cause these bronzed heroes of a thousand fights to weep like tearful 
women!" (All the parts highly emotional.) "What! attribute the 
sacred sanction of God and nature to the massacres of the Indian scalp- 
ing-knife ! to the cannibal savage, torturing, murdering, devouring, 
drinking the blood of his mangled victims!" I should rather have 
used, after " seal ping-knife," the comma and dash (,— ) ; yet, on reflec- 
tion, I believe the sentence is most expressive as it is. 

"Rejoice! rejoice! the summer months are coming ; 
Rejoice! rejoice! the birds begin to sing!" 
(Pauses after the exclamatory words, nearly equal; the parts express 
much joy.) 

"Gentle river, gentle river! tell us whither do you glide, 
Through the green and sunny meadows, with your sweetly murmuring 
tide?" 
(Greater pause required after the second phrase ; parts not so deeply 
emotional as those above.) 

" Fade, ye wild-flowers ! memorials of my doom ! 
And sink, ye stars ! that light me to the tomb ! " 
(Too deeply emotional for any other point.) 
" The isles of Greece, the isles of Greece, 
Where burning Sappho loved and sung." — Foivler's Grammar. 
Better: "The isles of Greece! the isles of Greece!" &c. 
"ODesdemona! Desdemona ! dead? 
Dead! Oh! oh! oh!" 
"Brave comrades! all is ruined! I disdain to hide the truth from 
you." (Greater pause than that of the comma required ; parts deeply 
emotional.) " Man ! brethren ! and fathers ! hear ye my defence which 
I now make unto you ! " " Truth ! friendship ! my country ! sacred 
objects, sentiments dear to my heart, accept my last sacrifice! " (Pause 



320 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

equivalent to that of a comma and dasli or of a semicolon.) So, a 
thou disconsolate widow ! robbed, so cruelly robbed, and in so short a 
time, both of a husband and a son! what must be the plenitude of thy 
suffering!" 

So, "Fair star of evening! splendor of the west! 

Star of my country ! on the horizon s brink 
Thou hangest." 
So, "Now press them! now, ye Trojans, steed-renowned, 
Rush on ! break through the Grecian rampart, hurl 
At once devouring flames into the fleet! " — Cowper's Homer. 
"To change the settled law of property! to confiscate the widow's 
pittance! to plunder the orphan's cradle! and to violate the dead man's 
grave." Perhaps the exclamation point would have been better at the 
end only, and some other point within. "Are we brought into the 
world; and allowed to occupy a place in it, only that we may pursue 
trifles ! that we may brutishly gratify our appetites and passions ! that 
we may leave the world at last, perhaps at the expiration of three- 
score years and ten, without having derived any advantage from being in 
it, or conferring a single benefit upon it ! " This sentence could not per- 
haps be so well punctuated in any different way. " Macbeth, Macbeth, 
Macbeth! beware Macduff!" "Friends, Romans, countrymen! lend 
me your ears." "William, William! (can't you hear me?) bring the 
gun." "Ah me, for pity ! What a dream was here." (Comma within 
the phrase; greater pause and stronger emotion at the end of the 
phrase; parts not so deeply emotional as those above.) So, "'0, for a 
draught of cold water ! ' said he." "0 mother, mother, do not jest on 
a theme like this." (Not emotional.) " 0, what a sweet place grand- 
mother's orchard is ! " (Emotion sufficiently expressed by deferring 
the point to the end.) 

When an interjection or other emotional word is to be expressive 
chiefly in connection with other words, it is better to defer the exclama- 
tion point as nearly as possible to the end. When deep emotion belongs 
chiefly to the whole of a phrase or sentence, it is generally better 
expressed by one point at the end, than by the hitching and interrupt- 
ing caused by a multitude of points within. 

"Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!" "How meek, how 
patient, the mild creature lies!" "But, thou best of parents! wipe 
thy tears." "Ah me!" not, "Ah! me." "Alas, my noble boy! that 
thou shouldst die." " He, ha, ha ! " " Ha, ha, ha ! " 

" ' Will you walk into my parlor? ' said the spider to the fly; 
"Tis the prettiest little parlor that ever you did spy.' 
<0, no, no!"' 
" Under such circumstances, I never would lay down my arms — never, 
never, never ! " 

" But, 0! while yet thou liv'st, think, lest the Gods 
Requite thee on that day, when, pierced thyself, 
By Paris and Apollo, thou shalt fall, 

Brave as thou art, before the Scsean gate ! " — Cowpers Homer. 
(Latter part long; hence the point is also placed after "0.") 
So, "Lo! Newton, priest of nature, shines afar, 

Scans the wide world, and numbers every star! " — Campbell. 
"I thought my new acquirements would enable me to see the ladies 



PUNCTUATION. — DASH. 321 

with tolerable intrepidity; but, alas! how vain are all the hopes of the- 
ory, when unsupported by habitual practice." There is no place, farther 
on in the sentence than the word "alas," to put the point. So, " Alas ! 
sir, how fell you beside your five wits." "Alas, the day! I know not." 
(Deferred so far as possible.) "Oh, bloodiest picture in the book of 
time! Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime." "Oh! nothing is fur- 
ther from my thoughts than to deceive you." "Where is the man, 
where is the philosopher, who could so live, suffer and die, without 
weakness and ostentation ! " This is not addressed to any particular 
person for an answer ; the author expects no answer, and means to give 
none himself. The sentence expresses his feelings rather than his 
doubts; or the interrogative arrangement is but a stronger mode of 
stating a declarative exclamation : hence marked I and not f 

Some writers put at least a comma after every interjection, on the 
same principle, I suppose, on which "yes " and "no " are separated 
from "sir." Others put no point immediately after the interjection, 
when this is closely uttered with what follows; that is, when it is used 
in direct addresses with a substantive, or with a phrase between which 
and the interjection something has been omitted; as, "0 thou villain! " 
"Ah me ! " "Alas for this poor family ! " "0 [, ] that his heart were 
tender." The former custom is rather in accordance with the grammat- 
ical system of punctuating ; the latter, with the rhetorical. 

When interjections are spoken of as mere words, they should not be 
followed by the exclamation point; as, Ah, 0, alas, ho. 

To express great wonder or astonishment, two or more exclamation 
points are sometimes used together. 

"Arrest a gentleman ! ! ! take a warrant out against a gentleman! ! — 
you villain ! What do you mean?" "Reduce Providence to an alter- 
native ! ! ! " — Sydney Smith. " Selling off below cost ! ! great sacrifices! I ! " 

The exclamation point is also used sometimes like the interrogation 
point, to. denote sneeringly the unbelief of the speaker. 

Ex. — "The measures which he introduced to Congress, and which 
ought to have been carried by overwhelming majorities (? ), proved him 
to have been in every sense a great statesman ( ! )." 

7. DASH. 

The dash seems to be used in many modern books, wherever the author, 
from ignorance of the laws of punctuation, does not precisely know 
what point should be used. The excessive use of it seems to have been 
first introduced into our literature by the Scottish writers; or perhaps 
rather, by magazine and newspaper writers generally. I shall endeavor 
to give all the various well-established uses of this much-abused mark. 

The dash is generally a sort of graphic mark, indicating such a suspense 
in the sense as will have a peculiar or important effect on the memory, 
curiosity, or expectation of the reader. 

(Imitative Use.) (Delay or suspense.) "The pulse fluttered — stopped 
— went on — throbbed — stopped again — moved — stopped.— Shall I go on ? 
— No." — Sterne. "But, no; he hesitated — he tottered — he failed." 
"The clock went tick — tick — tick — tick — and I went nid-nod — nodding 
— nidding, till suddenly the door-bell rang, and startled me from my 
drowsiness." " One pressed his antagonist back — back — back — till 
there was but another step of plank behind him, — between him and 



322 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

nothing." " He lived — he breathed — he moved — he felt." " This was 
the last cry of the sufferer; the waters closed over his mouth — they 
rushed into his Dostrils — there was a struggle — a deadly struggle 
beneath them for a few moments, and then stillness — the stillness of 
death! " — See below; — Significant pause. 

"Pop! There — the cork's drawn. Gurgle — gurgle — gurgle — good — 
good — good — No ! it is in vain ; there is no type — there are no printed 
sounds (allow me the concetto) — to describe the melody, the cadence, of 
the out-pouring bottle." — London Punch. 

(Faltering or hesitation.) " ' I — I — don't want to,' said Peleg, shrink- 
ing back." " He humbly hopes — presumes — it m;iy be so." " ' He was 
very sorry for it, was extremely concerned it should happen so — but — a 
— it was necessary — a — '" "I — I myself — was in love — with — Pris- 
cilla! " 

( Interruption ; first part left unfinished. ) " l She was ' 

' A great fool,' said a trooper." 

"Here lies the great — False marble! where? Nothing but sor- 
did dust lies here." "Thy false uncle — Dost thou attend me?" — Shak- 
speares Tempest. 

" Gil Bias. Your Grace's sermons never fail to be admired; but 

" Archbishop. It lacked the strength — the — Do you not agree with 
me, sir? " 

" It was to inquire by what title General — but catching himself, Mr. 
Washington chose to be addressed." — Irving. " But the voice — the loud 
and clear voice of the living would come upon us." 

(First part unfinished, but afterwards resumed or continued.) "All 
seemed very well; but — for there was one of those dreadful 'buts' in 
the case — but he had a very small amount of money to provide a home." 
"I take — eh! oh! — as much exercise — eh! — as I can, Madam Gout. 
You know my sedentary state." — Franklin. " ' What' — screamed Hop- 
kins — 'what am I to do for an umbrella?' 'Do!' answered Simpson, 
darting from the door — 'do as I did; borrow one.' " — D. Jerrold. "The 
truth is — and it will out — that the poet alone sees the world." (Paren- 
thetic uses of the dash.) 

When a parenthesis is but an echo, or has other points within it, the 
dash is particularly appropriate; but other parentheses are frequently 
set off by the dash. 

"Their female companion — faded, though still young — possessed, 
nevertheless, a face whose expression frequently drew my gaze." 
" Tom Moore wrote politics at times — pointed, bitter, rankling politics — 
but he was really no politician at heart." " Solitude — continued he, 
profound solitude — was necessary to the production of the book." " Set- 
ting aside — a rare virtue in this clime — his aristocratic antecedents, he 
set up as a baker for the public." " When the savage — to explain his 
own insensibility to cold — called upon the white man to recollect how 
little his own face was affected by it; and then added, ' My body is all 
face.'" "And then — my heart with it — I threw a bouquet, that had 
nestled in my button-hole, at her feet." Observe that the comma is so 
used elsewhere, that it could not be used in the place of the dash. 

(Resumptive use of the dash — the echo — the same expression or sense 
repeated — one expression apparently dropped for a better one.) "The 
eccentric movements of war — the marching and countermarching — often 



PUNCTUATION. — DASH. 323 

repeat the blow on districts slowly recovering from the first," (There is 
also unusual significance or emphasis. — See below.) " There was about 
Harriet a freshness — a spontaneousness — a sort of transparency — through 
which every feeling and emotion became visible." " lie gave one glance 
at her eloquent face — the last — for he was never to see her again." 
" The organ that you sent down to the chapel plays very beautifully — 
very." "Harriet believed that she was utterly unheeded — quite forgot- 
ten." " All the rest was mere flourish — mere palaver." Some would 
have preferred the comma, or the comma and dash. " Day by day he 
became haggard — care-worn." "I consider glory at the best but as a 
dull mountebank — a thing of strut, and frippery, and emptiness." — Jer- 
rold: London. "He should form a habit of uniting correctness with 
fluency in ordinary speech — a species of elocution as valuable as any 
other." — G. Brown: New York. "Oar own nature is the first and near- 
est of all realities, — the corner-stone of the entire fabric of truth." — J. 
Wilson: Boston. "Searching in vain for his stolen sister — his sister Eu- 
ropa, carried off by Jupiter — he found a wife in the daughter of Venus ! " 
— G. Brown. Mr. Brown generally uses no comma before the dash, when 
the resumed expression takes the place of a previous word that does not 
admit a point before it. " But they — the poor, the friendless — had lost 
in him their friend — almost their father." " The writer evidently 
means to caution us against the practices of puffers, — a class of people 
who have more than once talked the public into the most absurd errors." 
" Well, we had raspberries and cream for supper; — such big raspberries! 
and such rich cream! " " Who is the worse, — he who never spends, or 
he who never saves?" "Because they have learned this one great 
lesson — that there is no security without law." "'Tis a lesson you 
should heed — Try again." " One besetting — one eternal idea — was it 
not enough to break the heart, paralyze the brain?" "His life was 
indeed a true poem ; or it might be compared to an anthem on his own 
favorite organ, — high-toned, solemn, and majestic." "The forest has 
fallen before those who established their habitations in its dark recesses 
— dark till their toil made way for the light of heaven to shine upon 
them." — Cass. " Is Bridget industrious — is she neat?" "Had I been 
a selfish man — had I been a grasping man — had I been, in the wordly 
sense of the word, even a prudent man, — I should not be where I am 
now." — Byron. " No, sir, I always thought Robertson would be crushed 
by his own weight — would be buried under his own ornaments." "The 
noble indignation with which Emmett repelled the charge of treason 
against his country, the eloquent vindication of his name, and his pa- 
thetic appeals to posterity, — all these entered deeply into every generous 
breast." — Irving. " The crisp snow and the woolly clouds, the delight- 
ful rustle of the summer forest and the waving of the autumn corn, the 
glory of the sunset and the wonder of the rainbow, — the world would 
have wanted these, had not the winds been taught to do their Master's 
bidding." — Dickens. (Also transition in structure.) 

(Omission of "namely ■" or " that is v ; allied in sense to the foregoing 
examples.) " The story is not deficient in that which all stories should 
have to be perfectly delightful, — a fortunate conclusion." " On this was 
he willing to stake all he had, — character and life." "It had literally 
nothing to do beyond what I have said, — to flow, to bubble, to look lim- 
pid, to murmur amid flowers and sweet perfumes." 



324 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

When the parts are long, the semicolon is often preferred. 

Ex. — " I have yet three miles to walk by noon, to tell some boarding- 
school misses whether their husbands are to be captains in the army or 
peers of the realm ; a question which I promised them to answer by that 
time." — Goldsmith. 

The dash is sometimes used at the beginning of renewed discourse 
viewed as the continuance of previous discourse left unfinished. 

" But to return to my mother," &c. — See Sterne's Works ; Holmes's 

Autocrat. 

The dash is sometimes used before a part, to show that it relates, not 
to the part immediately before it, but to all the parts, or to something 
remote. 

"Every step in the attainment of physical power; every new trait 
of intelligence, as these traits one by one arise in the infantine intellect, 
like the glory of night, starting star by star into the sky, — is hailed 
with a heart-burst of rapture and surprise, as if we had never known 
any thing so captivating or so clever before." 

"All business ceased, the towns in silence lay, 
Men brooded deep with vengeance and dismay, 
And naught was heard save woman's wail of woe, — 
As spread the tidings from the Alamo." 

The dash is often used at the beginning or the end of each of several 
particulars or parts, to show their common or remote dependence on 
something else in the sentence ; as, " Taxation — street cleaning — street 
lighting — police — parks — are all determined by the nominees of these 
primary meetings." This usage of the dash is very common, but gen- 
erally improper, unless some other principle — such as unusual signifi- 
cance or suppressed emotion — comes in to recommend it. But when the 
parts are very long or very numerous, it may be best to use the dash 
after each of them, to show their common dependence on something 
remote. 

" When lawyers take what they would give, 
And doctors give what they would take, — 
When city fathers eat to live, 

Save when they fast for conscience' sake," — &c. — Holmes. 

This stanza, with seven others like it, depends on a concluding one. 

[Irregular or incoherent structure.) "God bless me! I remember — 
don't speak of it — shocking! — I'm very sorry." 

( Unexpected or witty transition in style or thought.) " Well, in that 
case, friend Ralph — your name is Ralph, 1 think." " The sloth moves 
suspended, sleeps suspended, and passes his life in suspense — like a 
young clergyman distantly related to a bishop." " The minister did not 
enlighten him with any further instructions — nor did La Salle with any 
intimation of his intention." (See the next heading.) "Approaching 
the head of the bed, where my poor young companion, with throat un- 
covered, was lying, with one hand the monster grasped his knife, and 
with the other — ah, cousin ! — with the other — he seized a ham, which 
hung from the ceiling." 

" Whatever is, is right. — This world, 'tis true, 
Was made for Coesar — but for Titus too." — Pope. 

[Significant pause.) " Give me liberty, or give me — death!" "But 
the greatest of these is — charity." " Widow. To hide the flood of tears 



PUNCTUATION. — DASH. 325 

I did — not shed." " These make up the whole of syntax — but not the 
whole of grammar." "Man — is made — of — money." "He said; then 
full before their sight Produced the beast, and lo! — 'twas white." 

"And life's piano now for me hath lost its sweetest tones, sir, 
Since my Matilda Brown became some fellow's — Mrs. Jones, sir." 

(Elliptical or irregular structure combined with unusual significance.) 
" Came home solus — very high wind — lightning — moonshine — solitary 
stragglers muffled in cloaks — white houses — clouds hurrying over the 
sky — altogether very poetical." — Byron. " Tt is still blowing very 
hard — the tiles flying, and the house rocking — rain splashing — light- 
ning flashing — quit* a fine Swiss Alpine evening, and the sea roaring in 
the distance." — Byron. 

From these and other examples we may infer, that the dash is often 
an emotional point, — a sort of semi-exclamation point used within the 
sentence ; also, that it is often preferred to other points, or used with 
them, to state contrast or resemblance with greater force, or to show 
that particulars are mentioned with greater emphasis or with suppressed 
emotion. 

" Have I not seen you leaden-eyed — clay-pated — almost dumb with 
pain hammering at your temples — degraded by nausea tugging at your 
stomach —your hand shaking like a leaf — your mouth like the mouth of 
an oven — and your tongue, I'm sure of it, like burnt shoe-leather?" — 
London Punch. "But it would be difficult for me to forget her — her 
dark eyes — her long eyelashes — her completely Greek cast of face and 
figure!" " I was then, in authorship, as young — though it were to be 
hoped, not so immature." " Be it so — or even more, if he and the pub- 
lic please." " He has taken them upon their own ground — showing 
their errors, for the most part, in contrast with the principles they them- 
selves have taught." — G. Brown. (Emphatically substituted for the 
semicolon.) 

The dash is sometimes used alone or with the ordinary points, when 
these are inadmissible or inadequate. 

"A good noise once in a while I don't mind — it brisks up one's blood ; 
but I have known," &c. Here the semicolon forbids the use of the colon 
before it. 

" The principal parts of a sentence are usually three ; namely, the 
subject, or nominative, — the attribute, or finite verb, — and the case put 
after, or the object governed by the verb: as, '■Crimes deserve punish- 
ment.' " Here the comma and dash (, — ) supply the place of a point in- 
termediate between the semicolon and the colon. " It is true that the 
relation of words — by which I mean that connection between them, 
which the train of thought forms and suggests — or that dependence 
which one word has on another according to sense — lies at the founda- 
tion of syntax." — O. Brown. Substitute the comma for the dash, and 
the sentence will be almost unintelligible. " Singular, boy's; plural, 
boys' ; — sounds alike, but written differently." The colon would have been 
improper; and the semicolon alone, inadequate. u Chrystal! — does it 
not shine and sparkle like the very thing for which it stands ? " The dash 
connects, and is needed to show that "Chrystal" is not a mere exclama- 
tion. — See Side-heads. " Scene — a village in England." Without the 
dash, it might not be obvious that " scene" and " village" are identical. 

From the principles given, we may infer that the dash is a very con- 



326 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

venient point for long-winded sentences, for long and involved sen- 
tences, or for sentences consisting of many incoherent or dissimilar parts. 
It should be so used as to give full play to the other points, and bring- 
out the sense to the best advantage In accordance with the principles 
given, it should rather be applied to the parenthetic parts, to the parts 
most incoherent or dissimilar, and to the parts emphatically mentioned. 

Ex. — " The Irishman has many good qualities : he is brave, witty, gener- 
ous, eloquent, hospitable, and open-hearted; but he is vain, ostentatious, 
extravagant, and fond of display — light in counsel — deficient in perse- 
verance — without skill in private or public economy — an enjoyer, not 
an acquirer — one who despises the slow and patient virtues — who wants 
the superior structure without the foundation — the result without the 
previous operation — the oak without the acorn and the three hundred 
years of expectation." — S. Smith. 

11 In place of these, a lean, bilious-looking fellow, with his pockets 
full of handbills, was haranguing vehemently about rights of citizens — 
elections — members of Congress — liberty — Bunker's Hill — heroes of 
Seventy-six — and other words — which were a perfect Babylonish jargon 
to the bewildered Van Winkle." — Irving. 

" Our general ideas — that is, our ideas conceived as common to many 
individuals, existing in any part of time, past, present, or future — such, 
for example, as belong to the word man, horse, tree, cedar — such ideas, I 
say, constitute," &c, &c. — G. Brown. 

" The most certain plan of success (I have it from a woman, and I 
believe an excellent authority, ) is any way to interest them. In my own 
case — (I thought your poor mother had a deal of money, but — well, never 
mind,) — I at last affected consumption. — London Punch. This compli- 
cated paragraph would be little improved, I think, by any other punc- 
tuation. 

"Let man reflect, too, upon the solitary situation in which women are 
placed, — the ill treatment to which they are sometimes exposed, and 
which they must endure in silence, and without the power of complain- 
ing, — and he must feel convinced that the happiness of woman is mate- 
rially increased in proportion as education has given her the habit and 
power of drawing her resources from herself." — S. Smith. Here the 
dash simply lengthens the pause a little, but implies no change in gram- 
matical structure; or perhaps the part inclosed by the dashes was 
meant for an echo. 

(The dash annexed to other points, in accordance with principles already 
given). u Assuredly, Zenobia could not have intended it; — the fault must 
have been entirely my own." — Ilaivthorne. u To return to birds; — they 
are, when well, uniformly as happy as the day is long." — Prof. Wilson. 
11 It thunders ; — but it thunders to preserve." — Young. " Do not let us 
be misunderstood: upon the object to be accomplished there can be but 
one opinion ;— it is only upon the means employed, that there can be 
the slightest difference of opinion." 

' ; He saw, — whatever thou hast seen; 
Enjoyed, — but his delights are fled." 
" Cleon hath a million acres, — ne'er a one have I; 
Cleon dwelleth in a palace, — in a cottage, I; 
Cleon hath a dozen fortunes, — not a penny, I; 
But the poorer of the twain is Cleon, and not I." 



PUNCTUATION. — DASH. 327 

M She died in beauty, like the snow on flowers dissolved away; 
She died in beauty, like a star lost on the brow of day ; 
She lives in beauty, like Night's gems set round the silver moon; 
She lives in glory, like the sun amid the glow of June." 

"To bake, to boil, to roast, to fry, to stew, — to wash, and iron, and 
scrub, and sweep, — and at our idle intervals, to repose ourselves on 
knitting and sewing, — these, I suppose, must be feminine occupations, 
for the present." — Hawthorne : Boston. In stead of the double points 
after " stew " and " sweep," it would be as well or better to use the semi- 
colon. 

" I pause for a reply. — None ? Then none have I offended. — I have 
done no more to Caesar, than you should do to Brutus." — Shak. 
" And enterprises of great pith and moment, 
With this regard their currents turn awry, 
And lose the name of action. — Soft, you now ! 
The fair Ophelia. — Nymph, in thy orisons 
Be all my sins remembered." — Shak.: Hamlet. (Transition.) 

" 'The wound,' said Lord Bacon, 'is not dangerous, unless we poiso 
it with our remedies. — The wrongs of the Puritans may hardly be dis- 
sembled or excused. — On subjects of religion he was always for moderate 
counsels.'" — Bancroft. (Rehearsed sayings of great weight, or not 
spoken consecutively by Lord Bacon, but at different times.) 

" Who next? — 0, my little friend, you are just let loose from school, 
and come hither to scrub your blooming face, and drown the memory of 
certain taps of the ferule and other schoolboy troubles, in a draught 
from the Town Pump." — Hawthorne. "Was it not a delusion ? — had it 
been really accomplished? — and could it be done again?" "Let me 
see! — as to French, I am complete mistress of that, and speak it, if pos- 
sible, with more fluency than English." — Jane Taylor. 

(Quotations.) Mr. G. Brown writes, Both subjects sometimes 
come before the verb; as, " I know not who he is." — " Who did you say 
it was? " — "I know not how to tell thee who I am." Mr. Wilson also 
puts dashes between quoted examples. Mr. E. Sargent writes, The 
following sentences may illustrate the pauses to be made at the several 
punctuation marks : "John, does it rain?" "Henry runs.; Anne and 
Mary walk." "Two boys fell down; they fell on the ice." " The day 
is fair." " Who calls ? " " 0, look ! " 

I agree with Mr. Sargent, and think the dash unnecessary between 
such examples ; because the quotation marks keep them sufficiently 
distinct. 

[Speaker's name omitted,.) "A'n't I a baronet? Sir Robert Bram- 
ble of Blackberry Hall, in the count}* of Kent? 'Tis time you 
should know it, for you have been my clumsy, two-fisted valet these 
thirty years : can you deny that ? — Hem! — Hem? What do you mean 
by hem ? Open that rusty door of your mouth, and make your ugly 
voice walk out of it. Why don't you answer my question." ("Says 
he" avoided.) 

[Each part referred to its speaker.) When I was a little boy, I re- 
member, one cold winter's morning, I was accosted by a smiling man, 
with an axe on his shoulder. "My pretty boy," said he, has your 
father got a grindstone ? " — -"Yes, sir," said I. — "You are a fine little 



328 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

fellow," said he, "will you let me grind my axe on it?" — Franklin. 
In such a dialogue the dash is perhaps unnecessary. 

( One person.) " Shall I tell you what religion is in its broadest sense ? 
It is life cultivated under God, and in presence of death. Forget death, 
and there would be little or no religion." (Answered by the asker. ) 

(Two persons.) "In combustibility it agrees with cannel coal? — It 
does. Have you examined its fracture? — I have." (One asks, and the 
other answers.) 

(One person.) "When arrived? — this evening. How long do I 
stay ? — uncertain. What are my plans? — let us discuss them." (Ques- 
tions of a friend anticipated and answered.) 

(Subject-matter joined to the side-head at the beginning, and to the author- 
ity at the end.) 

Ex. — " The Abuse of the Imagination. — He who can not command his 
thoughts, must not hope to control his actions. All mental superiority 
originates in habits of thinking." — Jane Taylor. 

From this example and some of the preceding ones, we may infer that 
the dash connects what might otherwise be improperly separated; and 
separates what might be improperly taken together. 

(Subjects.) "Alexander Severus — Gibbon. Queen Elizabeth — Hume. 
Howard — Burke. Milton — Quarterly Review. Washington — Webster. 

(Subjects of the chapter.) Heavy Rain. — Camp. — Buffalo Hunt. — 
Osage Indians. (A heading.) 

(Subjects equal in extent of meaning.) "Scene — Florence." "Book 
First — An Outline." (A heading.) 

(Separation.) " Such double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass — 
muff, knell, gloss — off, hiss, puss" — G. Brown. "They are combined 
with other sounds more vocal; as, Bee, Cee, Dee, — Ell, Em, En, — Jay, 
Kay, KueP — G. Brown. 

(Junction.) "The Young Philosopher — A Dialogue." "Bravery — 
Courage." — Graham's Synonymes. u A man — one unknown or indefinite ; 
The man — one known or particular; The men — some particular 
ones." — G. Brown. 

"Lesson LXIL— The Power of Music." (The title joined to the 
number of the lesson or chapter; or separated from it.) 

An expression to something begun or resumed in the line below : — 

"My Dear Boy, — 

Do you choose your friend, like an orange, by its 
golden outside, and the power of yielding much when well squeezed." — 

"The Resolutions were as follows: — [Punch. 

1. Resolved" &c. 

( Common dependence.) About them — above them — across them — after 
them" &c. — G. Brown. 

(Omission of intervening numbers.) "See pages 250 — 258;" i. e., all 
the pages, beginning with 250 to 258 inclusive. " See pp. 250-58." 



When should the dash be used without any other point or mark accom- 
panying it ? In this respect, usage is very unsettled. 

When a part is left unfinished, or when a part is broken where none 
of the ordinary points could be inserted, then the dash is used alone. 
In stead of any of the four common points — particularly the two shorter 



PUNCTUATION.— DASH. 329 

ones — followed by the dash, printers often use the dash alone; especially 
in the resumptive or parenthetic sense. 

Where the accompanying point required by the sense, would make 
the pause too long, printers generally use the dash alone. 

Mr. J. Wilson insists that the ordinary grammatical point which 
would be required were the dash omitted, should also be placed before 
the dash; but against this rule — though a good one — there is not a 
little authority, if we appeal to general practice. Indeed, there seems 
to be a strong tendency among printers, to avoid double points; and to 
use the dash alone, wherever this is sufficient of itself to bring out the 
sense clearly and fully. 

"These are — ah, no! these were the gazetteers!" "A flower — I 
know not how it came there — was in my bosom; and seeing that it was 
a lily, I placed it in my cap for concealment." " My dear, I will — 
Polly, your father wants jou." --British Drama. (Uttered all in one 
sentence, w r ith one breath, or with voice suspended to the close.) " I 
have been so well — Doctor, take this chair." — Id. "Then give a little 
attention, and conjugate after me — lo amo, I love," &c. — Id. "Look 
upon the ceiling — there it is." — Harper's Magazine. " Enough — the 
book is a capital first venture." — Thackeray. "Then he took up the 
letter again — then he laid the letter down again — sighed very deeply 
once, and then thought of — Rosalie." — Harper s Magazine. " One great 
passion had absorbed his breast — the independence of his native 
country." — Boston. " It is but a branch of the general science of 
philology — a new variety or species sprung from the old stock." New 
York. "And then death — death in the bed of glory — with a whole 
country weeping over our ashes !" — London. "It is just what might have 
been expected from its author — a very juvenile performance." — Edin- 
burgh. " And then for company, doesn't she see the butcher, the baker, 
the dustman — to say nothing of the sweep." — D. Jerrold: London. 
" Each should be careful to perform his part handsomely — without 
drawling, omitting, stopping, hesitating, faltering," &c. — G.Brown: New 
York. " Words fitly spoken are indeed both precious and beauti- 
ful — 'like apples of gold in pictures of silver.' " — Id. "If justice 
were done to these — to Giidas the wise," &c. — Id. Observe that in sev- 
eral of the preceding sentences, the part after the dash explains or re- 
sumes a previous word that does not admit a point before it. 

" There was a little picture — excellently done, moreover — of a rag- 
ged, bloated, New England toper." — Hawthorne: Boston. Here "more- 
over " seems to have yielded its latter comma to the dash. So, " I was 
an auditor— auditress, I mean — of one of his lectures." — Id. " You do 
not know then — indeed, how could you ? — Clara is married." =You do 
not know, then, that Clara is married. (Interrogation or exclamation 
point never superseded.) " Though I have given eight pounds a year, — 
would you believe it ? — I have never once succeeded." Omit the paren- 
thesis, and the comma is needed after " year ; " but the interrogation 
point supersedes the latter comma. "In a brief time — how very brief! 
— the cock crows." — London. "But the curate — alas, poor man! — he 
has been to college, and is a gentleman." — Id. Some would insert a com- 
ma and dash after " curate." " I prophesied her end, and — poor wretch ! 
so it came about." — Id. Here I think a dash should also have been 
used after the exclamation point. "I have visited your beautiful little 

2£ 



330 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

house — (ha! my dear friend, if we only knew it, in such humility is 
true happiness!) — and have wished that I could change all the glitter 
and ceremony of life for that simple yet substantial homestead." — Lon- 
don. (Dashes emphatically inclosing a parenthesis, or denoting emo- 
tional transition.) So, " They call us angels — (though I am proud to 
say, no man ever so insulted my understanding) — yes, angels, that they 
may make us slaves." — Id. Perhaps Madam would have used the dash, 
even if the parenthesis had been omitted : some writers would have 
omitted the curves, and perhaps even used the comma before the dashes, 
yet dashes and curves are very properly preferred, as in the foregoing 
sentence, whenever a parenthesis occurs between an expression and its 
reiteration. "It was rather ludicrous, indeed — (to me at least, whose 
enthusiasm had insensibly been exhaled, together with the perspiration 
of many a hard day's toil), — it was absolutely funny to see, &c." — Lon- 
don. Here the comma ordinarily required after "indeed " is deferred, 
and put immediately after the entire parenthesis; because the paren- 
thetic matter has no point at its end : otherwise the point should not 
have been deferred. See p. 268. So, " Having suffered so much from 
the impertinence and wickedness of servants — (I have often thought 
they were only sent into this world [only] to torment respectable people), 
— you will, 1 am sure, forgive me, if I, &c." — Punch. — See also an 
example in Wilson's Punctuation, p. 183. 

"The sword and Pen — Humming-bird and Butterfly — The Wolf and 
the Kid — The Two Bees — Court of Death — Dishonesty Punished." 
(Series of Subjects.) "Gripe — Harriet — Lively — Hunks." — British 
Drama. (A heading.) In such headings as the last two, I think the 
comma, the semicolon, or the period generally preferable; unless the enu- 
meration is emphatic, or the parts are liable to be read as related parts 
of an imperfect sentence. 

In newspapers, when several phrases form a heading, they are gener- 
ally separated by the dash alone ; because, I suppose, the additional pe- 
riod would make too great a pause, and any other common point used 
alone, would not always keep the parts sufficiently distinct, or make 
them sufficiently emphatic, or always prevent the liability of reading 
the entire heading as one imperfect sentence. The punctuation of the 
following heading is evidently improper for want of uniformity : " Geo- 
graphy — Population — Botany, Mineralogy, and Zoology." 

When it is doubtful whether the dash or other points should be se- 
lected, it may be well to remember that the dash implies omission, 
unusual structure, or suppressed emotion ; but that it should never be 
needlessly preferred to the common points. 

The various legitimate applications of the dash may be briefly sum- 
med up in the words of Mr. Mandeville : " The dash denotes unusual 
structure or significance." 

8. CURVES. 

The curves are used to inclose some word, phrase, or sentence, hastily 
thrown in to convey some explanatory or merely incidental idea or 
thought, which may be omitted without injury to the grammatical con- 
struction. 

A parenthesis is somewhat like a by-path to a main road ; or rather, 
like an arm to the main channel. It is a sort of by-thought or under- 



PUNCTUATION. — CURVES. 331 

thought; — a sort of appendage, excrescence, parasite, or satellite, to the 
main thought. 

The dash, and also the comma, are now often used in stead of the 
curves. 

The dash should be preferred when the parenthesis coalesces rather 
closely, in sense and grammatical stiucture, with the rest of the sen- 
tence; or when it is rather emotional or emphatic. 

The curves should be preferred when the parenthesis coalesces little or 
least, in sense and grammatical structure, with the rest of the sentence; 
or when the parenthesis is to be read in a very perceptible undertone. 

The comma should be preferred when it will serve as well as either of 
the other marks. 

" I had given a third part of my wealth — four cents — for it." (Emo- 
tional or emphatic: it draws the attention strongly to how great the 
sum was.) 

" I had given a third part of my wealth (four cents) for it." This 
takes the least notice of the sum ; it may even imply that the person 
addressed, already knew how much that third was. \ 

u I had given a third part of my wealth, four cents, for it." This is 
intermediate, in sense, between the other two. 

" The professors in misfortune — especially such a misfortune as this — 
have the most urgent claims on our sympathy." " Mr. Plausible (to 
borrow a name from John Bunyan) wishes the Hon. Mr. Spendthrift to 

represent the county of ." (Separated parts admitting no point.) 

u Next day the landlord inquires (and all landlords are inquisitive), and 
after inquiry talks (and all landlords are talkative), concerning the pri- 
vate business of his new guest." (Comma deferred.) 
" Thou darling of thy sire ! 
(Why, Jane, he'll set his pin-a-fore a-fire !) 

Thou imp of mirth and joy ! 
In love's dear chain so bright a link, 

Thou idol of thy parents — (Hang the boy ! 
There goes my ink.) 
With pure heart newly stamped from Nature's mint — 
(Where did he learn that squint?)" — Hood. 
(Parts left unfinished, — the dash ; complete parenthetic sentence, — period 
within.) 

When a parenthesis occurs within another, curves are usually ap- 
plied to the one, and dashes to the other; the less coalescent one taking 
the curves. But this rule is not always observed. 

" The little party were still lingering in the deep recess of the large 
bay-window — which (in itself of dimensions that would have swallowed 
up a moderate-sized London parlor) held the great round tea-table with 
all appliances and means to boot — to behold the beautiful summer moon 
shed on the sward so silvery a lustre, and the trees cast so quiet a sha- 
dow." — Harper's Magazine. 

" The branches of knowledge taught in our schools, — reading— in 
which I include the spelling of our language — a firm, sightly, legible 
hand- writing, and the elemental rules of arithmetic, — are of greater value 
than all the rest which is taught at school." — E. Everett. 

How should a parenthesis be punctuated in regard to itself ) and also in 
regard to the part or parts ivhich it encumbers ? 



332 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

1. The parts embosoming a parenthesis, are punctuated as if they had 
it not. 

2. If a point is required at the end of the first part, it should be placed 
before each curve, if the structure will allow it. Though some punctu- 
ators always insert the point but once — and immediately after the latter 
curve. 

3. If the parenthesis is so closely related to the first part as not to 
allow after it the point required by the sense, then the point itself is de- 
ferred and placed after the entire parenthesis, or the latter curve. 

4. The parenthesis is punctuated within as usual; and if it requires a 
greater or a different point at its end, than the part before it, each part 
take its proper point (befoie the curve). 

5. When the dash in anj r other than its parenthetic sense, should fol- 
low the first broken part, it is also placed before the second. 

6. When an entire and distinct sentence or phrase is made parenthetic, 
the period or other point should be placed before, not after, the latter curve. 

7. When letters or figures are used as marks of reference or for num- 
bering, they are usually inclosed by curves, especially when their use or 
meaning might otherwise be uncertain or ambiguous. The same remark 
applies sometimes to other characters. Authors not unfrequently in- 
close headings or explanations by curves, in order to distinguish them 
from the rest of the matter, or to suggest that they merely convey what 
the reader perhaps already knows, or could find out himself, without 
being told of R 

" The good man (and good men not only think good thoughts, but do 
good deeds) lives more in a year, than a selfish, covetous man in a cen- 
tury." (The good man lives — ) " By the adding of able or ible : (some- 
times with a change of some of the final letters:) as, perish, perishable, ; 
vary, variable; divide, divisible" — G. Brown. ( — able or ible: as, perish, 
perishable, &c. " But, — (in Saxon, bute, butan, buton, butun, — ) meaning 
except, yet, now, only, else than, that not, on the contrary, — is referred by 
Tooke and some others to two roots, — each of them but a conjectural 
etymon for it." — G.Brown. (But, — meaning * * * contrary, — is refer- 
red &c.) " My sisters went to the best schools in town; (and here let 
me acknowledge, that, knowing our former position and present difficul- 
ties, everywhere friends turned up for us;) they had all they wanted, as 
far as books and masters were concerned." u My mother grew worse, 
and France also (Moscow — 1813!); we were in extreme penury." The 
punctuation of the foregoing sentence is questionable, yet I believe it 
brings out the sense to the best advantage. " (a.) The Nominative in- 
dependent or absolute (absolutus, released, free, from grammatical struc- 
ture).''' (Period — outside, and supersedes the point after absolute.) " (See 
Lesson 1st under the General Rule.)" (Period within.) " (To be con- 
tinued.)" u \_To be continued.']" "Gladiator (Lat. gladius, a sword), 
a sword-player, a prize-fighter." " But it is objected by the Senator from 
Tennessee (Mr. Grundy), that the construction which I contend for, 
&e , &c. (Applause.)"' 

" When come to the place where we all were to dine, 
(A chair-lumbered closet, just twelve feet by nine;) 
My friends bade me welcome, but struck me quite dumb, 
With tidings that Johnson and Burke would not come." 

Goldsmith. 



PUNCTUATION. — CURVES. — BRACKETS. 333 

Here the semicolon seems to have been used to denote a greater pause; 
■ — I suppose modern usage would rather inclose the entire parenthesis 
by the comma and dash. . (■ — to dine, — * * * by nine, — ) 

" Women love mightily to be dabbling in business, (which, by the way, 
they always spoil) ; and being justly distrustful that men look upon 
them in a trifling light," &c. — Chesterfield. Here perhaps the first curve 
should precede the comma, or the latter follow the semicolon. " Hear 
him with patience, (and at least with seeming attention,) if he is worth 
obliging." — Chesterfield. " I send you, my dear child, (and you will not 
doubt) very sincerely, the wishes of the season." — Id. (Parenthesis 
more closely related to the latter phrase than to the former.) "I 
received an office as junior clerk in — (one name will do as well as ano- 
ther) — Her Majesty's Waste-Paper Office." — British Review. (Signifi- 
cant or emphatic dash relating to the parts separated.) So, " We were 
seldom on speaking terms (some who had been to Paris did not speak 
French) — nay, a large portion being Poles, I could not always call my 
best friends by their names." — Hood. "And the worse the case is about 
my companions — my fellow-paupers — (for I must learn to bear the word) 
— the greater are the chances of my finding something to do for them — 
something which may prevent my feeling myself utterly useless in the 
world." — See the latter examples under the Dash. 
" When I am old, my friends will be 
Old and infirm, and bowed like me; 
Or else, — (their bodies 'neath the sod, 
Their spirits dwelling safe with God), — 
The old church-bell w T ill long have tolled 
Above the rest — when I am old." — Caroline Briggs. 
(Significant or emphatic dash relating to the parenthesis.) 

The curves are now generally preferred to the brackets, even for inclos- 
ing intermediate explanations, (see above,) provided these are inserted by 
the author himself; and also for inclosing what is interpolated by 
another, provided it is not designed to form a part of the text matter. 
" The Comma ( , ) denotes," &c. u The Senator (Mr. Greene) then 
rose," &c. 

11 Hose. Missis, I cla, I never dun nuthin 'tall to him, I was jis settin 
down dar by Miss Nancy's bu 

u Mrs. Slang. You lie, you nasty good-for-nothing little [hitting 

her a passing slap). If you say ' Miss Nancy's bureau' again to me, I'll 

stuff Miss Nancy's bureau down your throat, you lying . [A feather 

was in the child's ear.] " 

" Here is an extract from his Preface. 

'Those who have been accustomed to the phraseology of modern writ- 
ers, if they persist in reading this book to a conclusion, (impossible!) 
wil3 no doubt have to struggle with feelings of awkwardness; (ha! ha! 
ha! ) they will look round for poetry, (ha! ha! ha ! ) and will be in- 
duced to inquire by what species of courtesy these attempts have been 
permitted to assume that title.' Ha! ha! ha!" — E. A. Poe^ laughing as 
he reads. 

10. BRACKETS. 

1. Brackets properly inclose what is inserted by another. They are 
perhaps not needed for any other purpose. 



334 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

2. Sometimes they are used in contradistinction from curves, or when 
curves are so used elsewhere as to be inadmissible. 

3. ^What is inclosed by brackets, is punctuated as if it stood alone ; 
sometimes, as if the brackets were curves. 

4. Printers generally use a bracket to set off what " overruns the 
line." — See Book First, p. 38. 

Ex. — "Yours [the British] is a nation of unbounded resources, — a 
nation from whose empire (and it has been your proudest boast) the sun 
never disappears." (Explanation.) "Do you know if [whether] he is 
at home." (Correction.) "Abbotsford, May 12th, [1820]. (Omission.) 
" Lesson LV. Llewellyn and his Dog. 
[A true story, showing the lamentable effects of hasty wrath.] 
The spearman heard the bugle sound, and cheerily smiled the morn, 
And many a brach and many a hound attend Llewellyn's horn," &c. 
" [Here Mr. Clay was interrupted by the Senator from Michigan.] " 
An author may use the brackets to inclose some explanation, direc- 
tion, or observation ; especially when it stands apart by itself, and has so 
little connection with the text that it can hardly be considered a part of it. 
" Rosina. [Between the scenes.] To work, my hearts of oak, to work ! 
here the sun is half an hour high, and not a stroke struck yet. 

[Enters singing, followed by reapers.]" 
But thus in the latest books: — 
" Don Luis. Repose awhile, I will return with speed. 

[Exit hastily.'] 

11 Oliver. (Advancing.) How fell Don Luis to such poverty?" — Boker. 

" Know all men by these presents, that I &c. [Here insert the names 

of the parties, and proceed as before.]" "[The reader will find the 

drawing in the latter part of the book.]" "Harper's Weekly. [Jan. 

17th, 1857.]" (Running title.) 

"Dismission, ( — mish'-un,) n. [Lat. dismissio]. 

3. An act requiring departure. [Not usual.] Shale." — N. Webster. 
The brackets are also used sometimes, I believe, to show that parts 
are not so closely related as they might otherwise seem to be. 
" I never liked him, never, in my days ! " 
[" yes — you did", said Ellen with a sob.] 
"There always was a something in his ways" — 
[" So sweet — so kind," said Ellen with a throb.] 
" His very face was what I call a snob." — Thos. Hood. 
See also Dr. Holmes's "Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table." 
"Along, [i. e., at-long,] meaning lengthwise of, is from a and long." 
Point required after "Along," even if the interpolation were omitted. 
"Amid [, i. e., at mid or middle,] is from a and mid." Comma not admis- 
sible after "Amid" if the interpolation were omitted, therefore placed 
within. 

Brackets are so uncouth that there is some tendency to use the curves 
in their stead, whenever the interpolated part occurs within the para- 
graph, or when it is sufficiently clear, or not liable to be misunderstood, 
if distinguished by the curves. — See above. 
10. HYPHEN. 
The hyphen is used to connect letters, syllables, or words, that are for 
some reason separated. 



PUNCTUATION. — HYPHEN. 335 

The hyphen is sometimes used to show the syllables of a word. 

Ex. — "A-e-ri-al, dis-grace-ful, co-operate, re-elect." 

The hyphen is used at the end of a syllable of a word so long that a 
part must be put into the next line. Some also put the hyphen at the 
beginning of the next line. — See any page of this book. 

Words are syllabified according to their pronunciation and composi- 
tion, the latter yi'lding to the former whenever they conflict much. It 
is generally more agreeable, not to let a syllable of one letter stand 
detached from the rest of the word. 

The hyphen is used in detaching a common prefix, or a foreign word 
used as a prefix, when we wish to guard the reader against erroneous 
pronunciation, or to show that the parts are separately significant. 

Ex. — " Re-affirm, re-formation, co-operate, electro-magnetism, re- 
-collect." 

The hyphen joins the parts of compound words that do not coalesce 
sufficiently to be united without it. 

Ex. — u Look at pretty, ten-year-old, rosy-cheeked, golden-haired Mary, 
gazing with all the blue brightness of her eyes, at that large dew- 
drop." — Prof. Wilson. 

1. When should ivords not be compounded ? 

2. When should words be compounded? 

3. When should the hyphen be omitted? 

1. 

Words should not be compounded, when they convey the meaning with, 
sufficient clearness without being compounded ; when the separate mean- 
ings of the separate words convey the sense intended, and the words are 
not associated to denote but one idea different from what is conveyed by 
the separate meanings of the words ; when a phrase is merely idiomatic ; 
when an epithet qualifying a substantive, is already a compound; when 
the latter part of what is usually a compound, refers to more than one 
other part; and generally when a noun made an adjective, comprises, in 
the substance denoted or in the extent of its signification, the qualified 
noun. 

Ex. — "The Cape of Good Hope; Van Dieman's Land; Long Island 
Sound; East New Jersey; Argand lamp; can not; in stead of; a while; 
(an other?); every thing; Henry Holmes, Attorney at Law; (an attorney- 
at-law;) a south wind; an evening party; a ship sailing fast; (a fast- 
-sailing ship;) love ill requited; newly arranged furniture; two hundred 
and forty-five; (two thirds, three fourths?); La Fayette Place; not in any 
wise; balm of a thousand flowers ; the bald eagle; common sense ; good 
nature; female descendants; negro merchant; (negro-merchant;) tit for 
tat ; rank and file ; the noonday sun ; a whalebone rod ; high-water mark ; 
short-metre stanza; corn and wheat fields; peach, apple, and pear trees ; 
fruit and shade trees; my father and mother in law ; a gold cup; a log 
hut ; a brick pavement ; a glass house : business transactions ; street 
music; Canary birds; Malaga wine; California gold. 

2. 
Words should be compounded, when a phrase is changed into an epi- 
thet; when a word might otherwise be referred to a word that it should 
not qualify ; when the words convey rather one idea than two or more 
distinct ideas, or when they would not convey the intended meaning if 



336 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

separated ; and when the words, especially if one qualifies the other, are 
habitually used together and accented as a single word. 

Ex. — " The tree-and-cloud-shadowed river." " Some Bank-of-Eng- 
land notes." "A never-to-be-forgotten day." "A ne-plus-ultra speech." 
U A sine-qua-non condition." " The deep-tangled wildwood." (Without 
the hyphen, "deep" would refer to " wildwood," and not to "tangled.") 
"The New- York Directory." "To chant battle-hymns and dirges." 
(Without the hyphen, "battle" would also qualify "dirges.") "A new- 
-made grave; a long-expected guest; twenty five cent pieces; twenty-five 
cent pieces; twenty five-cent pieces." "Thirty-six, ninety-nine, negro- 
-merchant, blackbird, (black bird,) Jew's-harp, to-day, to-night, to-mor- 
row, good-night, bears-foot (a plant), touch-me-not, bird-of-paradise, 
arrow-grass, liverwort, tiger-lily, mother-of-pearl, buckeye, dyers- 
brown, queen-of-the-meadow, evergreen, aid-de-camp, commander-in- 
chief, an attorney-at-law, father-in-law, anybody, somebody, nobody, 
something, nothing, himself, whoever, he-goat, time-serving, ear-pierc- 
ing, fortune-hunting, fine-looking, never-ending, thick-lipped, dew-be- 
sprinkled, long-drawn, downtrodden, many-tiowered, unheard-of, long- 
looked-for, humming-bird, dancing-master, singing-school, a setting-up, 
a setting-forth of, the coming-together, the up-heaving of, ill-bred, two- 
fold, tenfold, eleven-fold, a half-dime, proof-sheets, castor-oil, whitish- 
-brown, bright-green above, the sore-throat, ironmonger, fancy-monger, 
cobwebbed, barefooted, forthcoming, slaveholding, statesman, kinsman, 
brainpan, beeswax, landtax, inside-out, upside-down, snow-drop, railroad, 
glass-house, snowball, raindrop, daybreak, daytime, dinner-time, grave- 
yard, lumber-yard, north-western, 5-angled, 2-foot ruler, five-foot pole; 
the be-all and the end-all; Fifth Street omnibus, Fifth street-omnibus, 
Fifth-street omnibus." 

3. 
The practice of authors is very unsettled as to the forming of compound 
words with or without the hyphen. 

1. Monosyllables should generally be compounded without it. 

2. Other words should be written without it, when there is but one 
chief accent, and on a syllable next to the hyphen-place. 

3. W r ords should have it, when the parts should be kept apart to pre- 
serve their true pronunciation or character. 

4. Words should have it, when there is, in each part, an accent as 
strong as the other ; or when the chief accent is removed rather far 
from the hyphen-place. 

5. But when words are so old, so much used, and composed of parts 
so well coalescing in sound, that they read as smoothly as simple 
words, — they should not have it. 

1. "Nightshade, daybook, (peartree, beechtree?), washboard, midday, 
footstep, redtop, nutshell, hothouse, downfall, tanyard, hillside, milestone, 
railroad, steamboat; 2. pincushion, southwestern, lacklustre, homesick- 
ness, mosstrooper, horsechesnut, midsummer, manhater; 3. mid-age, ant- 
-hill, first-rate, man-eater, blood-root, leaf-like, leaf-stock ; 4. ensign- 
bearer, drum-maker, double-barreled, fan-palm, drill-plow, ever-bub- 
bling, remainder-man, mountain-side, council-room, thunder-struck (?) ; 
5. everlasting, nevertheless, notwithstanding, undergraduate, over- 
shadow, whithersoever, hereunto, wherewithal, everywhere, gentleman, 
countryman, highwayman." 



PUNCTUATION. — HYPHEN. 337 

ELemark. — The foregoing observations comprise, I believe, in a con- 
densed form, about all that is now extant on the compounding of words. 
But let us take another view of this difficult subject. 

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 

The parts of speech of course comprise all the words in the language. 
The articles are found in three compounds only ; namely, nevertheless, 
another, awhile, of which the latter two may as well be written as two 
words each; thus, an other, a while. Conjunctions and interjections are 
rarely or never used as parts of compounds. We may exclude these 
parts of speech ; especially since the student can see how adverbs, prep- 
ositions, conjunctions, and interjections, should be written, by referring 
to the "Lists" in Book First. 

Pronouns are compounded with adverbs or nouns to form a few com- 
pounds. Each other and one another are not compounded. Compound pro- 
nouns=simple pronouns-J-^er, soever, self , ov selves, — consolidated; as, 
whoever, ivhatsoever, himself, myself, themselves, oneself, &c. : other com- 
pound pronouns=simple pronouns+nouns, — hyphened; as, he-bear, 
she-goat, &c. So excluding all the parts of speech about which there is 
no difficulty, we have left — 

Adjectives, Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, and Prepositions. 
Now, if we combine those of each class, and then successively with all 
the other classes following it in the series, we shall have, without 
" filling a volume," nearly all the compound words in the language; at 
least we may exhibit a sufficient number to show the character of our 
language in this respect, and to furnish some analogous specimens for 
every compound that can occur. 

Note. — The words are selected according to their proximate form and sense, rather than 
the remote. The single interrogation point will be used to show doubt as to whether 
the word should not be otherwise compounded ; the double, as to whether the word 
should be compounded at all or not ; hyphens at the beginnings of lines, to denote 
hyphened compounds ; and "etc.,"" to denote that all the remaining compounds having 
the same initial word, are compounded like the word immediately preceding. Italicized 
compounds are exceptions to some general principle. 

Adjective ivith Adjective. — Red-hot, airy-light, dark-blue, all-wise, dapple-gray, yellow- 
ish-green, greenish-gray. 

Adjective with Noun. — Barefoot, bass-relief, bass-viol, black-art (? ?), blackbird, black- 
berry, blackboard, black-cattle, blackguard, black-jack, black-lead, blackleg, black- 
-letter, blackmoor, blacksmith, blackthorn, black-rod, black-pudding, blameworthy, 
blind worm, blindside, bondlace, bloodthirsty, bluebook, bluebottle, bluestocking, blue- 
-bird (?), bonny-clabber, brainsick, brand-new, brazen-face, breast-high, broadcloth, 
broadaxe, broad-seal, broadsword, broadside, brown-study, coal-black, crop-sick, cJay- 
-cold, court-martial, dead-lift (??), dead-light, dead-water, dog-cheap, double-case, drop- 
-serene, dry-nurse, dry-rot, dry-rub, dullhead, dumb-bells, dumb-show, earthen-ware, 
eightfold, (mom. -{-fold — consolidated,) freebooter, free-agency, freeholder, freeman, free- 
-school, tree-mason, freethinker, free-will, fire-new, first-fruits (? ?), frankpledge, 
French-horn, full-length, gentle-folks, gentlewoman, good-nature (? ?), good-humor (? ?) 
good-will (? ?) good-by, great-coat, greencloth, greengrocer, green-hand, greenhorn 
greenhouse, greenroom, greensward, etc., greyhound, greedy-gut, half-blood, half-moon' 
half-pay, etc., hammer-hard, hardware, hardhack, hasty-pudding, heart-sick (?), high' 
way, highland, highlander, high-flier, high -priest, high-pressure, high-water" 
hoarfrost, hoarhound, hotbed, hot-cockles, hothouse, hotspur, etc., jolly-boat, knee' 
-deep, knight-errant, lampblack, lee-side, etc., lightbrain, light-horse, etc., lowland" 
lower-case (letters), madbrain, madcap, madhouse, etc., main-spring (??), main-stay 
mainmast, mainsail, etc, meantime (? ?), merry-andrew, merry-thought, middleman' 
milk-white, milky-way, ninepence, noway, etc., nutbrown, pearlwhite, etc., pot-valiant, 
quicksilver, quicksand, etc, rawhead, redpole, redtop, redstreak, red-bud (?), red-gum, 
red-lead, etc., right-hand, rough-rider, roundhouse, roundhead, round-robin, safeguard, 

29 



338 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

safe-conduct, scarlet-fever, sear-cloth, sevenhight, sevenfold, shoeblack, sidelong, skiu- 
-deep, slack-water, slow-worm, slyboots, small-arms, etc., smart-money, etc., snow- 
-white, snow-blind, spare rib, selfsame, stone-blind, strait-jacket, strong-hold (?), 
sweetmeat, sweetheart, sweetbread, sweetbrier (?), sweet-fern, sweet-potato, sweet- Wil- 
liam, sweet-willow, etc., thankworthy, thickskull, tidbit, toilsome, (any word-f-some — 
consolidated,) top-gallant, top-heavy, true-blue, twelvemonth, twelvepence, twopence, 
twofold, twopenny, two-thirds (? ?), way-wise, weak-side, whitemeat, whitewasher, 
white-lead, white-pot, white-weed, white-wine, wildfire, wild-fowl, wild-goose-chase, 
wind-tight, winter-green, woollen-draper, etc, yellow-fever, yesterday, yesternight. 

Adjective with Verb, Participle, or Participial Form. — Addle-headed, bareheaded, bare- 
faced, blackhearted, black-eyed, black-visaged, broadcast, bloody-minded, blue-eyed, 
blunt-witted, brazen-faced, choke-full, clear-sighted, clear-starch, close-bodied, close- 
-fisted, cross-grained, cross-eyed, cross-legged, dead-reckoning, dear-bought, dear-loved, 
dim-sighted, double-tongued, double-dealing, dry-shod, dull-brained, even-handed, fast- 
-handed, faint-hearted, false-hearted (?), feeble-minded, line-spun, flat-bottomed, foul- 
-mouthecl, four-footed, free-born (?), fivebarred, free-hearted, full-fed, good-breeding, 
(? ?), giddy-brained, good-natured, great-hearted, hard-faced, hard-fisted, hard-hearted, 
hard-mouthed, high-blown, high-born, high-flown, high-minded, high-spirited, kind- 
hearted, madbrained, many-colored, many-flowered, many-headed, 5 -angled, 3-lobed, 
crisp-flowered, G-seeded, mealy-mouthed, merry-making, merry-meeting, middle-aged, 
narrow-minded, near-sighted, new-fangled, new-fashioned, nimble-witted, onc-e/ved, one- 
-sided, open-handed, open-eyed, open-hearted, etc, pale-eyed, pale-faced, plaindcaling (??), 
plainhearted (?), thickset, heavenly-minded, long-sighted, long-tongued, etc., low-spirited, 
etc., poor-spirited, rawboned, red-root, right-angled, right-handed, etc., shallow-brained, 
smooth-faced, soft-hearted, square-rigged, stiff-necked, stillborn, etc., tender-hearted, 
etc., thick-skulled, thick-skinned, thin-skinned, trueborn, truehearted, two-edged, two- 
handed, whitewash, white-livered, white-swelling, worldly-minded, wrong-headed. 

Adjective with Adcerb. — Anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, somewhere, (etc., with 
where,) broadwise, flatwise, contrariwise, otherwise, (etc., with wise,) evergreen, mean- 
while (? ?), middlemost, nethermost, southmost, (etc., with most,) straightforward. 

Adjective with Preposition. — Aloud 

Noun with Noun. — Account-book, adder's-tongue (a plant), adder's-grass, advice-boat, 
air-gun, air-hole, air-shaft, alarm-bell, etc., alehouse, alewife, ale-vat, almshouse, 
almsdeed, almsgiver, animal-flower (sea-nettle), apron-man, archway, armpit, arm- 
-chair, arm-hole, armor-bearer, arrow-root, Ascension-day, (or Ascension Day), Ash- 
-Wedncsday, ashholc, axle-tree, background, backdoor, backwoodsman, bagpipe, 
bail-bond, "bail-piece, bandbox, bank-bill, bank-stock (?), barley-brake, barley-corn (?), 
barley-water, bargemaster, bucket-hilt, battle-door, battle-axe, bay-salt, bayberry, 
(mon.-f berry — consolidated.) beadroll, beadswoman, (mon.-fwwm or looman— con- 
solidated,) bear-garden, bears-foot, (so are written all such names of plants,) bearherd, 
bedfellow, bedhangings, etc., beebread, beehive, beefsteak, beef-eater, beechnut, 
beer-barrel, bell-hook, bellflower, bellwether, etc., birthday, birthright, block- 
head, blockhouse, block-tin, bloodflower, bloodguiltiness, bloodheat, bloodhound, 
bloodshedder, bloodsucker, bloodvessel, blunderhead, boat-hook, boar-spear, bobwig, 
boatman, boatswain, body-clothes, body-guard, bologna-sausage (??), bolthead, bolt- 
-auger, bolt-rope, bolt-boat, bomb-vessel, bomb-shell, bondservant (?), bondmaid, bond- 
slave, bonesetter, bonespavin, booby-hut, bookseller, bookstore, bookbinder, bookkeep- 
ing, etc., boothose (?), boottree, bootjack, bottle-screw, bowie-knife, bowshot, bow- 
string, bay-window, box-coat, brainpan, breakman, brandiron, brandgoose, bread-corn, 
breastpin, breastplate, etc., bridemaid, bridechamber, etc., brickkiln, bricklayer, etc., 
brinepit, brinepan, brogue-maker, broomstick, brushwood, buckbean, buckbasket, etc., 
bugle-horn, bulldog, bullfinch, bullfrog, bullhead, bull-calf, bull-fight, bull-trout, 
bull's-eye, bumblebee, buttercup, butterfly, buttermilk, butterprint, butternut, butter- 
-tooth, buttonhole, button-maker, button-wood, cabin-boy, calc-sinter, camphor-tree, 
(dissyl.-r-free — hyphened,) canary-bird (? ?), cannel-coal, candle-holder, candle-light, 
candle-stick, canebrake, canker-worm, cannon-ball, cannon-shot, cannon-proof, 
cartload, cartrut, cartwright, cart-horse, caseworm, case-knife, case-shot, cash-book, 
• •ash-keeper, catsup, catfish, catpipe, cat's-eye, cat's-paw, cattle-show (??), causeway, 
chainpump, chainshot (?), chainwork, chairman, chalk-pit, chalk-stone, chambermaid, 
chamber-fellow, etc., chance-medley, charter-land, charter-party, chatwood, chatter- 
box, checker-board, cheekbone, cheektooth, cheesecake, cheese-monger, cheese-press, 
cheese-vat, cherry-pit, chess-board, chess-man, duckweed, chickpea, chimney-piece, 
chimney-corner, chimney-sweeper, chop-house, christian-name (??), churchyard, 
church-ale, church-goer, church-living, church-warden, churnstafl, clapboard, claspknife, 
classmate, clay-pit, etc., cloak-bag, clock-work (?), clock-maker, clock-setter, clodpate, 
clodhopper, club-foot, club-law, etc., coachhouse, coach-box, coach-hire, coalhouse, 
coal-mine, etc., cockloft, cockfighter, etc., cock's-comb, coffee-house, coffee-mill, etc., 
cog-wheel, common-place, commonplace-book) oostard-monger, cotton-gin, court- 



PUNCTUATION. — HYPHEN. 339 

-yard (?), court-hand, court-baron, cowhide, cowherd, cowlick, cowslip, cow-leech, cow- 
-pox, craftsman, cramp-fish, cramp-iron, crawfish, crowfoot, crowkeeper, crow-bar, 
crown-glass, crown-wheel, cupboard, cupbearer, curb-stone, custom-house, dairy-maid, 
damask-rose, date-tree, daybook-, daylight, clayspring, daytime, daydream, daystar, day- 
-work (?), day-lily (?), death watch, death-bed, death's-man, dunce-time, dishcloth, 
dock-yard (?), dogrose (?), dogbrier, dog-days (?), dog-kennel, dog's-ear, dog-star, dog- 
-trot, etc., doomsday-book, door-case, door-way (?), door-keeper, door-post, doughnut, 
dovetail, dove-cot, dove-house, dragon-fly, draughtsman, dray-cart, dray-horse, drum- 
-major, drum-stick, dunghill, etc., earlap, earache, earwig, earring, (?), ear-lock, ear- 
-pick, ear-wax, earthboard, earthquake, earthworm, earth-nut, eavesdropper, ebb-tide, 
edge-tool, eider-down, eider-duck, elbow-chair, elbow-room, evening-star, even-son £, 
eventide, eyeball, eyebrow, eyesore, eyeservice, eyewitness, eyetooth, eyeshot, eye- 
glass (?), fag-end, fairy-land (??), faro-bank, fatherland, feather-bed, fee-farm, fellow- 
-feeling, fellow-creature, ferry-man, ferry-boat, fieldpiece, fieldsport, fieldfare, field-book, 
field-mouse, field-marshal, field-officer, figieaf, fig-tree (?), file-cutter, file-leader, firefly, 
firelock, firepan, fireplace, fire-arms, fire-officer, fire-ship, fireshovel, firewood, firewar- 
den, etc., fishhook, fish-pond (?), fish-spear, fishmonger, ( m on. -j- monger — consolidated), 
fish-market, flagstone, flagstaff, flag-ship, flapjack, flapdragon, flax-comb, flax-seed, 
flax-dresser, fleabane, flea-bite, fleshpot, flesh-brush, flesh-hook, flesh-color, floodgate, 
flood-mark, flower-garden, flngel-man, fluor-spar, flyfish, fly-leaf, fly-wheel, fog-bank, 
foolhardiness, football, foothold, footmark, footpath, foot-soldier, force-pump, foremast- 
-man, fortune-teller, fortune-hunter, foxglove, foxtail, fox-chase, fox-trap ^fox-hunter, 
framework, (mon. -\-ivork — consolidated,) fruit-tree (?), fuller's -earth, fuzzball, galley- 
-slave, gall-nut, gall-stone, game-cock, game-keeper, etc., ga,ol-delivery, gasholder (?), 
gas-light, gateway, (mon.-^-way — consolidated,) ginger-bread, gilly -flower, glass-furnace, 
glasshouse, glassgrinder, glassmetal, giauber's-salt, (so are written all such names of 
minerals,) goatherd, (mon.-f herd — consolidated,) godchild, godfather, etc., goldbeat- 
er's-skin, goldsmith, goldleaf, gold-dust (?), goose-cap, goose-quill (?), grace-cup, grand- 
child, granddaughter, etc., grape-shot, grape-stone, grape-vine, grasshopper, grass-plot 
(?), gravestone, graveyard, grave-clothes, grist-mill (?), grog-shop^ groundplot, 
groundnut, ground-plant (?), ground-ash, ground-bait, grubstreet, guard-room, 
guidepost, guinea-pig, guinea-hen, gully-hole, gumboil, gunboat, gunpowder, etc., hack- 
nej^-coach, hailshot, hailstone, hairbrush, hairbreadth, haircloth, hammer-cloth, 
hamstring, handball, handbasket, handbook, handwriting, etc., haphazard, harbor- 
- master, hardware-man, harelip, harebell, harehound, etc., hartshorn, harvest-man, 
harvest-home, etc., hatchet-face, hatband, hatbox, etc., hawthorn, hawkbit, hay -knife, 
haystack, hayloft, haymaker, etc., (mou.-\-ma7cer — consolidated,) head -quarters, head- 
-wind, headache, headdress, headband, headborough, headstall, headstone, .etc., hearse- 
-cloth, heart-ease, heartache, heartstrings, heath-cock, hedgehog, head-row, hedge-spar- 
row, heelpiece, heel-tap, heirloom, hell-hound, helpmate, hen-coop, hen-roost, hip-roof, 
hobby-horse, hobgoblin, etc., hoe-cake, hogpen, hogshead, etc., honey-dew, honey- 
-comb, honey-locust, etc., hornpipe, hornblower, etc., horseback, horseblock, horsebean, 
horsefly, horsebreaker, horsemartin, horselaugh, horseleech, horsemint, horsewhip, 
horsemuscle, horseradish, horsehair, horsechestnut, horse-boat, horse-boy, horse-cloth' 
horse-load, horse-mill, horse-play, horse-pond, horse-shoe, horse-rack, horse-race, horse- 
-jockey, horse-keeper, horse-litter, horse-power, hour-glass, hour-hand, householder, 
housebreaker, housewife, housemaid, house-rent, house-room, husbandman, hurlbone, 
ice-house, ice-cream, iceplant, inkstand, iron-mould, iron-wood, ironmonger, jail-fever, 
jail-bird, jackknife, jacksmith, jackdaw, jack-boots, jack-plane, jack -pudding, jew's- 
-harp, johnny-cake, journeyman, journeywork, keystone, keyhole, kettle-drum, etc., kid- 
ney-bean, kingcraft, kingcup, kingfisher, king's-evil, king-post, kinfolks, kipskin, kip- 
-leather, kissing-conifit, kitchen-maid, etc., kneepan, knee-deep, knick-knack (?), lady- 
-bircl, lady-fly, lamb's-wool, landfall, landlord, landmark, landslide, landlady, landlub- 
ber, landloper, landholder, land-flood, land-tax, land-forces, land-jobber, land-office, 
land- waiter, langrel-shot, lapdog, lapwing, etc., larkspur, lawsuit, law-breaker, leaf- 
-bridge, leaf-bud, leap-year, leap-frog, leather-dresser, etc., led-horse, etc., letter-case, 
letter-press, etc., lifeblood, lifetime, lifeguard, life-boat, life-estate, life-preserver, light- 
-house, lime-burner, lime-kiln (?), limestone, lime-water, linen-draper, link-boy, 
lintstock, livery-man, lodestar, lodestone, liver-color, loan-office, lock-jaw, lock- 
smith, (mon. -j-sm^ft'— -consolidated,) logwood, log-book, log-line, log-house (? ?), loophole, 
lovesong, lovesuit, love-feast, love-knot, love-lock, love-tale, love-apple, love-letter, love- 
-token, lucifer -match, lumber-room, lynch-law, mail-bearer, maid-servant, mail-coach 
(?), maltfloor, etc., man-trap, mandrake, manhater, etc., mass-meeting, meat-offering, 
moon-calf, moonbeam, meeting-house, moonlight, moonshine, etc., moorland, moor- 
stone, moor-hen, moor-game, market-cross, market-day, etc., marl-pit, masterpiece, 
master-key, master-stroke, may-day, may-game, may-flower (?), marrowbone, marrow- 
fat, matchlock, match -maker, meal-man, milestone, milkmaid, milkpan, milkpail, milk- 
sop, milkweed, milk-score, milk-tooth, milk-pottage, millstone, mill-dam, mill-horse, 
etc., mintmaster, minute-book, minute-hand, etc., mizzen-mast, molehill, moletrack, 
money-bag, money-broker, etc., morning-star (? ?), Morris-dance, mosstrooper, mo- 



340 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

ther-vvit, mouse-trap, mouse-hole, mouth-piece (?), mud-wall, mushroom, music- 
-master, muskrat, musknielon, muster-master, muster-roll, muttonchop, namesake, 
neat-cattle, needle-work, nettle-rash, nest-egg, newspaper, nickname, nightcap, night- 
fall, nighfire, nighthawk, highthag, nightshade, night-brawl, night-dew, night-dress, 
night-dog, night-watch, night-watcher, noonday, noontide, north-east, north-star, 
north-wind, etc., nutgall, nuthook, (?), nutcracker, nutshell, nut-tree (?), oak-apple, 
oatcake, oatmeal, oil -gas, oil-cloth, ox-stall, oxeye, oxbow, etc., packet-boat, padlock, 
paper-hangings (? ?), paper-money (? ?), paper-mill, etc., passion-flower, etc., pasteboard, 
pawnbroker, paymaster, pay-day, pea-shell, pea-jacket, peace-breaker, peace-officer, 
peace-offering, pear-tree (?), peat-moss, peep-hole, pelt-monger (?), penknife, etc., 
peruke-maker, pest-house, pier-glass, etc., pigeon-hole, etc., pigpen, pignut, etc., pike- 
staff, etc., pillow-case, etc., pine-apple, pin-money (?), pin-maker (?), pinhole, etc., pipe- 
-clay, pitcher-plant, pit-coal (?), pitfall, etc., platband, platform, play-day, play-debt, 
playfellow, playhouse, etc., plane-tree, pleasure-ground, ploughboy, plougbshare, etc., 
plumb-line, plum-cake, plum-pudding, plum-tree (?), pocket-book pocket-glass, etc., 
pock-mark, etc., pole-axe, polecat, polestar, port-folio, porthole, portcullis, etc., post- 
-office, post-note, post-house, post-horse, postboy, postscript, etc., potlid, potherb, pot- 
hook, powder-horn, etc., pouncet-box, power-press, press-gang, press-bed, press-money, 
price-current, prison-house, prize-fighter, proof-sheet, pump-brake, punch-bowl, purse- 
net, purse-pride, etc., quarter-deck, etc., queen-dowager (? ?), race-horse, rack-rent, 
etc., ragstone, ragwheel, railroad, rainbow, rain-gauge, rain-water, ratchet-wheel, 
ratsbane, rearward, rearmouse, rear-guard, rear-admiral, remainder-man, rent-roll, 
rice-bird, rice-paper, river-dragon, river-god (? ?), robin-goodfellow, ring-dove, ring- 
worm, ring-tail, ringleader, ring-bolt (?), rock wood, mon. -\-wood — consolidated,) rock- 
-oil, rock-salt, rock-work (? ?), rock-ruby, rock-crystal, rock-alum, rogation-week, 
ropewalk, rope-dancer, rope-ladder, rope-maker (?), rosemary, rose-quartz, rose-bug, 
rose-water, rose-window, rushlight, sabbath-breaker, sackcloth, sack-posset, saddle- 
-bags, saddle-bow, saddle-tree, safety-valve, safety-lamp, sail-cloth, sail-loft, sail-maker, 
etc.^ saltcellar, salt-marsh, salt-mill, salt-pit (?;, saltwort, sallyport (?), salmon-trout, 
sandal-wood, sandstone, sand-eel, sand-heat, satin-spar, savings-bank, sawdust, sawfish, 
sawfly, saw-pit, scaldhead, scape-goat, scapegrace (?), schoolboy, schoolhouse, schoolfel- 
low, schoolmaster, etc., screech-owl, screw-jack, screw-propeller, scupper-rail, etc., 
seaport, seamaid, seaquake, seamow, seaboard, seafaring, sea-fish, sea-coal, etc., (see 
some large dictionary,) seedplot, seed-bird, seed-cake, seed-time, seed-vessel, self-conceit, 
self-esteem, Belf-reproach, self-will, etc., sentry-box, shareholder, etc., sheepcot, 
sheepfold, sheephook (?) sheep walk, sheepskin, sheep's-eye, sheep's-head, sheep-stealer, 
shel-lac, shell-fish, shell-work, shipboard, shipwreck, shipwright, shipmaster, ship-car- 
penter, ship-builder, Bhip-money, shoestring, shoetie, shoe-latchet, shoe-buckle, shoeing- 
-horn, shopboard, shopkeeper, etc., shorthand, shoulder-blade, etc., showbread, shrew 
mouse, shrovetide, shuffle-cap, shuttle-cock, sideboard, side-box, side-saddle, side- 
walk, sin-offering, signpost, sign-manual, silk-mercer, silli-worm, etc., silk-weaver, 
silversmith, silver-beater, skullcap, skinflint, skylark, skylight, skyrocket, sky- 
-sail, sky-color, slave-holder (?), slave-trade, etc., smithcraft, smockfrock, snake- 
root, snap-dragon, snowball, snowdrop, snow-bird (?), snow-drift, snow-shoe, snuff- 
box, soapstone, soapboiler, etc., soda-water, somebody, etc., south-east, etc., spade- 
bone, sparrowhawk, spirit-level, splay-mouth, etc., spoon meat, etc., spritsail, spring- 
-tide, springhead, etc., spurgall, squab-pie, squash-bug, stage-coach, etc., staircase, stan- 
dard-bearer, starboard, starlight, etc., state-room, staylace (?), stay-maker, etc., steam- 
boat, steam-boiler, steam-engine, steam-packet, steam-vessel, steamship (?), steelyard, 
stern-post, etc., still-life, stockholder, stockdove, stockfish, stock-jobber, stonecutter, 
stonefruit, stonehorse, stonepit, stone-work (?), stone-coal, stone-ware, stone's-cast, 
story-teller, stringhalt, sugar-cane, sugar-candy, etc., sunbeam, sundial, sunflower, etc., 
swan's-down, swanskin, swine-sty, sword-fish, sword-player, etc., table-cloth, table- 
land, etc., table-bearer, tallow-chandler, taproot, taphouse, etc., taskmaster, tavern- 
-keeper, teakettle, teaspoon, tennis-hall, text-book, text-hand, thorn-hedge, thumbscrew, 
etc., thunderbolt (?), thunder-dap (?), thunder-storm, etc., tidegate, etc., timepiece, 
timekeeper, time-server, tinder-box, tinfoil, tin-glass, tinplate, tiptop, tiptoe, etc., tit- 
mouse, title-page, toadeater, toadstone-, etc., tollbooth, toll-dish, toll-gate, toll -gatherer, 
toll -house, tombstone, toothache, tootheclge (?), toothpick, toothpicker, tooth-drawer, top- 
knot, top-sail, top-mast, towntalk, town-crier, town-clerk, town -house, toyshop, train- 
band, trainbearer, train-oil, train-road, train-way (?), trap-door, tree-nail, trencher- 
-man, trencher-plough, tricktrack, troy-weight (? ?), trucebearer, truelove-knot, trundle- 
-bed, trunk-hose, tuberose, turnpike-road, turtle-dove, type-metal, rent-hole, vestry - 
-man, viceroy, vicegerent, vicegerency, viceroyalty, vice-president, etc., vineyard, vine- 
fretter, vine-dresser, waistband, waistcoat, wall-fruit, wall-flower, war-cry, war-proof, 
wardrobe, wardroom, etc., warehouse, washerwoman, waste -book, etc., watchword, 
watch-house (?), watchlight, watch-tower, watch-breaker, watercourse, waterman, water- 
mark, waterfall, waterfowl, watermelon, water-gauge, water-line, water-mill, water- 
-proof, water-spout, water-level, water-color, etc., wax-candle (? ?), way-mark, witch-elm, 
well-spring, well-sweep, whalebone, whipstock, whiplash, whipcord, etc, whipper-snap- 



PUNCTUATION. — HYPHEN, 341 

per, wine-bibber, wine-glass, wine-press, wing-shell, witchcraft, wither-band, etc., wit- 
cracker, witsnapper, wit-worm, wire-puller, wolf-dog, wolf's-bane, womankind, woman - 
-hater, woodbine, woodchuck, woodcut, woodland, woodlark, wood-house (?), wood-work 
(?), wood-note, wood-nymph, woolsack, wool -pack, wool-grower, word-catcher, work- 
house, workshop, work-day (?), workmaster, work -fellow, wormwood, worm-seed, yard- 
stick, yard-arm, year-book, yoke-mate, yoke-fellow. According to principle, " interro- 
gation point," " exclamation point," " quotation marks," &c, should be hyphened; but 
the prevailing custom is to the contrary. 

Noim with Verb, Participle, or Participial Form. — Air-built, all-conquering, all-seeing, 
ash-colored, beauty-waning, bedridden, beetle-browed, birth-strangled, bloodlet, blood- 
shot, bobtailed (?), bull-faced, burning-glass, burnt-offering, care-crazed, casting-vote, 
bandy-legged, battering-ram, boarding-school (? ?), blowpipe, bow-legged, bowling-green, 
breathing-piace, breathing-time, brew-house, browbeat, buffle-headed, bull-baiting, case- 
harden, chafe-wax, choke-pear, choke-damp, clingstone, chicken-hearted, cloudcapt, 
club-fisted, club-footed, counting-room, (such dissyl.-j-long mon. — hyphened,) crack- 
-brained, creep-hole, crisping-iron, crookbacked, crop-eared, cutpurse, cutthroat, cut- 
-water, cut-worm (?), daggle-tail, dashboard, death-boding, dancing-master, dining- 
-room, dovetailed, drawbridge, drawing-room, dreadnaught, dredging-box, dressing- 
-room, drawwell, drinking -pan, dwelling-house, eagle-eyed, (dissyl. or long mon. -\-eyed — 
hyphened,) evil-minded, evil-speaking, falling-sickness, fearnaught, fast-day, fin-footed, 
fining-pot, fin-toed, flap-eared, flea-bitten, flicker-mouse, flint-hearted, floating-bridge 
(? ?), flyblow, foster-mother, fowling-piece, fox-hunting, fruit-bearing, frying-pan, 
gaming-house, gaming-table, gazing-stock, gaze-hound, glowworm, go-cart, grindstone, 
hail-fellow, hair-brained, hangnail, hangdog, harping-iron, hawk-nosed, heartburn, 
heart-burning, hearteasing, heartfelt, heaven-born, hen-hearted, hen-pecked, hidebound, 
hipshot, holing-axe, homebred, homemade, housekeeping, etc., hook-nosed, hop-bind, 
humming-bird, hunchbacked, humpbacked, hushmoney, ice-blink, ice-built, iron- 
-hearted, jagging -iron, joint-heir, joint-stock, joint-tenant, etc., jolthead, keelhaul, 
keeping-room, keepsake, kickshaw, kneading-trough, knitting-needle, lackbrain, lack- 
lustre, landing-place, landlocked, laughing-stock, leasehold, life-giving, light-armed, 
light-footed, light-hearted, etc., lily-livered, locked-jaw, log-rolling, looking-glass, loving- 
-kindness, lurking-place, lugsail, mince-pie, mocking-bird, moss-clad,moss-grown, mouse- 
-colorecl, overshot-wheel, packhorse, packthread, etc., painstaking, etc., party-colored, 
passport, password, etc., pearl-eyed, pickpurse, pickaxe, etc., pitchfork, etc., planet- 
struck, priestridden, etc., printing-house, pruning-knife, quitclaim, rakehead, rattle- 
snake, rattle-headed, ramrod, ribroast, ring-coat, riding-school, etc., ring-streaked, 
rolling-mill, etc., save-all, scoop-net, sealing-wax, search-warrant, setting-dog, shame- 
faced, sheep-shearing, step-mother (?), step-son (?), short-lived, short-witted, etc., sink- 
ing-fund, etc., singing-master, singsong, skipjack, skim-milk, sky-colored, sliding-rule, 
slipshot, etc., slung-shot, smellfeast, smock -faced (?), snail-faced, snub-nosed, soothsay, 
spell-bound, spelling-book, spendthrift, spindle-shanked, etc., stalking-horse, stick-lace, 
stall-fed, stopcock, stormbeat, etc., strait-laced, straw-built, etc., stumbling-block, sun- 
-driej^ sunburnt, etc., sweepstakes, swift-footed, etc., swingletree, talebearing, tallow- 
-face^f tongue-tied, timeserving, time-worn, tippling-house, tosspot, touchhole, touch- 
stone, etc., tow-boat, tow-line, tow-path, tread-mill, trip-hammer, truckle-bed, turncoat, 
turnpike, turnspit, twin -born, wagtail, waiting-maid, walking-staff, warming-pan, 
washboard, washbowl, watering-place, wayfaring, waylay, weather-beaten, weather- 
-driven, etc., web-footed, wedlock, whetstone, whirlbone, whirlwind, etc., windbound, 
wind-broken, winding-sheet, winterkill, wiredraw, wonderstruck, etc., wool-gathering, 
worm-eaten, wraprascal, writing-master. 

Noun with Adverb. — Backroom, backwoodsman, backyard, aforetime, beforehand, 
clerklike, courtlike, crossbow, crossbun, crosspurpose, crosswise, cross-road, cross-bill, 
cross-way (?), cross-wind, cross-example, cross-question, deathlike, dovelike, downhill, 
downfall, dragon-like, forefather, forefinger, foreordain, fury-like, gentleman-like, 
hanger-on, etc., hearse-like, holder-forth, lady-like, lamblike, owl-like, offhand, off-side, 
offshoot, outdoor, out-part (?), outhouse, outline, outlaw, etc., queenlike, saintlike, up- 
side-down, inside-out, etc. 

JSfoim with Preposition. — Above-board, afternoon, afterwit, afterpiece, afterpart, after- 
thought, after-clap (?), after-grass (?), after -reckoning, afield, afire, afoot, aground, ahead, 
asleep, apiece, along-side, byword, by-end, by-law, by-name, by-Avay, by-path, by-view, 
by-wipe, by-stander, instead, (as well in stead,) to-morrow, to-daj^, underplot, under- 
growth, undersong, undertone, underwork, understrapper, undergraduate, under-lip (?), 
under-jaw (?), under -keeper, under-master, under-servant, under-sheriff, under-officer, 
under-secretary. The compounds of under should be consolidated, except when there are 
two accents of equal stress, or two such that neither can be considered a secondary accent. 



Verb orVerbal Form with Verb. — Broken-hearted, broken-winded, cloven-footed, cloven- 
-hoofed, hearsay, swag-bellied. 

Verb or Verbal Form with Adverb. — Above-mentioned, aforesaid, etc., backslide, bar- 



342 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

ring-out, castaway, downfallen, downcast, downsitting, etc., dear-bough t, deep-read, far- 
-sighted, first-born (?), forthcoming, fairspoken, fine-spoken, foul-spoken, hard-fought, 
hard-favored, high-seasoned, high-wrought, glad-about, go-by, holdback, holdfast, ill- 
-bred, ill-treat, ill-natured, etc., livelong, runaway, lock-up, long-suffering, low-bred, 
new-model, etc., turnout (?), turncoat, turnover, offset, etc., outgrow, outlive, etc., rough- 
hewn, rough-shod (?), roughcast, roughdraw, etc., everlasting, bygone, up-heave (?), up- 
hold, upturn, (the compounds of up should generally be consolidated,) notwithstanding ; 
a start-up ; a look-out ; a break-down ; a drawing-together ; a summing-up of the whole 
"affair; grown-up daughters ; unlooked-for calamities ; unheard-of cruelties ; a setting- 
»forth of the subject. 

Verb with Preposition. — Hang-by, inborn, inbreathe, indwelling, etc., inlet, undergo, 
undersign, underline, underrate, to-do, (" a great to-do,") withstand, withhold, etc. 

Adverb with Adverb. — Adverb with Preposition. — Preposition with Preposition. — (These are 
all consolidated.) Thenceforth, thenceforward, furthermore, hereby, whereunto, there- 
fore (=for), wherefore, nevertheless, wherever, whereas, hereupon, whithersoever. But 
see the Lists in Book First which show how adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and in- 
terjections should be written. 



Proper Names. — Westport, Springfield, Boonville, Jonesborough, Charlestown, Mac-' 
donald, Lafayette, La Plata, Fairhaven, New Haven, Newburg, New Hampshire, South- 
ampton, South Bridge water, Ben Lomond, Loch Gyle, Caroline-street, Fourth -street, 
{England,) George Street, Fourth Street or Fourth street, (America). I have noticed 
that English newspapers frequently have the hyphen in the names of streets ; and I in- 
cline to think this is generally the better mode of expressing such names. When such 
proper names as the foregoing, or equivalent titular terms, denote objects that make a 
considerable figure in the great interests of the world, or that are to be especially com- 
plimented, the tendency is to use capitals and without compounding; otherwise, an op- 
posite tendency. New England, Saybrook, Attorney General, Attorney-General (? ?), 
and perhaps — Attorney-general. 

The foregoing pages tend to show, that the forms noun -f- noun are 
more numerous than all the others; that the forms monosyllable -f- 
monosyllable tend most to consolidation; that the forms mon. -f- dissyl. 
are next; the forms dissyl. -f mon., next; and that the forms dissyl. 
+ dissyl., or those having longer elements, are but seldom consolidated. 
The farther the elements have passed out of their ordinary or primitive 
meaning, the greater the tendency to consolidation ; and when common 
words are taken to make permanent names for some art, science, or 
occupation, the elements are generally compounded. " Snowdrop (a 
flower), castor-oil, white-lead, black-oak, diving-bell, powder"ill, 
future-perfect, yellow-fever (??), blank-verse (??)." The omission of 
something from the elements, tends to consolidate them ; the addition 
of something, to hyphen them." "Cameloparcl (camel-leopard), wel- 
come, Christmas, chaffinch; hogslard (hogs'-lard), long-headed (long + 
head), bare-legged." Numbers are hyphened from twenty to hundred; 
but not beyond, unless used as an intermediate epithet. " One thous- 
and two hundred and eighty-seven ; the five-thousandth part." Is not 
"two thirds" (usually, "two-thirds") as intelligible as "two threes"? 
And I am sure " five twenty-fourths," for instance, is a better form than 
" five-twenty-fourths." When a phrase consists of a bunch of compounds, 
there is sometimes not a little difficulty; which, however, may generally 
be overcome either by consolidation or by separation. We should 
neither write, "land and sea-shells," nor "land and sea-shells," but 
" land-shells and sea-shells," or " land and sea shells." " Half-seas-over 
(drunk); wood, cotton-wood (?), cottonwood-tree, silk-cottonwood-tree ; 
master, quarter-master, quartermaster-general ; creek, mill-creek, mill- 
creek coal, mill-creek cannel-coal, mill-creek coal-field, mill-creek can- 
nelcoal-field, or perhaps — mill-creek cannel coal-field." "A crystal- 
clear and suitably wild-looking sheet of water." 



PUNCTUATION.-— HYPHEN. 343 

ANOTHER VIEW OF THE SUBJECT. 

The compounding of words depends on the sense; the consolidation 
on the pronunciation; and both depend somewhat on custom. 

A compound word should denote one idea rather than two or more, 
or should have a meaning different from that of the separated words, 
or should imply a change in the part of speech, or should be known as 
the familiar term for a certain object or attribute. 

Ex. — " Orang-outang ; gooseberry ; humming-bird ; a sallow-visaged, 
black-bearded speaker ; the what and how-much ; the end-all and be- 
all; a sine-que-non condition; wild-rose; the apple-orchard." 

There is generally the greatest difficulty in deciding, when the for- 
mer word has somewhat the nature of an adjective. If it denotes the 
substance, or is merely descriptive, and not a part of the name, there is 
no compounding; as, a gold cup, mountain billows, masquerade ball, vil- 
lage bells: but if otherwise, there is; as, schoolroom, watering-place. 
When the former word may suggest — either the idea of composing, or 
else that of belonging to, relating to, or connected with, the latter sense 
is usually distinguished from the former by compounding ; as, a glass 
house, a glasshouse. There are some exceptions to these principles. 

Pronunciation relates to the letters, syllables, and accents. 

If the parts coalesce with the smooth flow of syllables making one 
word ; if there is no liability of improperly joining letters of the one 
to the other ; if there is one chief accent, the other being no stronger 
than an ordinary secondary accent; if the parts are not too long; and 
if the parts are not too new in combination to be easily understood, — 
they are consolidated. — For examples, see the preceding pages. 

Prefixes or similar parts, if they stand before a capital letter, if they 
are followed by a greater pause than ordinary syllables thus situated or 
by a pause showing the separate significance of the parts, or if they should 
be kept apart to preserve the sense or pronunciation, — are not consolida- 
ted with the rest of the word. 

Ex. — " Anti-Benton, pre- Adamite, Anglo-Saxon, Neo-Platonic, conca- 
vo-convex, proto-sulphuret, pleuro-pneumonia, quasi-argument, unco- 
passives, vice-admiral, reformation, re-formation, recreation, re-creation, 
re-revise, co-ordinate (or coordinate), semi-cylindrical, co-tangent, non- 
essential (?), sub-families (?), sub-genera." 

What is used as a prefix, should generally be consolidated with the 
rest of the word. 

A part common to two or more consecutive compounds, should either 
be left separate, or (to avoid ambiguity) be made a part of each. 

Ex. — " Riding and dancing schools," or, " Riding-schools and danc- 
ing-schools." 

A foreign phrase that is made an epithet, or that has so lost the mean- 
ing of its parts as to be Anglicized, is hyphened; but if its words 
remain separately significant as they stand, it is left uncompounded, 
and usually expressed in Italics. 

Ex. — "Piano-forte; camera-obscura ; billet-doux; ex-post-facto laws ; 
habeas corpus ; scire facias ; locus sigilli ; nux vomica ; dieu et mon 
droit." 

A phrase having a possessive, and used as a proper name, remains 
uncompounded ; if it is a somewhat unusual common name, with one 
change of the original meaning, the apostrophe and hyphen are used ; 



344 BOOK SECOND— THE STANDARD. 

and if it is a very common term, the parts are consolidated and the 
hyphen is omitted. 

Ex. — ''Cook's Inlet, Barrow's Strait; Prince-Rupert' s-drops, lamb's- 
wool; ratsbane."' 

Capitals seem to be sometimes a sort of substitute for the hyphen. 
Geologists rather use the former ; and botanists, the latter. 

Certain words consisting of rhymes, or of syllables combined for the 
sake of the sound, are generally consolidated if the parts are monosyl- 
lables ; and sometimes, if they are dissyllables. They are hyphened, if 
they consist of more syllables ; or written separately, if the parts are 
conceived to be separately significant. 

Ex. — " Picnic, hodgepodge, hobnob, powwow, chitchat, zigzag, ding- 
dong (?), huggermugger, namby-pamby, helter-skelter, hocus-pocus, 
hurdy-gurdy, hobblede-hoy, hoity-toity, wishy-washy, whipper-snapper, 
harum-scarum, ninny hammer (?), hicius docius." 

When an author makes a new compound, or chooses one that he sup- 
poses not well known to his reader, he should generally use the 
hyphen. 

Ex. — "Some of us have killed 'brown-backs' and 'yellow-legs' 
[birds], on the marshes." — Atlantic Monthly. 

In doubtful cases, especially when the parts are monosyllables, it is 
generally better to consolidate ; for the analogy of some excellent foreign 
languages — the German and the Greek — favors this mode of writing 
words. 

Remark. — Let the student bear in mind, that neither Wilson, nor 
Brown, nor Webster, nor Worcester, nor Craig, nor Ogilvie, nor myself, 
nor the best of authors, are perfectly reliable in regard to compound 
words. As I have given the first classification of such words, perfection 
should not be expected. I have done the best I could. To look for every 
compound word in a dozen dictionaries, read authors a week, and then 
reconcile contradictions, would require more than the jjatience of Job 
and the lifetime of Methuselah! 

11. QUOTATION MARKS. 

Quotation marks inclose what is to be presented as the identical word 
or words of some other person or writing. 

Ex. — " I rise for information," said a member of Congress. " I am 
very glad to hear it," cried another sitting by; "for no one needs it more." 

A quotation within another is inclosed by single quotation marks. If 
I- wished to represent the entire foregoing paragraph as something 
quoted by me, I should write it thus: — 

" ' I rise for information,' said a member of Congress. ' I am very 
glad to hear it,' cried another sitting by ; 'for no one needs it more.' " 

My quotation of another's quotation would be expressed thus: 

" ' Look ! in this place ran Cassius' dagger through.' " 

When the double and the single marks have both been used, they are, 
if needed, repeated in the same order. 

When many quotations occur within one another, it is better to leave 
the inner ones undistinguished by quotation marks; especially if capitals 
can be used to show the beginning of each : 

Ex. — "Jesus answered the Jews, ' Is it not written in your law, — I 
said, Ye are gods?' " — New Testament: John, JT, 34. 



PUNCTUATION.-- QUOTATION MARKS. 345 

Mr. Wilson very properly prefers the foregoing mode of pointing to 
the following: — " Jesus answered the Jews, 'Is it not written in your 
law, — u I said, ' Ye are gods ' " ? ; " 

When something is quoted and made interrogative or exclamatory 
afterwards, the concluding quotation marks should precede the other 
point. 

" l Banished from Rome! ' What's banished but set free 
From daily contact of the things 1 loathe." (Improper.) 
Thus : 

u ' Banished from Rome' ! What's banished but set free 
From daily contact of the things I loathe." 
Can you spell u phthisic " ? 

" Went home yesterday " ? Then I must write to him. 
Or : " ' Went home yesterday ' ? Then I must write to him." 

Viewing this part of the subject as a matter of principle, I venture to 
say that whenever any punctuation mark can not be conceived as in- 
cluded in the quotation, the mark should be placed not before, but after, 
the quotation marks. — See the middle of page 36. The commas, semi- 
colons, &c, should be placed after the quotation marks ; but the custom 
of printers and authors is to the contrary — perhaps to avoid uncouth 
blank spaces between the last word and a small point. 

Quotation marks may be used even when the authority itself is sub- 
joined. They may also be used when an author furnishes from himself 
such illustrations as might be thus distinguished if taken from other 
writers. 

Quotation marks may be omitted when deemed unnecessary or too 
cumbersome. 

Quotation marks are sometimes used, for the sake of greater distinc- 
tion, at the beginning of every line or paragraph quoted, and but once 
at the end. 

But Douglass round him drew his cloak, 
Folded his arms, and thus he spoke : — 
"My manors, halls, and bowers, shall still 
" Be open, at my sovereigns will, 
" To each one whom he lists, howe'er 
" Unmeet to be the owner's peer." 
Some of the rules are these : — 

" The comma is placed after a long inseparable adjunct. 
" The comma is placed between the circumstances and the main part 
of the sentence. 

" The comma is placed between parts transposed, or long parts capable 
of transposition." 

In speaking of words and phrases as quoted from popular usage, some 
writers use but single quotation marks. 

Ex. — What is ( secret ' may be accidentally or intentionally so : ( hid- 
den ' and ' concealed ' imply something intentionally kept secret. We 
speak of ' a hidden plot,' a ' concealed intention'. ' Covert' is something 
not avowed. It may be intended to be seen; 'a covert allusion ' is meant 
to be understood, but is not openly expressed. — Whately. 

In fact, quotation-marks and Italics are often used arbitrarily as 
means of distinguishing ivords or phrases. 



34G BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

12. UNDERSCORE. 

The underscore is used in writing, being drawn under what should be 
expressed in Italics in printing. Italics denote emphasis or distinction. 

1. The underscore draws particular attention to some word or words. 

2. It shows on what word or words the meaning of the sentence par- 
ticularly turns. 

3. If shows that some letter, word, or expression, is not used in its 
most common acceptation ; or that it is foreign, or spoken of as a mere 
letter, word, phrase, or sentence. 

4. Briefly: It serves to distinguish something from what accompanies 
it, or from something else. 

Ex. — u Italic letters are those which stand inclining. This sentence is 
printed in Italics.'' "We must fight, I repeat it, sir, we must fight." 
" Here / reign king, and to enrage thee more, Thy king and lord. 7 ' 
" An hour or two, and forth she goes, 
The school she brightly seeks ; 
She carries in her hand a rose, 

And two upon her cheeks." — Southern Literary Messenger. 
"There are no is in English " eyes" 
But e's there are in " ease" ; 
A does want ye to make it aye, — 
There's but one p in "peas". — Hood. 
u Hence, in a few years the prairies abound in mustangs." " A few 
paragraphs from the ' Young Lady's Dream Book,' are in order." " * How 
they run! ' — ( Who run? ' — ' The enemy,' replied the officer. — l Now God 
be praised!' said Wolfe; 'I shall die happy!'" " He was secretary 
pro tempore." " My foolish heart beats pit-a-pat — sic omnia vincit amor." 
" Which may be applied to phrases or clauses, but that only to nouns or 

pronouns." " That he should be more careful is a substantive 

clause, in the nominative case," &c. 

u Of course a race-course isn't coarse, A fine is far from fine." — Hood. 
To denote still greater emphasis or distinction, capital letters should 
be used. Draw the line under twice for small capitals, and three times 
for large ones. 

When a sentence or paragraph is to be expressed in Italics, Roman or 
capital letters must be used to distinguish any part of it. 

We may sometimes use, for the sake of distinction, either Italics or 
quotation marks, or both. — See the last sentence of the preceding section. 

Note. — I have not room to insert for correction any of the nu- 
merous erroneous examples in punctuation, which I have collected. For 
exercises, select the most instructive of the examples I have given, 
and let them be written unpointed, on the blackboard, and without pre- 
vious reference to the book; then let the class punctuate them as well as 
they can, stating the principles, and afterwards compare the perform- 
ance with the same examples in the book : or else, let the examples be 
regularly written off unpointed, laid aside until the punctuation is for- 
gotten, and then punctuated and compared as before. 

Remark. — The doctrines of some influential men have so much 
weight with the public, and are accordingly so widely diffused, that I 
can not forbear to notice a few — a very few of them — that seem to me 
objectionable. 



PUNCTUATION.— MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 347 

"David was a wise, brave and pious prince. 7 ' — iV. Webster. 

Better : David was a wise, brave, and pious prince. 

"John, James and Henry are going to school." — Webster ; Mandeville. 

John, James, and Henry, are going to school. (Because the former 
sentence might suggest, that to John is told what James and Henry are 
doing.) 

" To carve for others, is, to starve yourself." — G. Brown. 
To carve for others is to starve yourself. (Mr. Brown not 
unfrequently punctuates too closely.) 

" I, Paul, have written it." — Bullions. 
I Paul have written it. (For the former obviously indicates 
that I am telling Paul what I have done.) 

" Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to health." — Wilson, 

Industry, honesty, and temperance, are essential to health. 

u To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in char- 
acter." — Id. 

To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in char- 
acter. 

" The love which survives the tomb is one of the noblest attributes of 
the soul."— Id. 

The love which survives the tomb, is one of the noblest attributes of 
the soul. 

"The Semicolon [ ; ] is used to separate such parts " &c. — Id. 

The Semicolon ( ; ) is used to separate such parts &c. 

" Rule ILL; and Rule V., Remark c." " Rule IV. and III."— Id. 

Rule III; and Rule V, Remark c. Rules IV and III. 

"Ps. lxv. 2; lxxviii. 39."— Id. Better: Ps. lxv, 2; lxxviii, 39. 

MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 

1. Marks of Omission. 

Blank space, Ditto (" ), Dots ( ), 

Apostrophe ( ' ), Long dash ( ), 

Caret ( A ), Stars ( * * * * * ), Hyphens ( ). 

Ex. — " Why do you repeat 

My words, as if you feared to trust your own ! " Blank space, 
at the beginning or the end of a line of poetry, best shows omission. 

"Columbus! 'tis day, and the darkness is o'er ! " "Mourners 7 mid 
nature's bloom." "What o'clock? " "Daniel O'Connel." "James 
M'c Donald," or "James McDonald." (Contractions.) 
f ie the evil 

" Suf A ic A nt for the day is A thereof." (Accidental omission.) 

" 10 lbs. of coffee, @ 10 cts. per pound, $1.00. 

12 " " sugar, " 8| " " " -_-__-_ 1.00. 

" She lived a year, during which " "We have come into the 

den of a " " And Mrs. S * * * * ? does she yet frolic it? " 

" Poor Mrs. C (why should I not 

Declare her name? — her name was Cross) — 
Was one of those 'the common lot' 
Had left to mourn no 'common loss.'" — Hood. 
" And if the instructions chance to prove in vain, 
Teach how ne'er to write again." — Id. 



348 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

"The next shall tell thee, bitterly shall tell, 
Thoughts that * * * * * 
* # * $ & * * $ 

Thoughts that — could patience hold— 'twere better far, 
To leave still hid and burning where they are." — T. Moore : Fudge 
" Still swelled the plague, — uprose the blast, * * * [Family. 

Before the whirlwind flew the tree, 
Beneath the whirlwind roared the sea." — Croly. 

" Let them or suppose I address myself to some particular 

sufferer " « But he married yet if he had married a 

woman with money, you know, why. then " " D — n the 

vagabond ! said he, in such a tone that I positively startled." 

« No. 

I promise to pay to , or bearer, dollars," etc. 

Remark. — Mr. Wilson seems to recommend the dash for omitted 
letters, the periods for omitted words, and the stars for omitted senten- 
ces. But the distinction is not observed. 

2. Marks of Pronunciation or Utterance. 
f Acute ('), Dkeresis (••), Webster s Notation. 

Accents, -j Grave ( N ), Hyphen (-), (Omitted, for want of type.) 

( Circumflex (a), Separatrix ( | ), Worcester's Notation. 
Macron (-), Cedilla (under c=s), (Omitted, for want of type.) 
Breve (u), Tilde (overii=ny), 
Ex.— ";To conflict, a conflict." " Will you walk, or ride?" "I 
shall walk, not ride." " The poor, the aged, the sick, and the woun- 
ded, were left to perish." u Days, months, years, and ages, shall circle 
away." " Desire, aversion, rage, love, hope, and fear, are drawn in 
miniature upon the stage." " They saw not one man, not one woman, 
not one child, not one four-footed beast." 

" It is our duty to pity, to support, to defend, and to relieve the op- 
pressed." " If you said so, then I said so." " Madam, you have my 
father much offended." (Stress, inflection, modulation, &c.) " Machine, 
Miongo, Montreal, la." (Long sound.) 

l \ Ye shepherds, so cheerful and gay." 

" 'If they rob | us of name | and pursue | us with bea | gles'." 

— Fowler. 
" Holy, | holy, | holy, | all the | saints a | dore thee." — Brown. 
(Poetic accents and feet.) " G16-vi-ous, sool-dis-eased, im-pru-dent." 
(Quantity.) " And hearken to the bird's love-learned song — love-learned 
song." " Reappear, re-appear; coordinate, co-ordinate; aerial, Menelaiis, 
Antinoiis, Danae." (Marks that bring out a suppressed syllable, or pre- 
vent two syllables from being improperly made one. The hyphen is often 
preferred, when the first part is a prefix, or when each of the parts is 
significant.) "Facade, chaise, garcon, (generally placed before a or o,) 
seiior." "Where the troop of Minon [Minyun] wheels." 

3. Marks of Preference. 
Star, or asterisk ( * ), 1st reference; Paragraph ( IT ); 
Bagger, or obelis k ( f ), 2d " &c; Then doubled (** "ft, &c); 
Bouble dagger, or diesis ( J ); Then trebled (*** ttt, &c. ); 

Section ( § ); Also superiors — letters or figures ( a , b , 

Parallels ( || ); o f i ? 2 ? s). 



PUNCTUATION. — MISCELLANEOUS MARKS. 349 

These marks are placed over that from which the reference is made; 
and also at the head of that, in the margin, to which the reference is 
made. 

4. Marks Directing Attention. 

The index, or hand ( Ji^° ), directs special attention to something. 

The three stars, or asterism ( *#* ), precedes a note that has a general 
reference. 

™ , r S \ miites two or more parts, and generally refers them in 
ra ^ \ ' common to something else. It should open towards 
the more numerous parts. 

The paragraph ( % ) usually marks the longer divisions of a large 
division : it shows something new. 

The section ( § ) usually marks the smaller divisions of a longer 
division. 

Leaders ( ) lead the eye from one part to another, over a 

blank space. 

Ex. — "j($§p s All orders by mail must be accompanied by the cash." 

u *^* rj\ | ie Teacher should require his pupils to spell and define the 

most, important words in every lesson that is read." 

f Masculine, 

r „ , ! Feminine, 

f Gender, -j Co:limon ; 



" Substan 
tives have 



l_ Neuter, 

p fq 1 ^'^ "Hon. W.Wood, ) 

\ L erSori 1 ™ C0 *? Q ' Chas. D. Drake, Esq., [ Committee: 
\k.\ Hon. S. T. Glover, J 

r Kin cm n.v ' ' 



,}- 



Number /Singular, 
iNumoer, j piural . 

f Nominative, 
v Case, J Possessive, 

( Objective." 
" Not that my verse should blemish all the fair; 
Yet some are bad, — 'tis wisdom to beware, 

And better to avoid the bait than struggle in the snare." J — Dryden. 
(A triplet introduced among couplets.) 

a % 57. Pure Verbs. Second Aorists. v — Crosby. 
11 \ 219. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun," &c. 

Page. 

"Naples, , 63 

Pompeii — Herculaneum, 65." (Index.) 

" George is a noun, it is a name ; &c. 

" lias been rewarded is a verb," &c. 

5. Marks for Correcting Proof-Sheets. 

Peter Schoeffer is said to be the person who Caps, 



invented cast metal types, having learned 

the art-sf of cutting 1 the letters fr/m the Gut- o 

tembergs, he is also supposed to have been jf 

$ the first whoengraved on copper plates The - 1 



<* 



350 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

following testimony is preseved in the family, r 
A by Jo. Fred. Faustus of Ascheffenburg: & 
fl" *Peter SchoefTer of Gernsheim, perceiving his s.cap-t. 
\V master Fausts design, and being himself 

A 

tr. (d esirous\arden tly ) to improve the art, found 
out (by the good providence of God) the 
-f method of cutting (in cidend i) the characters stet. 

in a matrix, that the letters might easily be 
,1 singly cas^/ instead of bieng cut. He pri- ci\ 
y vately cut matrices % for the whole alphabet: m 
Faust was so pleased with the contrivance 
/^at he promised Peter to give hircKnis only iv.f 
/j a ughtcr Christina in marriage^ a promise it aim 
/ w ^ich he soon after perforfncd. N no J m 

as (But there were many difficulties at first " 
vom. with these letter^, as there had be en before w| 
ital. with wootlpn ones, the metal being by mining outs.c, 

~~7^ \ l . A 

tr. the a/substance with metal which hardened ity O 

(cuid when he showed his master the letters 
cast from these matrices, 



<\ 



EXPLANATIONS. 

dele — take out the superfluous word "of." 

ff\ turn the reversed letter " p." 

Jfr insert a space between " who" and " engraved." 

v— ' less space between the words. 

1[ make a new paragraph. 

tr. transpose the words " desirous" and "ardently." 

stet. let incidendi (accidentally erased) remain. 

w.f." wrong fount" type to be changed. 

outs.c. "out, see copy." The words omitted being too 
numerous for the margin, the compositor is 
referred to the original copy for them. 
The other marks are self-explanatory-. 



BOOK THIRD. 

ERRORS AND CRITICISMS CORRESPONDING TO ROOK SECOND. 

This Book aims to present all the various kinds of errors, classified as well 
as possible, ivhich are more or less current ivherever the English language 
is used, and to which persons not altogether illiterate are not unfrequently 
liable, even when they are careful to express their thoughts with accuracy. 



General Direction for Correcting.— First read distinctly, as it 
is, what is to be corrected ; condemn it; take a convenient erroneous portion, 
sag what it should be, and give the reason by stating the principle violated; 
and, finally, read the corrected example. For greater fullness, say, when 
convenient, that the erroneous part with such properties or such a mean- 
ing, should be so with such properties, such a meaning, or for such a 
purpose ; because etc. 



1. CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Formule. — Incorrect: the word , beginning with a small , 

should begin with a capital ; because . ( Give the proper prin- 
ciple from Book Second; and vary the Formule ivhcn a variation is 
needed.) 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Congress authorized gen. Washington to appoint an officer to take 
charge of the southern district. When Laud was arraigned, "can any- 
one believe me a traitor," exclaimed the astonished prelate. — Bancroft. 
The blood of those who have Fallen at concord, lexington, and bunker's 
hill, cries aloud* " it is time to part." Three cheers were given for the 
"champion of the south." Justice, policy, and Necessity, demand a 
radical Separation from great britain. The bible says, children, obey 
your parents. A hundred presbyterian ministers preached every sun- 
day in Middlesex, He is now president of Westminster college, and 
was formerly the principal of Montrose academy. While every honest 
tongue, "stop thief!" resounds. To this I answer, no. The jury 
brought in a verdict of not guilty. In Benton's thirty years you can 
find this Statement. Mr. Gr. Brown says, That Cobbett observes, the 
french, in their bible, say le verb, where we say the ivord. in the fall 
and winter of 1776, the families of thomas phillips, william Jenkins, 
tkeophilus reed, and rev. rees lloyd ; and thomas w. jones, esq., isaac 
griffith, and james tobias, bachelors, all from wales, — commenced 
settling in cambria township, cambria county. These Birds go South 

* Throughout this Book, observe the punctuation, and correct it where erroneous. 

351 



352 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

in Winter, but return in Spring or Summer. I saw, at the same time 1 , 
a person called fraud, behind the counter, with false scales, light weights, 
and scanty measures. Falsehood let the arms of sophistry fall from 
her grasp, and holding up the shield of impudence with both her hands, 
sheltered herself among the passions. — id. The process by which soils 
are formed, is one of the most beautiful and wonderful in Nature. The 
first melting of Lead Ore in this county was in a rude log furnace. The 
remains of Corals and Mollusks are very abundant. This is especially 
true of Elm and Hickory land. Dum spiro, spero ; while I breathe, I 
hope. The question is, which of them can best pay the penalty ? Be it 
enacted by the legislature of Ohio, that the taxes &c. The question, 
then, will naturally arise, how is the desired improvement to be effect- 
ed ? how are the theory and practice of the art to be attained ? we an- 
swer, by the most simple means; by the very means which are so well 
adapted to other subjects of learning, rnurray says, " when a quota- 
tion is brought in obliquely after a comma, a Capital is unnecessary ; 
as, solomon observes, ' That Pride goeth before destruction.' " — octavo 
grammar, P. 284. At length the comprehension bill was sent down to 
the commons. To the honorable, the president and house of convention. 
He was President of the massachusetts historical society; and Editor of 
a few volumes of its historical collections, and a Contributor to the 
Boston daily advertiser. The author of the Task was a good Poet. 
Some welsh emigrants who were zealous christians. Put the first line 
in romau letters, and italicize the other. The mexican leader was don 
antonio de lopez de santa anna. She is gone to him that comforteth as 
a mother comforteth. The hand that made us, is divine. Here is the 
village of beaver meadow, maucli chunk, or bear mountain, broad and 
spring mountains, bald ridge, and pine hills are here. This swamp 
was called the shades of death, by the sufferers from Wyoming. There 
dwelt a sage called discipline. He flattered himself that the tories 
might be induced to make some concessions to the dissenters, on condi- 
tion that the whigs would be lenient to the Jacobites. Men may be di- 
vided intellectually into the following classes : the great, the extraor- 
dinary, the ordinary, the imitative, the energetic, the mediecre, the fee- 
ble, the small, and the dull. Monroe house; Martha's vineyard; lake 
Champlain ; little Peedee ; Cook's inlet; Penobscot bay; mount Zion; 
mount Vernon; east indies; the white sea; the Indian ocean; Bunker 
hill; Harper's ferry; Jersey city; Charleston City ; the City of Cincin- 
nati ; in the County of Cole ; Appollo garden, Lafayette place, Water 
street, South street, First street. (Here Garden, Place, and Street, are each 
a fixed part of the name. In English newspapers I generally find such 
words compounded, and perhaps better expressed; as, Sp ring -gar dens, 
Leicester-place, Hampden-strect, Fourth-street, Fifteenth-street.) Boone 
County, Chariton County, Walnut Street (?), Lake Ponchartrain ; the 
Tombigbee River ; Carondelet Canal ; the Prophet Isaiah ; King Solo- 
mon ; the Evangelist Matthew. (People usually speak of these objects 
without the word county, river, street, &c.) This sandstone crops be- 
tween the 1st and 2d Magnesian Limestone. (Say, "the First and Sec- 
ond Magnesian Limestone," or rather, " the First and Second magnesian 
limestone;" for in these capitalized words lies the technical distinc- 
tion.) Some of the Bottom Prairies of the Missouri are thirty miles 
long. (Here "bottom prairies" would have been just as intelligible.; 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 353 

Such are the Alluvial Deposits in Missouri. The Pebbles and Gravel 
of this Formation have a great economical value for roads and streets. 
The principal growth is American Elm, Hackberry, Red Mulberry, 
Honey Locust, Black Walnut, Black Oak, Wild Cherry, Blue Ash, Red 
Bud, and Papaw. — See also pp. 337-42. 

The work is admirably adapted to the use of common schools, — 
by thorough and varied exercises; 
by frequent and complete reviews ; 
by confining instruction to one thing at a time; 
by simplicity of terms and arrangement. 
" See art's fair Empire o'er our shores advance." 
I hate when vice can bolt her arguments, 
and virtue has no tongue to check her pride. — Milton. 
Fair science frowned not on his humble birth, 
And melancholy marked him for her own. — Gray. 
Anon an Avalanche 
Rolled its long thunder ; and a sudden crash 
Sharp and metallic, to the startled ear 
Told that far clown a continent of Ice 
Had burst in twain. — Rogers' Italy : The Alps. 
Our Clifford was a noble Youth. — Wordsworth. 

Remark. — Capital letters seem to have Tbeen at the highest flood-mark in the reign 
of Queen Elizabeth ; at the lowest ebb, in the reign of Queen Anne ; they rose again 
amazingly with the German notions of Carlyle and Wordsworth ; and now they are, per- 
haps, again slowly ebbing. For any quantity of inconsistent capitalizing, see Harpers 1 and 
Lippincott's Gazetteers. 

AIDS AND REMABKS. 

Words, in respect to capital letters, may be divided into the following classes : — 
1. Initial words; 2. Spiritual or personal names; 3. Geographical or local names; 4. 
Names of time ; 5. Titular or emphatic terms ; G. Derived words. 

H®" The following examples embrace a general circuit of expressions, exhibiting the 
standard practice of writing them ; and comprising particularly all such expressions in 
respect to which the learner is most liable to err or to be perplexed. 

1. Initial Words. — See pp. G0-G2, and the various parts of this volume. 

2. Spiritual or Personal Names. — " The Deity ; our Maker ; the Supreme Being ; 
the Messiah ; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; our Lord Jesus Christ ; Divine 
Providence ; the Great Spirit ; thou great First Cause ; thou Almighty God ; the Infin- 
ite One ; the All-wise ; the Judge of all ; the Lord of Sabaoth ; great Parent of good ; 
the Sovereign of heaven ; the Savior of sinners ; the Son of man ; the Son of God ; the 
God of gods, King of kings, and Lord of lords ; Be Thou the pilot of my soul ; 0, give 
relief, and Heaven will bless your store ! the Devil and his angels ; a devil ; Satan ; an 
angel ; the Angel of death." " Have we lifted up our eyes to see Him who is Love, 
Light, and Truth, and Bliss?" — Prof. Wilson. (Highly spiritualized, though the capi- 
tals are hardly proper.) " The solitudes, the afflictions, the aspirations, of this life, are 
a proof that Man, less content than the brutes, has another destiny." (Highly indivi- 
dualized.) "His Excellency, the Governor of Missouri ; a governor of Missouri ; the 
President of the United States ; the emperor Antoninus ; His Majesty, Napoleon the 
Second; the Commander-in-C/H>/ (?) ; Lady Cecilia Gordon Lennox, daughter of the 
Duke of Richmond ; (see Titular Terms;) Chief Justice Marshall; Frederick the Great; 
Bolivar S. Head, Esq. ; the Hon. Rufns Choate ; the Senator from Virginia ; in the 
Queen's service ; Queen Elizabeth ; to Secretary Cass ; the City Engineer ; Prof. Holmes 
and the Schoolmistress ; the first Consul and his army ; an East India Director ; Dear 
Sir ; My worthy Friend ; William H. Crawford, United States Senator from Georgia, and 
at one time Secretary of State; The lied Man of America is, in reality, cinnamon-col- 
ored ; The Mayor was deposed ; The Emperor of Morocco died yesterday ; The Governor 
of the State was present ; Our Minister reported to Congress his interview with the King 
of Prussia ; The President and the Vice-president must be native-born citizens ; He 
was for years Deputy Keeper of the Brooklyn City Hall ; The satirists of his time named 
him Lord Allpride ; His Honor decided against us." Political, religious, or social 

30 



354 BOOK THIRD— ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

groups: " The Vigilance Committee ; the Democracy of New Orleans ; the Navy Depart- 
ment; the United States Army; the Continentals ; the Six Nations; little sympathy 
"between the North and the South ; the House of Burghers in Virginia ; The Committee 
reported in favor of three departments, — the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judi- 
ciary ; (terms to be titular ;) The Patriots and the Aristocracy were arraigned against 
the King, and insisted on two Chambers of Legislation ; Senator Atchison took his seat 
as presiding officer of the Senate, and Hon. Linn Boyd of Kentucky was chosen Speaker 
of the House of Representatives." " The Free Church of Scotland; the Protestants ; 
the Roman Catholics ; a Protestant ; a Catholic ; a Free Soiler ; a Mussulman ; the 
Roundheads ; the Independents ; the Whigs ; the Democrats ; the Republicans ; the 
Know Nothing candidates ; the Conservatists ; a Radical ; a Methodist ; a Baptist ; a 
Mormon ; the Supreme Court ; the Cabinet ; the Federal Judiciary ; the Board of 
Directors for the Southern Bank ; the past history of the Bar ; The Circuit Court ad- 
journed to-day ; The persecutors of merit may likewise be divided into Roarers, Whis- 
perers, and Moderators." " The Robin Hood Society consists of Will Positive, Jack 
Wildfire, Solomon Square, John Dismal, Thomas Broadcloth, and Richard Goosequill ; 
in this great laboratory of Nature ; They went to the Butterfly's Bail and the Grass- 
hopper's feast; The Wind one morning sprang up from sleep ; The entrance into the 
garden of Hope was by two gates, — one of which was kept by Reason, and the other by 
Fancy ; I saw fair Childhood hard at play, Upon a bank of blushing flowers." 

3. Geographical or Local Names. — " The New World ; in North America; the 
Eastern States, — i. e., Maine, New Hampshire, etc. ; the Gulf of Mexico ; the Caribbean 
Sea ; on Black River ; on the Cumberland river ; the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
rivers; the Falls of Niagara ; from Point Barrow; Bristol Bay: Baffin's Bay; the Bay 
of Fundy ; Great Slave Lake ; Fort Charles ; Vancouver's Island, near Great Bear Lake ; 
at Queen Charlotte's Sound ; Mount Jefferson ; on the Island of Disco ; on the Isle of 
Man ; in Cole county ; in the city of New York ; Jersey City ; Long and Staten Islands ; 
the Royal Grammar School; the Normal and Model Schools ; (" School " is here needed 
to make the name, or it is rather titular;) the United Presbyterian Divinity Hall ; the 
City Hall ; the National Institute ; the University ; a university ; the Ordnance Office ; 
at the Office of Foreign Affairs ; the Red and Mediterranean Seas ; (Here each adjective 
would require the singular Sea with a capital ;) at Sutton Place ; the Custom House near 
Lafayette Square ; a steep hill called Cedar Crest — Bald Hill ; They encamped at a place 
called Gilbert Town, west of Broad River; The party from Three Rivers surprised the 
settlements at Salmon Falls, on the Piscataqua ; We went by the Avenue Road to 
Moosehead Lake; He lives on Deer Island, and owns also Sugar Island ; in Crabhe's 
Prairie; (Crabbe first settled the prairie, but died long ago ;) the Sugar-loaf Prairie ; 
the Iron Mountain and Miller's Knob ; between Rock Island and Keokuk; the North, 
the South, the East, and the West ; (portions of the land ;) The Middle States share the 
sympathies of the North and the South ; the Street Committee of the Western District; 
the Welland Canal ; the Great Western Railroad ; (rather titular ;) A plank-road con- 
nects the village with the Central railroad ; (not so titular ;) at Valley Forge not 
far from Fort Mercer at Red Bank; The Muscle Shoals are in the Tennessee 
river; The Upper Cross Timbers are a belt of timber in the upper part of Texas." 
" I went with him to visit the Lakes ; (a celebrated group of lakes ;) the expulsion of our 
first parents from the Garden, — i, e., from Eden; the Choctaw high-school; (Here 
" high-school " is not titular, but used in its ordinary sense ;) the Antelope hills ; (Here 
the meaning of " hills " predominates in the phrase, "Antelope " being merely descrip- 
tive, yet distinguishing these hills from other hills abounding in antelopes ;) We passed 
Grape creek and Rocky Dell creek ; (They are mere creeks, yet thus distinguished from 
other creeks of the same kind ;) the South Pass ; (Here " Pass" not only denotes a pass, 
but is extended in application to the surrounding country, so as to denote a locality be- 
sides ;) We are going to the Springs — the Falls ; (Here " Springs " and " Falls," without 
capitals, would not be sufficiently definite, or would rather refer to the water itself than 
to the places ;) We are going to the Saratoga springs ; (Here the meaning of " springs " 
is predominant, as shown by the article " the" — and the capital is not needed to make 
the term sufficiently definite ;) We saw the North and South forks of Platte river (?) ; 
the St. Louis and Chicago railroad ; the Buffalo and Erie canal ; the Findlay Branch 
railroad (?) ; the bluff is called Flat rock ; (better,— Flat -rock ;) The capital is Marion 
Court-house ; not ' Court-House ; ' (It is generally better to avoid capital letters within 
compound words ;) We stopped at Little Rock ; the Custom-house, or the Custom House ; 
Northampton, or North Hampton ; Ben Lomond, not Ben-Lomond ; Eastport, Newfound- 
land, Stowbridge ; Lafayette, Macpherson, Macdonald ; at the Methodist Church ; sev- 
eral Methodist churches ; in Bates and Vernon counties ; Canal Street ; on Wall Street ; 
from Third to Fourth street " (?). " Pandemonium, Tartarus, Elysium, the Gardens of 
the Hesperides ; Sleep on and dream of Heaven a while (?) ; Frail child of earth ! high 
heir of heaven ! " (Heaven ana Hell, and some other such terms, as used by Milton in 
Paradise Lost, should generally begin with capitals, being used in a somewhat unusually 
specific sense: they form a part of his " machinery.") 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 355 

4. Names of Time. — "Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, &c, Sabbath, holiday, on 
Wednesdays, Saturdays ; (on the same principle, any other specific day of the year ;) 
Christmas Day (?), New Year's Day, Good Friday, the Lord's Day, Easter, Whitsuntide, 
the Fourth of July, on the Fourth ; January, February, March, April, <fec. ; the Mil- 
lennium, the Middle Ages, the antediluvian ages ; month, year, century, lifetime, min- 
utes, hours, days, months, years, leap-years, centuries, time, spring, summer, winter, 
season ; Many birds migrate every spring and autumn ; These birds are but winter 
visitors ; I remained there three seasons ; surly Winter ; the noiseless foot of Time ; 
pictures of the Hours ; The Seasons went and came ; While sallow Autumn fills thy lap 
with leaves." 

The words spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter, time, eternity, morning, evening, noon, 
day, night, and many other individual terms — such as earth, heaven, hell, sun, moon, 
sta?s world, universe, nature, space, equator, zodiac, ecliptic, north, south, east, west, &c. — 
when used in their most ordinary sense, or when their meaning predominates, are not 
usually capitalized ; but when used in a somewhat technical or titular sense, when per- 
sonified, or when they are to be honorably distinguished, they are usually capitalized. ' 

5. Titular on Emphatic Terms. — "We heard that Congress had appointed him 
Governor of Nebraska Territory ; Henry Ware was Professor of Divinity in Harvard 
College; The Sun is the centre of the System; (written by an astronomer;) The city 
contains an Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, a Mint, a Methodist Church, and a 
University ; (written as if the names were transcribed ;) Campbell's Battle of Hohenlin- 
den; (a phrase made a permanent proper name;) Let every man say Yes or No; 
(emphatic, also akin to quotation, in implying a difference of person, or two parties ;) 
The jury returned a verdict of Not Guilty ; the cry of No Popery ; I hear thee say, The 
Beautiful ! what is it? Let the Legislature make provisions for the professional 

schools, Law, Medicine, Divinity, and Padeutics." The subjects discussed, were, 

"Truth and Error," "The Standard of Morality," "Practical and Scientific Knowl- 
edge," "Where there is a Will, there is a Way." "The Song is in poetry what the 
Essay is in. prose." — Atlantic Monthly. (Universally considered, and individualized or 
"unified.") " Even at the Bar or in the Pulpit ; chapter second, on Punctuation ; the 
High School at Eaton; the Gulf Stream ; the distinguished President of the Academy 
of Sciences ; Her Majesty, the Prince Consort, the Bride, the Prince of Wales, and the 
other members of the Royal Family ; (Common folks would not have been thus honored 
with capitals ;) the White House and the Capitol at Washington City ; the Statute Law 
of England ; the Minister of the Interior ; *Mr. Murray, in his Grammar ; a book, 
called^The Teacher; but Brother Jonathan; And Father William replied; in the 
Chapel of St James's Palace; the Reform Bill; the Naval Appropriation Bills; the 
Reformation, and the Rovolution ; a chapter in your Histoiw (book) ; a chapter in your 
history (life) ; in a recent Number of the New Monthly ; th« Great Exhibition ; the 
enemies of the Republic; the Merchant's Exchange; the Inner Temple; the Poet's 
Corner ; The Rice Bird arrives in New England about the middle of May ; (Here the author 
is treating of birds ;) N represents the Eighteenth elementary sound ; (Here the capital 
E serves to show, that the author refers to a particular classification — his own ;) What 
is the use of the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis ? This is known only by Divine revela- 
tion (?) ; Algebra employs small Italics ; The Numeral Adjectives are of two kinds ; On 
this hill stands the Cathedral ; Our society has a President, Vice-president, Treasurer, 
&c. ; our Rules concerning Names of Deity, Proper Names, Titles of Honor, Poetry, Ex- 
amples, and Quotations." " Our observations may be comprised under the following 
heads: Proper Loudness of Voice; Distinctness; Slowness; Propriety of Pronunciation; 
Emphasis; Tones; and Mode of Reading Verse.'" "Just published. A Collection of 
Songs, Duets, Trios, ana' Choruses. Together with a New and Complete Course of Ele- 
mentary Instruction, and Lessons in Singing for the Schoolroom and Social Circle. 
Price 62% cents." 

Remark. — In Advertisements and Notices, the liberty of capitalizing is carried to 
a very great and indefinite extent. 

6. Derived Words. — " The Americans, French, Austrians, Portuguese ; American- 
ize, Americanism, Anglicism, Italicize, Latinity, Mohammedan, Christian, Papal, Wes- 
leyan, Christianize, Christianity, Romish, Gallicism, Hebraisms, Norwegian, Irishman, 
Welsh, Scotchman, Jacobites, Jesuits, Franciscans." Reference to proper name lost or not 
regarded : " Laconic, laconicism, jalap, philippics, hymeneal, prussic acid, cashmere 
shawls, china-ware, colossal, damask cheeks, a guinea, turkeys, godlike, champagne, to 
hector, to galvanize." Unchristian, and similar words, can not receive neatly a capital 
within. 

A few more principles may be deduced from the foregoing examples : — 

1. A new proper name made from an old one, by the addition of some 
common word. Capitals. 

Ex. — "Orleans, New Orleans ; East Cambridge ; Governor Price ; Jefferson City ; 



350 BOOK THIRD— ERRORS AND CRITICISMS, 

Rhode Island ; Miller's Landing ; Upper Canada ; Aetor House ; Mount Mitchell ; Kan- 
sas Territory; Japan Sea; Lisle Town; the Gulf of Mexico." 

2. One or more common words, — usually, a noun and an adjective, a 
noun and an adjunct, a noun and a possessive, a noun and its appositive, 
a phrase,' or a sentence, — raised to the dignity of a proper name for a 
particular object. Capitals. 

Ex.— " The Park ; Salt River; Salt Lake; Big Sandy; Sandy Hook ; Land's End ; 
the Cape of Good Hope ; the Mountains of the Moon ; the Laurel Hills ; the United 
States ; City Police ; the Know Nothings ; Elegy in a Country Churchyard." 

8. Common name added merely for explanation, and still significant. 
No Capital. 

Ex. — " The poet Milton ; on the Mississippi river ; the city of St. Louis ; in New York 
city ; in Cass and Butler counties." 

4. Dignity, or scientific application ; — the common meaning excluded. 
Capitals. 

Ex. — " The Professor ; the Coal Measures lying next ; Wm, Fenn with several 
Friends." 

5. In capitalizing Ttalic head-lines, distinguish, by capitals, the nouns; 
for the sake of greater distinction, the nouns and the qualifying adjec- 
tives; and for the sake of still greater distinction, the nouns, the quali- 
fying adjectives, the participles, and other prominent words. 

Remark. — The two extremes of capitalizing seem to he these : 1. Any particular place, 
time, object, office, officer or fimctu nary, association, writing, great event, building, science, or 
art, should be thus distinguished. ~l. Only initial words, 1 and 0, proper names, and titles, or 
what is used in (he same wag, should be thus distinguished. When a phrase is to be capital- 
ized, consider what words are mere particles, or are merely descriptive, and not essential 
to the name, and exclude capitals accordingly. Finally, when tempted to use a capital 
letter, consider what figure the object makes in your composition, or in the great affairs 
of the world ; and if it is not a matter of much interest to mankind, lean to small letters, 
or use not more capitals than will suffice to distinguish the object from others of the 
same kind. 

2. SPELLING. 

Formule. — Incorrect: the word , spelled , should be spelled 

; because . (State the principle, if any, from Book Second, that 

applies to such words.) 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

We have so much fun in skateing, sleighing, and slideing. Their were 
birds hoping from branch to branch. He is our drugist and bookseler. 
The argument is quite forceible. Esau sold his birthright for a mess of 
potage. There are also fine quaries of marble near Jefferson City. The 
mark was rubed out. This he never equalled. Hoarsness preventted 
him from speaking. My feelings were much agonised by the report. 
A deep melancholy soon took the place of her gaiety. He has profitted 
little by his experience. William Penn alloted some of the land to his 
friend Peacham. His witicisms were little suitted to entertain us. War 
is distrcsful and desolating: it is confesedly the scourge of our evil pas- 
sions. He owns a valueable farm. A spel of sickness is often a kind of 
chastisment and disciplin, to moderate our affections for the things of 
this life. The mere harmlesness of most animals should plead against 
cruel useage. He stedily adhered to his lazjmess, untill it brought him 
to want. Our tradeing at this place was verry limitted, and therefore 
we went to California for the sake of beterring our condition. 



SPELLING. 357 

It has been truely said, "Every man has his ruleing passion." We 
are frequently benefitted by what we have dreadded. Often have the 
precepts of my good mother recured to me, and saved me in the hour of 
temptation. The acknowledgement of his fault, at once procured for- 
givness. A favor confered with delicacy, doubles the obligation. The 
daw in the fable was dressed in pilferred ornaments. Public trusts 
should be commited to men of the greatest tallents and vertue. That 
man is the liveing embody ment of Whigery. My friends allways well- 
come me with genuine kindness. Most of the prophecys hav allready 
been fullfiled. Boarding and lodgeing above; shaveing and shampoon- 
ing below. Lazyly and listlesly the knaveish and clroneish fellows 
stretched themselves upon the carpet of grass. Villains often villify 
one another. Spell irreconcileable ) servilly, ajfyancc, syllabbic, parallelo- 
grammical, and parallelogramatic. We shiped all he had to spare. The 
money was payd by instalments. I am dayly makeing some improve- 
ment. The office was desireable, but it was not thought desireable to 
encounter so much opposition. By solaceing the sorrows of others, the 
heart is improved. The ceasless barking of the dogs annoied me very 
much. He failled to make application in due time. These calamitys 
fell heavyly upon him. The passage to which I refered you, has no ref- 
erence to any other. He recured to this, but the recurence was not 
noticed. I offerred to accompany him, but he preferred to go alone. 
Use figures spareingly. A chilness, or shiverring of the body, generally 
precedes a fever. Be carefull how you Italicise words. Pope has mod- 
ernised Homer. The Cherokees are progressing in civilisation. So 
gaily curl the waves before each dashing oar. A fox peeped slyly into 
a farm-vard. Education is a hacknied subject. A horsman gallopped 
through the vinyard. The waggon stood below the mildam, allmost 
knee-deep in sand. The follys and sallys of youth. The State was col- 
onised only fifty years ago. Twenty converts were baptised last week. 
The several party s continued there journies through delightful vallies. 
He stoped amediately. The moveables had all been taken to another 
room. The shyness of my horse preventted me from noticeing the object 
more closely. It was a wearysome journey. The monied men opposed 
the measure. Shylock, we would have monies. She quized me unmer- 
cifully. The monkies scampered up the rigging, and seatted themselves 
on the pullies. He wore a parti-colored garment. Ski-lights are win- 
dows in roofs. Fancyed=Fanci'd. 



Formule. — ( spell and pronounce the ivrong word) should be 

[spell and pronounce the correct word). 

Errors. — Usefull, striveing, runer, intermitent, reallise, independant, 
defendent, countrys, controler, vieing, unshrubed, renouned for talents, 
wilful disobedience, saleable lands, the aggragate population, indispen- 
sibly necessary, belligerant forces, plausable, privelege, proposial, apos- 
tacy, knol, til, staf, bluf, whif, gros, gass, gras, carr, stirr, druggs, 
humm, buz, accompanyment, merryment, worthyest, replyed, lonelyness, 
destroiers, portraied, navys, chimnies, prohibitted, regreted, geting, trans- 
ferrable, transferee, foollish, gladen, snapish, parrish, mesmate, recom- 
endation, skilfull, millinary, allurment, cureable, slaveish, tuneable, well- 
fare, therby, whereever, therafter, ferhed, passtime, sumthing, somtimes, 



358 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

oppurtunity, improoved, mistate, gemed, mobed, webed, jober, sobing, 
wraped, sadest, burning, taner, siner. wining, driped, fopish, lagard, hag- 
ard, raceing, freezeing, tersness, fringeing, vergeing, corslet, fuseible, 
sedge} 7 , smokey, ridgey, draged, swimer, blueisb, glueing, styleisb, value- 
ing, sliped, stiring, blured, sinuty, sneerred, kedgrow, mous-trap, eylet, 
spoiller, oilly, deaffen, sail! or, screamming, cleanner, festerring, disburs- 
ment, piqueant, rogueish, acquitance, pummel, perilled, propeler, re- 
viveal, contriveance, debateable, communeing, penniweight, definitly, 
perversly, rehearseal, alcohollize, generallissimo, clergiman, purposly, 
continueous, personifycation, thriftyly, fortyetb, demurer, nervless, white- 
isb, wheted, whizing, wholely, slugisb, wagery, grieveous, proselyte- 
ism, parallellism, vandallism, galvanise, magnetise, equalise, tranquilise, 
anglicise, kneelling, knoby, weding, signifycation, obliquly, liquefyable, 
charmmer, equallity, visittor, reallist, perillous, kidnaper, squater sove- 
reignty, broad-brimed, dulness, pityable, pennyless, likelyhood, handy- 
craft, mercy fu], merci-seat, merchandize, organisation, worshipped, citys, 
jockies, happyness, dizzyness, scaley, grufly, doubleings, spyed, spi-glass. 

EQUIVALENT SOUNDS. 

In orthography, we are most liable to error wherever a different spell- 
ing would produce the same or nearly the same sound. 

Frequently, different vowels or different vowel combinations are 
equivalent in sound. 

Sometimes, different consonants are equivalent, in sound. 

The single and the doubled consonant are often equivalent in sound. 

Errors. — Acter, parier, survivor, visiter, fiber, instructor, celler, 
elixer, inventer, disastre, proprieter, briar, frier, scholer, marter, morter, 
conquerer, receivor, regulater, grammer, gramar, brazier, grasier, bever- 
idge, porrege, selvidge, tranquility, gentillity, viciate, vitious, antient, 
noctious, mucisian, concious, cetacious, provintial, prudencial, enured, 
incroaching, incountcred, encumbent, enculcate, enclude, entrude, in- 
tirely, injoyment, jem, drest, prest, distrest, assest, spurnt, relinguish, 
cxtinqaish, bombazine, magasin, mandarine, submarin, chancelor, sha- 
loon, billious, biliards, enrol, controll, apelant, membrannous, tyranous, 
hering, harrangue, harrass, expence, licence, sacrifise,. condusive, inter- 
sede, supercede, sence, fleese, geece, idiocincrac} r , secresy, hypocrky, 
trancient, nutricious, sentencious, delitious, reflexion, complection, cro- 
nology, chrystal, choccolet, sachcarin^, kitchin, marten, rayment, 
seperate, degenarate, exhilerate, diriliction, predelection, irrilegious, 
sacreligious, repentence, dependance, destrict, succede, seeeed, procede, 
preceed, regail, prevale, prepair, impare, sneek, mein, shreak, breveer, 
revier, venear, buccanier, financeer, shoat, flote, aukward, miscellanious, 
ceremoneous, weavel, weesil, exterpate, foman, yoeman, nusance, seive, 
recieve, (always cei — never cie,) releive, sieze, leif, reciept, lein, cieling, 
ehearful, teerful, reserched, curten, guage, buisness, genteal, britches, 
screach-owl, goard, brue, glew, giv, hav, labour, errour, composit, depos- 
ite, dactyle, chlorit, paroxism, causible, vendable, leasable, seizible, 
boistrous, disasterous, incumberance, protuberance, cemetary, cerulian, 
etherial, grandure, nucleous, analasis, smoothe, sooth, blouse, rhuma- 
tism, dipthong, publick, monastick, targget, exagerate, refriggerate, 
herison, garison, orrison, partison. partizanship, vissible, adraisible, 



SPELLING. 359 

coppy, popy, raddish, redish, declammatory, inflamatory, paliate, retal- 
liate, pontif, pontiffical, ballance, sallad, balad, cabage, cabbin, dilligence, 
inteligence, inniquity, inuendo, postilion, vermillion, battallion, rebelion, 
millenial, horid, Horrid, crystalize, tyranize, recconoiter, reccommend, 
drisly, grizzly, tanzy, frensy, impanel, falacy, pollicy, butress, matress, 
biggot, magot, garet, clarret, rappid, stoper, propper, foder, sodder, val- 
lid, palid, tustle, russle, tennant, penant, tinny, finy, gizard, wizzard, 
threshhold. 



The most ludicrous blunders are usually made, by the misapplication 
of those words which agree in pronunciation, but differ in spelling and 
meaning. 

Formule. — The word (spell, pronounce, and define,) is here mista- 
ken for (spell, pronounce, and define). 

Errors. — The Roman augers pretended to foretell future events. He 
sold all his manners for a small sum. Miners are not allowed to vote 
here. The weather may be easily distinguished by a small belle. The 
benches were all in tears one above another. His talons were too small 
for a great man. My boots are well-souled and full of tax. I am head 
and years in business. We propose to start a weakly paper here. I 
used my toe for wadding. The oar was completely melted. The wind 
blue away the blew smoke. His bier was to him, not only drink, but 
food and lodging. The apothecary sold him six pains for fifty cents. 
At the last setting of the legislature, there was little good done. 
Hawks pray on other birds. The beach stood on the beech. The 
flour was kept fresh in a pitcher of water. Cleaning and dying dun 
here, according to order. She dyed and was berried last week. The 
cobbler put his all into his pocket. My Dear Ant. She had many 
airs to inherit the estate. She went with her bow to church. ' Do you 
like currents with cream and sugar ? He received a thousand dollars 
for razing the crop. He sewed all the seed. They drank a bottle of 
champaign. The judge immediately baled the prisoner. The martial 
had a very marshal look. We were in eminent danger. He put the 
whole prophet into his pocket. The capital is always situated in the 
capitol. The bridal was in the barn. They immigrated from Ireland. 
The desert was brought in by a sprightly molatto. His reward was 
greater than his dessert. The principle is sick. He lay all night very 
comfortably on a matrass. I will right to him, demanding no more 
than is write. His chin was soon heeled. She rung all the close. 
The quire sung very well. And wrapped in many a musing fit. A 
mote kept us from the fort. Every boll on the place is filled with milk. 
His vices were all bought by some other blacksmith. The veins are 
governed by the wind. All these barrels are for sail, at ten o'clock. 
He was bread for the Church. 

S. PRONUNCIATION. 

1. Give to every syllable its proper sound. 

Errors. — Ben for been (bin), ware for were, uf for of, fur for for, 
nur for nor, un for and, ketch for catch, cotched for caught or catched, 



380 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

shet for shut, blate for bleat, sich for such, git for get, kin for can, 
leetle for little, eend /or end, gether/br gather; kee-art, kee-ow, skee-y, 
/or cart, cow, sky ; noo, voo, attitood, for new, view, attitude ; whar , 
thar, bar, darter, for where, there, bear, daughter; gin, guv, for give; 
hath, heerth, herth, for hearth ; agin, aginst, again, against, for again 
(-gen), against (-genst) ; reether, ruther, for rather; hender for 
hinder, Jeems for James, gineral for general, larn /or learn, sarcer for 
saucer, tech for touch, gal for girl, peert for pert, becase for because, 
urnberrell for umbrella, deestrict for district, lawd for lord, Gawd for 
God, dawg for dog; scace, scass, for scarce; bile, spile, jine, jiste, 
histe, pint, disapplnt, for boil, spoil, join, joist, hoist, point, disappoint ; 
airth, yearth, arth, for earth ; purty, perty, for pretty ; brethern, 
brethreen, breethren, for brethren; inter for into, kivvered for covered, 
ruff for roof, tossel for tassel, nater or natshure for nature, fucher for 
future, wunst for once, huudered for hundred, immidge for image, 
twiste for twice, naterel for natural, terruss for terrors, husbun for 
husband, diffrunt for different, hull for whole, janders for jaundice, 
druv for drove, kittle for kettle, stun for stone, rench for rinse, 
squinch for squint or wince, stiddy for steady, spettacle for spectacle, 
streetch for stretch ; edication, contribited, diminitive, calkillate, for 
education, contributed, diminutive, calculate; marry one, arry one, for 
ne*er a one, e'er a one, or none, any ; sass, sassy, for sauce, saucy; Ither, 
ather, for either; critter, cretur, for creature; pay-rent, parrent, for 
parent; sword for sword (sdrd), dawnt for daunt (dant), harricane /or 
hurricane, lazbure for leisure (seizure), legislater for legislature, 
jography for geography, childurn for children, extra-ordinary for 
ex-traor-dinary, disfranchise for disfranchise, sacrifiss for sacrifice, 
auxilary for auxiliary (-yary), irraddiate for irradiate, ignorammus 
for ignoramus, philosophy for philosophy, diploma for diploma, stupen- 
dous for stupendous, verba ttim for verbatim, yer for your, tower for 
tour (toor), guine for going, arter for after, passon for parson, parze 
for parse ; yan, yander, for yon, yonder ; yourn, thairn, hizzen, oum, 
for yours, theirs, his, ours; half, calf, for half, calf; certinly, sudding, 
suddingly, for certainly, sudden, suddenly ; yeller, yaller, medder, 
widder, winder, shaller, holler, &c, for yellow, meadow, widow, 
window, shallow, hollow; Africay, Asiay, Americay, magnoliay, for 
Africa, Asia, America, magnolia, fowl for fought, mout for might, Injens 
for Indians, nigger for negro, inggens for onions, haiv for have (hav), 
biler for boiler, injlne for engine, sarvice for service, wen for when, 
wat for what, ware for where, wet for whet, witch for which, wile 
for while, &c, set for sit, sot for sat, libaty or libbutty for liberty, 
Sataday for Saturday, daguer-re-type /or daguerre-otype, ste-reotype or 
sterotype for ster-e-otype, haint/o?- haven't, axt/or asked, weeming/or 
women, A-thens for Ath-ens, Them is-tocles (-tocls), for Themistocles, 
methed for method, reecords for records, attackted for attacked, contin- 
yally for continually, intrust/or interest, lat-ent for la-tent, pa-tent for 
pat-ent, chimbly for chimney, bagnet for bayonet, cupalo for cupola, 
find for fiend, shuk/or shook, inqueeries for inquiries, sarch for search, 
sorter for sort of, kinder for kind of, draut for draught (draft), re-i-ter- 
ated fcr reiterated; varment, varmin, for vermin; purcede, purvent, 
purdict, for precede, prevent, predict; ilnly, only, for only; tremenjess, 
tremendious, for tremendous; pararah, pararo, for prairie; personidge 



PRONUNCIATION. 361 

for personage, potaters for potatoes, co-kwet for coquet (-ket), fortten 
for fortune, I-solate for isolate, massacreed for massacred (-kerd), 
hoped for helped, cruds for curds, inarcy for mercy, proposial for pro- 
posal, mountaneous for mountainous, drownded for drowned, pertakers 
for partakers, innikities for iniquities, extreme-ities for extremities, 
reklle for recoil, instid for instead, insterment for instrument, thousuns 
for thousands, trimble for tremble, prehaps for perhaps, kitching for 
kitchen, tubbacker for tobacco, oudacious for audacious, furrinners for 
foreigners, sperrits for spirits, deeissive for decisive, dreen for drain, 
figger for figure, pre -face for preface, toe for to, stomp for stamp, slick 
for sleek; doath, doast, doos, for doth (diith), dost, does; feminine, 
masculine, clandestine, genuine, favorite, respite, hostile, fertile, mer- 
cantile, for feminine (-in), masculine, clandestine, genuine, favorite, 
respite, hostile, fertile, mercantile. 

Englishmen say, Hit for it, orse for horse, &c. 

2. Be careful not to omit any letter or letters of a syllable, nor any 
syllable or syllables of a word. 

Errors. — Kep/or kept, ness for nests, cosly for costly, conquess for 
conquests, an for and, consonans for consonants, slep for slept, ole for 
old, adops/or adopts, bouns for bounds, perfecly for perfectly, idee for 
ide-a; sred, sriek, sroud, srink, srill, for shred, shriek, shroud, shrink, 
shrill; strenth, lenth, for strength, length; sumthin, suthing, for some- 
thing; fole, chile, mus, hell on, nans, stan, grines, mines, objec, tempess, 
transcrip, for fold, child, must, held on, hands, stand, grinds, minds, 
object, tempest, transcript; wuss, cuss, nusling, bosses, for worse, curse, 
nurseling, horses; histry, ordnary, victry, sevrel, practicly, temprily, 
genral, perticlar, raisry, flatry, govnor, nomnative, usually, exlency, 
pure-ty, goverment, Washinton, for history, ordinary, victory, several, 
practically, temporarily, general, particular, misery, flattery, governor, 
nominative, usually, excellency, purity, government, Washington; spec, 
spose, ten, gainst, steem, suiface, cordin, stonisht, for expect, suppose, 
attend, against, esteem, surface, according, astonished; clothin, playin, 
mornin, entrin, &c, for clothing, playing, morning, entering. 

3. Place the accent on the proper syllable. 

Errors. — Diinc'-ulty, opponent, fan'-atic, towards', into, indissoF- 
ubly, defic'-it, discipline, inexdr'-ably, dec'-orous, mischiev'-ous, iinpe'- 
tus, misceK-lany, sepuK-chre, coi^-dolence, man'-damus, pan'-theon, 
hor'-izon, pre'-cedents, discourse, coni / -ponent, inter'-ference, envK-ous, 
. retribu'-tive, com'-putable, hospit'-al, rau^seum (?), ly'-ceum, comprom'- 
ise, commis'-sary, hy'-dropathy, hydrop'-athic, aF-lopathy, allop'-athic, 
hornceopath'-y, homceop'-athic. 

4. Bear in mind that derivatives are not always pronounced or ac- 
cented like their primitives. 

Pronounce the following words correctly : Pyramid, pyramidal; revoke, 
revocable, revokable; reparation, repair, reparable; oblige, obligatory; 
compare, comparable; Europe, European; organic, organizabie; depose, 
deposition; respire, respiratory; circulate, circulatory; transfer, trans- 
ferable, transference ; metallic, metallurgy ; preserve, preservation ; 
depute, deputy, deputable; to produce, product; detest, detestation; 
sagacity, sagacious; tenacity, tenacious; crystallizable, crystallization, 
31 



362 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

crystallurgy; present, presentation ; perforate, perforative; parallelopiped, 
parallelopipedon ; calculate, calculatory: sacrifice, sacrificatory ; sus- 
pense, suspensory; confer, conference; iliac, iliacal; defalcate, defalca- 
tion; aspire, aspirate, aspirant; • cyanic, cyan ate, cyanean ; Caesar, 
Cesarean; colossus, colossean ; commentary, com mentative; supplicate, 
supplicatory; assign, assignee, assigner; supplement, supplemental; con- 
demn, condemner, condemnation; solemn, solemnize; resign, resignation; 
lament, lamentable. 

A change in the part of speech often requires a change in the pro- 
nunciation. 

Ex. — "To produce, the prod'-uce; to progress 7 , the progress ; to 
cement 7 , with cem / -ent." 

Such words, when used as nouns or adjectives, usually have the 
accent on the first syllable; and when used as verbs, on the second. 

Pronounce the follovnng words correctly : To protest, a protest; to rebel, 
a rebel ; to conflict, a conflict; to object, an object; to insult, an insult; 
to abstract, an abstract, abstract qualities; to subject, a subject; to con- 
vert, a convert; to survey, a survey; to convict, a convict; to presage, 
transfer, digest, contract, present, project, compound, colleague, torment, 
collect, concert, conflict, convoy, desert, contest, conserve, consort, prefix, 
perfume, ferment. — a presage, transfer, digest, contract, present, project, 
compound, colleague, torment, collect, concert, conflict, convoy, desert, 
contest, conserve, consort, prefix, perfume, ferment; to import, imports; 
to export, exports; to extract, affix, essay, escort, exile, accent, attribute, 
— an extract, affix, essay, escort, exile, accent; to incense, burning 
incense; to augment, the augment; to confine, the confines; to refuse, 
the refuse; concrete ideas, the concrete; precedents, precedent statutes. 

To ally, an ally; to increase, an increase; to release, a release; to dis- 
course, a discourse ; to design, a design ; to descend, ascend, — the descent, 
ascent; to assent, consent, — my assent, consent. 

AIDS AND REMARKS. 

The following are some of the governing principles of Pronunciation : — 

1. Pronounce words according to their spelling, or according to analogy, unless cus- 
tom is decidedly against such a pronunciation. 

2. Indicate difference in meaning by difference in pronunciation. 

3. Use accent in such a way that it may contribute to ease of utterance, or serve to 
distinguish and enforce the meaning. 

Greek, Latin, or Scriptural words never take the chief accent farther back than on 
the third syllable from the end ; English words, than on the fourth. 

Note. — The comma or word accent seems to have been introduced into language to 
distinguish syllables that are themselves words, from those that are only parts of words. 
An accented syllable at once indicates, that there are other syllables about it forming a 
part of the same word. Accent moreover, contributes to euphony, and to ease of utter- 
ance. It also serves to distinguish words from others in some way related to them ; and 
sometimes, to show the most important part of the word. A celebrated German gram- 
marian says, " As soon as language proceeds from mere articulation to coherency and 
connection, accent becomes the guide of the voice." 



In regard to utterance in general, it may be well to notice the following particulars : — 
1. Articulation ; 2. Degree of loudness ; 3. Degree of rapidity ; 4. Tones; 5. Emphasis; 
6. Pauses. 

1. Good articulation requires the words to be uttered with their proper sound, clearly, 
distinctly, fully in all their syllables, and distinctly from one another. It is opposed to 



ARTICLES. 363 

mumbling, mouthing, mincing, muttering, slurring, drawling, clipping, lisping, hesitat- 
ing, stammering, miscalling, and recalling. 

" Words should drop from the lips as beautiful coins newly issued from the mint, — 
deeply and accurately impressed, perfectly finished, neatly struck by the proper organs, 
distinct, sharp, in due succession, and of due weight." — Austin. 

2 & 3. The degree of loudness or rapidity must depend on the speaker, the hearer, the 
discourse, the place, or other circumstances. 

4. Emphasis is an elevation of the voice on some words, word, or part of a word, by 
which the meaning is brought out more precisely or forcibly. Emphasis, properly used, 
adds greatly to the vigor of discourse. It tends to impress on the hearer how clearly 
and fully the speaker comprehends the meaning of his discourse, or the importance of 
the subject. It gives a favorable opinion of the speaker's understanding. 

5. Tone is voice as modulated by feeling. Tone should be adapted to the general dis- 
course, and also to its distinct sentiments. Tone aims to awaken, by sympathy, the 
intended emotion in the hearer ; and it may also give a favorable opinion of the speaker's 
heart and feelings. 

A judicious union of emphasis and tone has sometimes a powerful effect. 

6. Pauses are made either to show the grammatical sense or to denote emphasis. An 
emphatic pause is made before or after the utterance of something of great importance. 
A judicious pause is sometimes far more eloquent than the most expressive words. 

4. ARTICLES. 

All the liabilities to error in respect to articles, may be reduced to 
the following heads : — 

1. When not used. 2. When the definite article should be 
used. 3. When the indefinite article should be used. 4. 
Whether A or AN should be used. 5. Improper use of A or AN 
before plurals. 6. When the article should not be repeated. 7. 
When the article should be repeated* 

1. When not Used. 

No article is used, — 

1. When the mind considers an object in reference to its nature or 
character, rather than as an individual to be distinguished from others, 
or from something else. 

Or: When the noun answers to what rather than to ivho or which. 

2. When the mind refers to the whole species generally, or to only a 
part indefinitely. 

3. When the substantive is sufficiently definite by itself, or is rendered 
so by other limiting words. 

The article is sometimes elegantly omitted from titular phrases or 
from other familiar expressions, w T hen the omission can lead to no mis- 
conception of the meaning. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

What sort of a man is he? What sort of a woman is his wife? He 
is a different sort of a man. What kind of a noun is the word river? 
What kind of an article, then, would you call a f Such a man does not 

*An attempt has been made, throughout this Book, to improve the ordinary classifica- 
tion of fal^e syntax. The classification is made with reference to what is needed in the 
corrected examples. 



364 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

deserve the name of a gentleman. There is not one such a man in our 
neighborhood. She has a sort of an ugly twist about the mouth. — has 
anugly twist* — He is a fine specimen of a Southern gentleman. — 
the Southern gentleman; or, — Southern gentlemen. The highest officer of 
a State is styled a Governor; of the United States, a President. She 
needs not be so scornful, merely because her father is styled a General. 
Santa Anna ruled the nation, with the title of a Dictator. The phrase 
fourteen nights has been contracted into a fortnight. The original 
signification of knave was a boy. The pink, the rose, and the lily, are 
the names of certain species of a flower. A siren is a name sometimes 
given to what is very charming and destructive. The weather is 
getting cool enough for a fire. The letters are divided into the vowels 
and the consonants. He was drowned in the attempting to cross the Mis- 
souri. A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles. 
After the saying such things, how can he presume to appear friendly. 
He wrote to his father before the seeing him. This tree is worth the 
planting — the being planted. The stray horses are posted at this place. 
(Of course not all; nor can they be contrasted with any other class of 
horses. ) Reason was given to a man to control his passions. (Of 
course to more than one.) The whites of America are the descendants 
of the Europeans; but the blacks are the descendants of the Africans. 
Most of the negroes are the slaves to the whites. The groves and the 
meadows are the most pleasing in the spring. I had a reference to the 
other. In the consideration of his zeal, he received an office. These 
foreigners, in the general, are peaceful and industrious. A neuter verb 
can not become a passive. You may send me the book by the mail. 
(No particular mail was meant.) He is a man possessing a powerful 
penetration of thought. You may avoid offensive expressions, by a 
circumlocution. I like to study the mathematics. And I persecuted them 
unto the death. These sketches are not imaginary, but taken from the 
life. The law by the which they were condemned. The ancients 
believed the fire, the air, the earth, and the water, to be the elements of 
all other material things. 

2. When the Definite Article should be Used. 

The definite article is used — 

1. To make the following noun sufficiently definite for denoting a 
particular object as distinguished from others of the same kind, or from 
something else. 

2. To show that the whole is meant, or that all of the kind are 
meant. 

Note. — This article, in many instances, suggests that there are no other objects of 
the kind — that there is but one object or group of the kind, supposed, by the speaker, 
to be generally known ; or it implies that the speaker and the hearer have in common a 
knowledge or perception of the object or objects, which enables the former, by means of 
the article alone, to call at once to the mind of the latter the particular object or objects 
meant. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Statesmen who flourished in the last age, are remarkable for purity of 

* To avoid the uncouthness which a multitude of brackets give to a printed page, 
corrections will be denoted by Italics and dashes. 



ARTICLES. 365 

character. Women who never take any exercise, necessarily become 
invalids. (Or say, " Women that" &c.) Tribes which depend merely 
on the spontaneous productions of the earth, are termed savage. Per- 
sons who have been instructed in colleges, are said to have a collegiate 
education. He was not supported by members who were elected to the 
last legislature. The work is designed for persons who may think it 
merits a place in their libraries. No account is given of such an event 
by historians who lived at that time. Modes of traveling, in the last 
century, were far inferior to ours. Wisest and best men sometimes com- 
mit errors. John Simonds [a boat] left for New Orleans last evening. 
He was much embarrassed in reading of his composition. They forbid 
wearing of rings and jewels. She contributed a thousand dollars to 
building of a college edifice. Convert sinners without shedding of 
blood. Great benefits may be derived from reading of good books. In 
discussing of this subject, he could scarcely control his temper. Such a 
way of doing business is placing of the cart before the horse. Many 
things contributed to rapid settling of this country. A neglecting of 
our own affairs and a meddling with those of others are the sources of 
many troubles. The Indians are descendants from the aborigines of 
this country. A pronoun is a part of speech used as a substitute for a 
noun. An article is a part of speech. A lion is bold, a cat is treach- 
erous, and a dog is faithful. A violet is an emblem of modesty. A laurel 
has been assigned as an emblem to conquerors; and a myrtle to lovers. 
An eagle was the favorite bird of Jupiter. Sir, if we are "Border 
Ruffians," we would take a lion, and not an hyena, for our model. 
Earth existed at first in a state of chaos. The court sent one of the 
[two] men to a gallows, and another to a jail. Sometimes one article 
is improperly used for another. Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel. 
( Wheel here means a peculiar engine for torturing. There is also refer- 
ence to other kinds of punishment.) I have a right to do it. (The 
universal" abstract was meant.) 

3. When the Indefinite Article should he Used. 

The indefinite article is used — 

To show that no particular one is meant, implying that there are or 
may be others. 

Its various meanings range through the substitutes one, any, all, each, 
every, and the phrase — this, and not any thing else (; as, " He was a 
sailor"). 

When a is used before few or little, the meaning is, some at least. 

When no article is used before few or little, the meaning is, none, or, 
almost none. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He received only the fourth part of the estate. The interest is the 
tenth part of the sum. A pronoun is the word used for a noun. A li- 
brarian is the person who has charge of a library. A high-school is the 
school for high studies, I suppose. In such cases, the bond is required 
to prove the contract. Avoid the too frequent repetition of the same 
word. Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has another 
adjective joined to it. An articulate sound is the sound of the human 
voice, formed by the organs of speech. Contrast^ makes each of the 



36G BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

contrasted objects appear in the stronger light. It was by the careless 
sweeping of the house, that the shavings were set on fire. The profli- 
gate man is seldom or never found to be the good husband, the good 
father, or the beneficent neighbor. To the business of others I give but 
little attention. A little respect should be paid to those who deserve 
none. Are not my days a few? A few men of his age enjoy so good 
health. So bold a breach of conduct called for little severity in punish- 
ing the offender. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 

The scarcity of grain is not always attended with a great loss to a 
farmer. A man is the noblest work of creation. I have had a dull sort 
of a headache all day long. — a dull headache, during the whole day. The 
Tennessee, the Mississippi, and the Missouri, are all the names derived 
from the Indian languages. The violation of this rule never fails to dis- 
please a reader. Col. Y"oakum was an author of the history of Texas. 
By adding s to dove, we shall make it a plural. An article is placed be- 
fore the nouns to limit their meaning. The articles are placed before 
the nouns to limit their meaning. We have within us an intelligent 
principle distinct from body and from matter. A or an is sometimes 
used to convey an idea of unity. It happened in a strange kind of a 
way. When a whole is put for the part, or the part for a whole; a ge- 
nus for the species, or the species for a genus ; a singular for a plural, or 
a plural for a singular: the figure is called the synecdoche. It is a 
duty of a whole community to provide for a Avidow and an orphan. 
Surely there is little satisfaction in the having caused another's ruin. 
We are placed here under a trial of our virtue. The virtues like his are 
not easily acquired : such qualities honor the nature of a man. We 
must act our part with a constancy, though reward of our constancy be 
distant. Beware of drunkenness : it impairs understanding, wastes an 
estate, destroys a reputation, consumes the body, and renders the man of 
the brightest parts the common jest of the meanest clown. Purity has 
its seat in the heart, but extends its influence over so much of the out- 
ward conduct, as to form the great and material part of a character. 
True charity is not the meteor which occasionally glares, but the lumin- 
ary which, in its orderly and regular course, dispenses benignant in- 
fluence. 

4. WJiether A or An should be Used. 

1. A should be used before consonant sounds. 

2. An should be used before vowel sounds. 

A word beginning with the consonant sound of w or of y, is to be treat- 
ed as if beginning with a consonant ; as, One, union, eulogy. 

A word beginning with h sounded, and having the accent on the sec- 
ond syllable, is usually treated as if beginning with a vowel; as, Heroic, 
hyena, hiatus, hereditary. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He had a interest in the matter. It is an universal complaint. An 
useful servant. An useless horse. An African or an European. An 
holy offering. By an union of the two. An heretic. A heretical 



ARTICLES. 367 

opinion. A harangue. A hyena. A hiatus. A harmonious flow of 
words. Argus is said to have had an hundred ejes. Is it an i or an uf 
A honorary degree. -A artificial flower. An history. A historical ac- 
count. A historian. A hysteric disease. A heroic poem. A hyper- 
meter. A hypothesis. A hypothenuse. A hyperbole. A hydrometer. 
An hellenism. A hellenic idiom. An hyacinthine tint. An Hebrew. 
A Hebraic poem. An hexagon. A hexagonal figure. A habitual prac- 
tice. There was not an human being on the place. An heap. A herb of 
medicinal qualities. A otter. An younger brother. An hopeful young 
man. An unity of interest. A erroneous conclusion. At an eucha- 
rist. An hermit. An hermitage. He was an hero. It was a heroic 
deed. I would not make such an use of it. It is just such an one as I 
want. 

Remark. — An intelligent foreigner, to whose ear I submitted some phrases, thinks 
"An harangue, an heroic action, an hiatus," preferable, in sound, to "A harangue, a he- 
roic action, a hiatus ; " but he thinks "A harmonic scale, a hermetic seal, a historian, a 
historical account," as euphonious as "An harmonic scale, an hermetic seal, an his- 
torian, an historical account." 

Query. — Is not a allowable before such words, when the first syllable is closed by a conso- 
nant sound, or when the h is heard with considerable distinctness ? 

5. Improper Use of A or An before Plurals. 

The indefinite article should never be so used as to appear to have a 
plural signification. Insert, omit, or change. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

A winding stairs led us to the Senate Chamber. A flight of &c. I 
saw her trim her nails with a scissors. — a pair of — He wrote an an- 
nals of the Mexican Republic. — a series of — The next object was, to pro- 
vide a bead-quarters for the winter. — provide head-quarters — He made an 
honorable amends. The farm was a long ways from market. — a long 
way — The next year I sowed my field with a different oats, which pro- 
duced a better crop. — a different kind of — Get a pinchers to pull out this 
nail. I saw a snuffers lying on the mantel-piece. The smoke rose 
blue and beautiful from a cabin in a small woods. What once was prai- 
rie, is now covered by a young woods. On the Osage we found the re- 
mains of some animal that probably lived before the flood. This idiom 
is a remains of the Saxon dialect. A few miles from the river is a 
large swamp, or flats. I kept a memoranda of all my expenses. — kept 
memoranda — The problem can not be solved from such a data. A long 
minutiaa of detail made the story very tedious. A long detail of minu- 
tiae &c. From the overflowed bottom rose an effluvia that was very de- 
leterious. About a two days afterwards, the legates returned to Caesar. 
You will be able to get back in about a six weeks after starting. The 
child was not a three weeks old when it died. A care-crazed mother 
of a many children. — Shak. The Jews were permitted to return to 
their country, after a seventy years of captivity at Babylon. — a captivity 
of seventy years — ■ An eight years' war was the consequence. He had a 
very youthful appearance, for a fifty years old man. With such a spir- 
it and intrigues was the war carried- on. — and such intrigues — The cot- 
tage was fringed by a very handsome eaves. A mother and children 
were captured by the Indians. — and her children — A neat house and gar- 
dens were thus sold for a trifle. I bought a vest-pattern and trimmings 



368 BOOK SECOND — THE STANDARD. 

for five dollars. My friend bought a house and lots in the suburbs of 
St. Louis. I wish you would buy such a shovel and tongs for our par- 
lor. The Jew's store has a coat and pantaloons hanging out over the 
door. 

Hemark. — Allowable: "Never did a set of rascals travel further to find a gallows." 
— Irving. " The draught of air performed the function of a bellows." 1 * — Dr. Robeitsov. 
Irving also has the phrase ''-a tongs." — See Number, Book Second. 

6. When the Article should not he Repeated, 

7. When the Article should be Repeated. 

1. When the repetition of the article would suggest more objects 
than are meant, the article should be omitted. 

2. "When the omission of the article would not suggest all the ob- 
jects meant, the article should be repeated. 

3. The article is elegantly omitted to show that the objects are joined, 
or comprehended in one view. 

4. The article is elegantly inserted to show that the objects are sepa- 
rate, distinct, or opposite ; or that they are viewed so. 

5. When the article relates to a series of terms, it should precede 
the whole series, or each term of the series. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The forsaken may find another and a better friend. — an other and bet- 
ter — The white and black inhabitants amount to several thousands. 
There is another and a larger slate in the library. A lofty and a dense 
forest crowned the summit of these hills. A hot and cold spring issued 
from the mountain. There is another and a better world. He has a 
quick and a comprehensive mind. My friend was married to a sensi- 
ble and an amiable woman. We have had a hot and a dry summer. 
The matter deserves an impartial, a careful, and a thorough investiga- 
tion. It seems to me that a refined, a sensible, and a discreet woman 
might sometimes feel a little embarrassed at a horse-show. Everett, the 
scholar, the statesman, and the orator, should be invited. The two sexes 
are male and female. The sick and Avounded were left at this place. 
The neat and slovenly can not live together long in peace. The East- 
ern and the Western continents. The Eastern and Western continent. 
The Texan and Mexican republics were then at war with each other. 
Give the possessive and the objective cases of who — the possessive and 
objective case of who. The first and the last payments are the two in 
dispute. The positive, the comparative, and the superlative degrees. 

He kept his brightest thoughts for the beginning and end. He is a 
better writer than a speaker. He is more diligent as a student than a 
teacher. He is not so good a statesman as a soldier. — as soldier. I 
would rather be a soldier than a sailor. She is not so good a cook as 
a washerwoman. I am a better arithmetician than a grammarian. The 
figure is a globe, a ball, or a sphere. Is this a t>, a, or ul She has 
studied the Italian, the French, and the Spanish languages. The Old 
and New Testament. The Old and the New Testaments. The black 
and red soil will produce the best crops. (Two kinds of soil were meant.) 
A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas on the Sublime 
and Beautiful. The Latin introduced between the Conquest and reign 
of Henry the Eighth. (" Conquest" refers to William the Conqueror, 



ARTICLES. 3G9 

not to Henry.) In my last lecture I treated of the concise and diffuse, the 
nervous and feeble manner. A lawyer should understand the common 
and statutory law. I took the first and last tree. The round and square 
tables are the two I bought. There are three past tenses; the imperfect, 
the perfect, and the pluperfect tenses. A horse and a buggy drove up to 
the house. A beautiful stream flowed between the old and new mansion. 
We have just read through the first and second book of the iEneid. Here, 
at different times, the parents had buried a son and daughter. Macau- 
lay is not so good a poet as an historian. He understands neither the 
Latin or Greek languages. — neither the Latin language nor the Greek. 
(Parts compared, contrasted, or distinctly noticed, should be expressed 
similarly, and with equal fullness.) The poor as well as rich, the high 
and low, the wise and ignorant, would be benefited by such a law. 
Both the house and barn were consumed by fire. Mr. Green has 
acquired great honor both as a representative and senator. I have both 
a large and small dictionary. Both the Whigs and Democrats were 
disappointed. Let us make a distinction between the loss and expense. 
There is little difference between a catamount and leopard-cat. It is not 
difficult to distinguish the demagogue from statesman. Neither the poor 
nor rich are completely happy. Between the article and adjective, there 
is some difference. Not the use, but abuse, of worldly things, is sinful. 
The young, as well as old, may sicken and die. It was not the loss, but 
dishonor, that grieved him. We are the friends, not enemies, of the 
Institution. It was not the man, but money, that charmed her fancy. 
You must shoot a bear either through the heart or brain. — or through 
the brain. Neither the officers nor soldiers heard the reports of the guns. 
I would rather pluck a lily than rose. I would rather eat a peach than 
apple. I would rather hear the whippoorwill than katydid. The one 
or other of the two. There is not a tree in the yard, nor flower in the 
garden. The hum of bees and songs of birds fell sweetly on my ear. 
Nothing was now heard except the din of conflict and groans of the dy- 
ing. Was the man fined, and damage paid? The oak, ash, maple, elm, 
and the hickory, are the principal trees of this State. The first, second, 
third, the fourth, sixth, and the eighth, are pupils from Texas. A man, 
woman, and a child, were drowned. Such a law would be injurious to 
the farmer, mechanic, and the merchant. He is a member of the Meth- 
odist church, Democratic party, and the railroad company. Comes is an 
irregular transitive verb, found in the indicative mood, the present 
tense, third person, and singular number, 

Semark — Avoid such an arrangement of terms as will make the article relate to 
some to which you do not mean to apply it. Example : " I was thinking of the solar 
system, time, and space : ' ; i. e., the solar system, the solar time, and the solar space. 
But the author meant to say, " I was thinking of time, space, and the solar system." 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 

A thousand devoted adherents pledged themselves to stand hy him to the death. — Ir- 
ving. A brunion is a sort of a fruit between a plum and a peach. — Bacon. He sailed 
about an hundred miles up the river. — Irving. We found him a very worthy, good sort 
of an old man. — Id. We found him a very worthy good old man. They were noted for run- 
ning of horses, and for running up of scores at taverns. — Id. — for the running-up of — 
The right wing encamped behind a small woods. — Id. This caused an universal conster- 
nation throughout the colonies. — Burke. It was a humble and dutiful petition to the 
throne. I have got an hussy of a maid. — Addison. No words are more loose and uncir- 
cumscribed than those of the fancy and the imagination. — Id. — than the words fancy 
and imagination — The is sometimes placed before a comparative or superlative degree 
of the adjective or the adverb. In Holland, great part of the land has been stolen from 



371) BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

the sea. We raise corn for the horses and other stock to eat. He h:is distinguished him- 
self both as a teacher and author. You stand to him in the relation of a son, and there- 
fore you must obey him. The day and night succeed each other. To put this law in 
[into] writing, together with the covenant for the obeying it. It would take a half a day 
to do it. They hated the name of a Stuart, For surely if there be such a thing as a God 
and religion, «fcc. Such an attack necessarily called forth an host of answers. Both the 
soil and climate are more congenial for grazing [grass], than foi corn and wheat. The 
live-oaks grow in Texas. Apostrophe ['] is used in the place of a letter left out. You 
may measure the time by a watch, clock, or dial. The definite article may agree with 
the nouns either of the singular or plural number. When the Spirit of truth is come, he 
will guide you into all truth. All the chief priests and elders of the people took counsel 
against Jesus, to put him to death. He has neither the courage nor ability for such an 
undertaking. He was cheered by the encouragement of some, and pity of all. The 
head, the hands, and feet, suffer most from cold. Of these twins I never could tell the 
one from the other. We stopped at a hotel on Broadway. I am going to Mercantile 
Library Hall. Mr. A. was educated in Boston, and his references are chiefly persons of 
an Eastern celebrity. — School Advertisement. 

AIDS AND REMARKS. 

The articles are, of all words, the must difficult to be thoroughly comprehended. They 
go with substantives over the entire empire of human knowledge; ever ready, like hand- 
maids, to supply them with whatever shade of meaning may be needed to make them 
perfect or adequate indexes to objects. Asa general thing, substantives must have or 
assume meaning, or must have meaning liable to be widened or contracted, before the 
article can be applied to them ; and substantives must be without meaning, or have 
meaning not liable to be widened or contracted, or must be iixed in application, before 
they can dispense with the articles. For centuries upon centuries, mankind have noticed 
and studied the world, and classified all the objects in it ; making sometimes a class even 
of a single object, that is, setting it aside as distinguished from other objects. After a 
minuter knowledge is obtained, there often is occasion to refer, definitely or indefinitely, 
to an individual or to several individuals of a sort, as distinguished from other indi- 
viduals. 

Words having meaning, but denoting material or abstract substances mi generis, or 
carrying with them the accessory idea of distinction from other things, do not require 
the article. The article generally has a double reference: the one, to other objects of the 
same kind ; and the other, to other kinds. " (Jive me an apple," refers not only to other 
apples, but also, by way of exclusion, to oranges, peaches, pears, plums, cakes, or other 
objects. The foregoing principles comprise essentially the doctrine of the article. 

" The Messiah, the sun, the moon, the stars, the lion, the pen, the dyspepsy." Refer- 
ence to the knowledge of mankind. " The legislature, the State, the Constitution." 
Reference to the knowledge of the community. "The never-failing brook, the busy mill, 
The decent church that topped the neighboring hill." * The whitewashed wall, the 
nicely sanded floor, The varnished clock that clicked behind the door.'' Reference to the 
familiar knowledge of a small community. Things often noticed, or thought of. " Give 
me the letter." Reference to the knowledge of perhaps only two persons. " The bed in 
which I slept." Object definite by its circumstances. Substantive made definite by 
the modifications. 

Study the following examples : " From the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted 
series of predictions had announced and prepared the long-expected coming of the Mes- 
siah, who, in compliance with the gross misapprehensions of the Jews, had been more 
frequently represented under the character of a king and conqueror, than under that of 
a prophet, a martyr, or the son of God." " He paid neither the principal nor the interest 
— both the principal and the interest — the principal as well as the interest — the princi- 
pal, but not the interest — principal and interest." 

" A pine is a species of a tree." Improper ; because one tree is not a class, nor is a 
whole class a part of one tree ! The pine is a species of tree. " Bear Worcester to the 
death." — Shak. Improper, because no particular kind of death was meant. — to death — 
to his death. " A half eagle," and " half an eagle," are not necessarily equivalent. What 
is true of all, is usually true of each : hence we can say, " A wise man may be more useful 
than a rich man " ; " A good pupil never disobeys his instructor" ;— or, " The wise man 
may be more useful than the rich man " ; " The good pupil never disobeys his instructor." 
" I see a farm." First observance ; just enough knowledge of it to tell what it is. " I 
see the farm." Previous recognition. " Caesar, a Caesar"; "From liberty each nobler 
science sprung, A Bacon brightened, and a Spenser sung." — Savage. Meaning assumed; 
application extended. " Durst thou, then, To beard the lion in his den, — Th* Douglas 
in his hall ? "—Scott. These are the sacred feelings of thy heart, Lyttleton, the 
friend." — Thomson. " I am surprised that he should have treated coldly a man so much 
the gentleman." Preeminence. " Oalcs produce acorns." Meaning uncircumscribed. 
" The oaks in the yard produced the acorns in the basket." Meaning circumscribed or 



ARTICLES. — ADJECTIVES. 37 1 

limited. The is sometimes an elegant substitute for the possessive pronoun. " He took 
me by the hand. 1 ' — my hand. " You may always know the tree by the fruit." — its fruit. 
" They had never bowed the knee to a tyrant." 

"There are few mistakes in his composition" — almost none. "There are a few 
mistakes in his composition" — some — many. "There are not a few mistakes 
in his composition" — very many. So, " She has little vanity;" "She has a little 
vanity ; " " She has not a little vanity." A noun limited by the indefinite article, may 
oftei/ be made plural in the same sense, by omitting the article: as, " He was a rep- 
resentative from St. Louis ; " " They were representatives from St. Louis." We usually say, 
" Too good a man," — " Too large an apple," — &c. ; accordingly, it is better to say, " Too 
nice a woman," — Too frequent a repetition, than, "A too nice woman," — "A too fre- 
quent repetition." "He is a better poet than painter." He is not so good a painter. 
" He is a better painter than a poet." In painting, he excels poets. " The black and 
white calf" — one calf . " The black and the white calf " — two. " He wrote for a light 
and a strong wagon" — two. " He wrote for a light and strong wagon" — one. "He 
married a handsome, a sensible, and an accomplished woman " — married three. Say, " a 
handsome, sensible, and accomplished woman." " A farmer, lawyer, and politician ad- 
dressed the assembly" — one person. " I saw the editor, the printer, and the proprietor 
of the paper" — three persons. But for the sake of emphasis, and when the meaning can 
not be misconceived, the article is sometimes repeated ; as, " There sat the wise, the elo- 
quent, and the patriotic Chatham." " Give me the fourth and the last," may not be 
equivalent to " Give me the fourth and last." We can not say, " The definite and the 
indefinite articles," — nor, " The definite and indefinite article ; " but we must say, " The 
definite and the indefinite article," " The definite and indefinite articles," " The definite 
article and the indefinite." The omission of the article sometimes implies a unity in the 
objects, or in the view taken ; the repetition of it, separation. " The soul and body." 
Viewed as one. " The soul and the body." Viewed separately and distinctly. " The 
day, the hour, the minute, were specified." Emphasis. " I have just sold a house and 
lot — a horse and buggy." One belonged to the other. " I have just sold a house and a 
lot — a horse and a buggy." One did not belong to the other. " He is a poet and a 
mathematician." Qualifications seldom found in the same person. " He is a physician 
and surgeon — a lawyer and politician." Qualifications usually found in the same person. 
" A singular and plural antecedent require a plural verb." Is not this correct? Does 
not "require" show that more than one are meant ? "There are three persons, the 
first, second, and third." Mr. Brown contends that this should be, " There are three 
persons ; the first, the second, and the third." I think he is hypercritical in regard to 
such expressions. Query. — Should the indefinite article be repeated before each one of 
a series of substantives, merely because a different form of the article is required ? Mr. 
Murray thinks it should ; the other grammarians treat the difficulty with characteristic 
evasion. I should not hesitate to omit the article to avoid a clumsier expression. I 
should rather say, "A preposition shows the relation of a noun, adjective, verb, or ad- 
verb, to an objective," than, "A preposition shows the relation of a noun, an adjective, 
a verb, or an adverb, to an objective." Some of the best authors favor the former mode 
of expression. 

To elucidate this perplexing part of speech, the article, I have read volumes upon vol- 
umes, without feeling satisfied. The student should always carefully consider what the 
sense requires ; and to avoid erroneous imitation, he should remember that there are 
books freckled with improprieties in the use of articles. 

5. ADJECTIVES. 

All the liabilities to error in respect to adjectives, may be reduced to 
the following heads: — 

1. Choice. 2. Number. 3. Comparison. 4. Position. 

1. Choice. 

1. In the use of adjectives, care should be taken to select the most 
appropriate for the meaning intended. 

2. Adverbs should not be unnecessarily used as adjectives. 

3. Them should not be used for those. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
Them boys are very lazy. Them knives and forks should be scoured. 



372 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

Let some of them boys sit on them other benches. Them are the vermin 
that caught our chickens. Hand us another one of them ripe water- 
melons. I have three horses, and you may lide either of them. Neither 
of my dozen razors is worth a cent. Further information may be ob- 
tained from either of the [eight] professors. None of the two pleases me. 
Any one of the two roads will take you to town. Tall pines grew 
on either side of the river. — each side — Each one of the thousand 
soldiers received a guinea. Neither of the [six] hats is large enough for 
my head. You may take " ary one" [from " e ? er a one"] of the two — 
of the five. I will take " nary one ,? of the two — of the five. That very 
point which we are now discussing, was lately decided in Kentucky. 
These very men with whom you traveled yesterday, are now in jail. 
There seems to be little glory in doing what every man can do. — any 
man — The humble are happier than the proud: for these ever 
imagine themselves favored; and those, slighted. Nothing has a more 
powerful effect on the heart than love or fear; that may smother life by 
sudden depression, and this may drive it out by over-excitement. Mem- 
ory and forecast just returns engage; This pointing back to youth, that 
on to age. — Pope. The whole school Avere at play ; some at marbles, 
others at ball, these at racing, those at jumping the rope, and some few 
others at mumble-peg. (Use "some," and lastly say, " and a few at 
mumble-peg") Such capers are unbefitting a man of his age. — un- 
suitable to — I think there were no fewer than one hundred persons at 
our church to-day. — not fewer — There were not less than fifteen 
banks in the city of New York, that suspended to-day. A proper frac- 
tion is less than 1, because it expresses less parts than it takes to equal 
a unit. I have caught less fish than you. He can speak no less than 
five languages. The summit of the hill was covered with stinted trees. 
(Say u stunted" for " stinted" is usually restricted to eating and drink- 
ing. ) It all tends to show, that our whole plans had been discovered. 

The whole tends that all our — The whole difficulties have 

arisen from the undue predominance of a few members. His now wife 
is a cousin of his former wife. The then minister was not so talented 
as his predecessor. Our bullets glanced harmlessly from the alligator's 
back. Open the door widely. I feel badly this evening. The shutters 
were painted greenly. These apples have boiled softly. You have ar- 
rived safely. We landed safely after all our misfortunes. The weather 
continues finely. You have said truly. — (what is) true — This rose 
blooms most fairly. Velvet feels smoothly. I felt very badly about 
the matter. Your poetry sounds harshly. (Allowable.) We were all 
sitting quietly and comfortably round the fire. She looks most beauti- 
fully by candle-light, but she looks miserable by daylight. I live freely 
from care. These lines read smoothly. (Perhaps allowable.) John 
reads too loudly, and James reads too lowly. (I. e., John is too loud, 
when .... James is too low in voice, when — ) Yet often touching will 
wear gold. It is the often doing of a thing, that makes it a habit. He 
makes seldom mention of his relatives. He seldom mentions &c. Motion 
upwards is more agreeable than motion downwards. Upward motion 
&c. He made a soon and prosperous voyage. You jump too highly, 
when you dance. There is no way possibly of escape. The news of my 
marriage is a rumor merely. — a m.ere rumor. When a noun stands 
independently or absolutely of the rest of the sentence, it is in the nom- 



ADJECTIVES. 373 

inative case. A regularly and well-constructed sentence. The symp- 
toms are twofold, inwards and outwards. 

2. Number. 

Adjectives implying number, and the nouns to which they belong, 
must agree in number. 

a. Such nouns as are not changed in form to express number, 
are singular when they denote one, and plural when they denote more' 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

I have not seen him this five days. You have been playing this two 
hours. How do you like those kind of carriages. I do not like these 
sort of things. These kind of men you will always find sitting and 
loafering about taverns. I never wear any of those sort of hoops. We 
have lived as friends this ten years. The title of this land has not been 
disputed this twenty years. Take up this ashes. These molasses I 
bought yesterday. That tongs should be left in the kitchen. These 
multitude of pigeons are going to roost in that woods. This oats, I fear, 
will never come up. Give him this memoranda. That victuals will last 
us to-day and to-morrow. We have not much provisions for the journey. 
— not many provisions, or — not mnch provision — She was very ex- 
travagant in dressing, and by this means became poor. He was indo- 
lent and extravagant, and by that means he became a pauper. He had 
no other thoughts than that of amassing money and hoarding it. There 
are no thoughts more painful than that of suspense and disappointment. 
I think that were the very words he used. If that be the facts of the 
case, he shall not escape from punishment. Every reasonable amends 
have been made. All reasonable amends &c. 

3. Comparison. 

1. The mode of comparing . 2. Double comparison. 3. Adjectives that 
should' not be compared. 4. The terms denoting the objects compared. 



1. Adjectives should be compared in the best manner according to 
usage and euphony. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

It was the powerfullest speech I ever heard. The fox is the cunning- 
est of animals. It was the curiousest thing I ever saw. A cleverer 
man is not to be found. There are few bachelors soberer than he is. 
Benedict is not the unhopefullest husband that I know. This is the tri- 
flingest way of spending your time. I am the unluckiest wretch alive. 
His words hit the tenderest part. You are welcomer now than you were 
then. This is the honorablest way of settling the difficulty. This is a 
reasonabler proposition than the other. He is intelligenter than his 
brother. He is honester than I thought he was. That is the activest 
boy in school, and he has the creativest head. It was done in the 
naturalest and elegantest manner. Surely no one could be wretcheder 
than I was. This, I think, would be an unhealthier situation — un- 
wholesomer diet. That panther yell was the frightfullest scream I ever 
heard. Omar was the faithfullest of his followers. He is the awkward. 
est, backwardest fellow we have ever had. By silence, many a dunder. 



374 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

pate, like the owl, the stupidest of birds, comes to be considered the very 
type of wisdom. — Irving. Around the mother played a parcel of the 
dirtiest, noisiest, raggedest, and squalidest children I ever saw. I never 
was at a pleasanter party. They unfortunately escaped to the insecurest 
places. Young folks never had a more merry time. I think the rose is 
the beautifullest of flowers. This pink is more red than the other. He 
is the most old of the children. This is the baddest accident that ever 
happened to us. We have had badder weather every day. We stand 
the last, and, if we fall, the latest experiment of self-government. The 
furthermost, and the hindermost wagons are in greatest danger. The 
upmost room was occupied by the gentlemen, and the lowermost by the 
ladies. He is a profoundest philosopher. (Observe that the idiom of our 
language allows us to say, " a most profound" but not, " a profoundest ;" 
yet, " the most profound," or, " the profoundest. 11 ) He is an expertest 
sailor. There was a rosiest sunset. There was a more rosy sunset. A 
clearer, more rapid, and impetuous stream, flows from no other part of 
these mountains. A more clear, rapid, and impetuous — The commis- 
sioners selected the firmest, narrowest, and shallowest part of the river, 
for the bridge. 

2. Adjectives should not be doubly compared. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
More greater calamities yet await us. After the most strictest sect 
of our religion, I lived a Pharisee. The duke of Milan, and his more 
braver daughter. — Shak. How much more are ye better than the fowls. 
There are few more politer men than he. The mostest of the potatoes 
have sprouted. This is worser than the other; but the worsest is yet to 
come. This was the most unkindest cut of all. The Most Highest shall 
judge between me and thee. Worser misfortunes yet await thee. To 
take the basest and most poorest shape. If he told that tale on me, he 
is the most meanest boy that ever was. I never heard a more truer 
saying. I think her less fairer than her sister. You came more earlier 
than I expected. Those were the least happiest days of my life. The 
worse may become more worse. — still worse. The most hindmost man 
was captured by the Indians. He was the most unluckiest of the specu- 
lators. The lesser quantity I remove to the other side of the equation. 
This was the most unwisest thing you could have done. She always 
dressed in the most costliest and finest silks. Some say he's mad; 
others, that lesser hate him, do call it valiant fury. Wc fished at the 
most quiet and deepest place. — the deepest and most quiet place ; or, — the 
?nost deep and quiet place. 

3. A word that usually has an absolute meaning, should never be 
used in a limited sense, unless the language does not afford a better ex- 
pression for the intended meaning. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
His performance was the most perfect of all. — best — These artificial 
flowers are the most perfect I ever saw. (Perhaps allowable.) In less 
than five minutes, he was the deadest and stiffest fox you ever saw. 
Virtue confers supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest 
desire. — supreme .... chief desire. A more rectangular figure would 
hold more. A rectangular — or, A figure more nearly rectangular — I 



ADJECTIVES. 375 

would rather have a squarer box. The cedars in yonder grove are the 
most perpendicular trees I have seen. The roundest pebbles are found 
on the extremest part of the sand-bar. A more truer statement could 
not be obtained. The heath-peach is more preferable than the Indian 
peach. The report was not so universally spread as we had supposed. — 
not so generally or widely — The most universal customs are apt to last 
longest. She has a most spotless reputation. Cotton and sugar are most 
principally raised in the Southern States. — mostly raised, or 'principally 
raised — Her insolence is most insufferable. — almost insufferable. Aris- 
tides was the least unjust of the Athenians. — most just — Angelina is 
the least imperfect of her sex. — most perfect — (The authors hardly 
meant to call all Athenians unjust, and all women imperfect.) I trust 
the people are more uncorrupted than their leaders. — less corrupted — I 
hope they will be more undeceivable in future. — less deceivable — The 
side of a hill is more ineligible for a house than the summit. 

4. The superlative must be used, when three or more are compared; 
and the comparative is usually required, when but two are compared. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The oldest of the two boys was sent to college. The youngest of the 
two'sisters is the handsomest. He is the stouter of all the boys in our 
school. Which is the largest number, — the minuend or the subtrahend? 
It is best to forgive injuries than to retaliate. A body weighs heaviest 
in air and lightest in water. Darby is the weakest ox of the yoke. 
Selim is the liveliest horse of the pair. The latter one of the three had 
forgotten his books. The house has but two stories, and the uppermost 
rooms are not yet finished. Women are the weakest sex. Which can 
run the fastest,— your horse or mine? His wife is the best manager, 
therefore let her rule him. Of the two Latin poets, Virgil and Horace, 
the first is the most celebrated. A trochee has the former syllable ac- 
cented "and the latter unaccented. Which do you like best, — coffee or 
tea? (Perhaps allowable; for "better'' might seem to refer to some 
other drink.) 

4. 1. The superlative degree represents the objects described as being 
a part of the others. 

2. All comparisons without the superlative degree, do not strictly rep- 
resent the objects denoted by one term as a part of those denoted by the 
other. 

3. The word other, and similar terms, imply two distinct parts, and 
but one kind or general class. 

EXAMPLES TO RE CORRECTED. 
That boy is the brightest of all his classmates. China has the great- 
est population of any nation on earth. Solomon was wiser than any of 
the ancient kings. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 
Webster's spelling-book is the most popular of any yet published. Youth 
is the most important period of any in life. Missouri has the most iron 
of any other country in North America. That grove is the shadiest and 
coolest place of any — of any others — of all others. Webster is one of the 
greatest orators of any country. — may well be ranked among the greatest 
orators of any country. There is nothing so good for a sprain as cold 
water, —nothing else*-- He was less partial than any historian that 



376 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

ever wrote. — any other — It is a better treatise on this subject than 
any that ever was written. (The treatise could not be better than itself.) 
None of our magazines is so interesting to me as Harpers. No other one 
of — Our grammar lessons are the hardest of any we have. He is of all 
other speculators the shrewdest and most cautious. Mr. K. is the most 
sociable and entertaining of any gentleman of my acquaintance. This 
is a better-furnished room than any in the house. This is the best- 
furnished room of any in the house. Natural scenery pleases me the 
best of any thing else. Nothing pleases me so much as natural scenery. 
In no case is man so apt to act unjustly as where his love or hatred inter- 
feres. Noah and his family outlived all the people who lived before the 
flood. — N Webster. (They did not outlive themselves.) That tree over- 
tops all the trees in the forest. That "awkward boy/ 7 as you call him, 
outlearns all the boys in school. 

Adam, the goodliest of men since born, 

His sons; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. — Milton. 

4. Position. 

1. Adjectives should be placed where they will clearly show what 
word or words they are meant to qualify or limit. The sense is the 
best guide. 

(2. Such an arrangement of words should be avoided, as will make 
some adjectives modify words to which they were not to relate.) 

3. Of a series of coordinate adjectives that may be differently com- 
pared, it is generally more elegant to place the shorter ones before the 
longer. 

Remark. — A noun with its adjective may be limited or qualified b}- another adjec- 
tive, and those again by another, and so on. In such cases, the adjectives denoting the 
more casual qualities, usually precede the others. 

Ex.—" An old man " ; " A good old man " ; " A venerable good old man " ; " A stout 
venerable good old man " ; " Two stout venerable good old men " ; "• The first two stout 
venerable good old men." 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The congregation will please to sing the three first and the two last 
stanzas of the hymn. The four first benches are reserved for pupils; 
the others are for visitors. The ten first rows of corn yielded fifty bush- 
els. Our class did not read more than the six first books of the JEneid. 
The three last mails brought me no letter. My two last letters. The 
two first lines. The three first generations. (Perhaps allowable.) The 
two first cantoes. The three first of his longer poems. I have just 
bought a new pair of gloves. — a pair of new gloves. This is an excel- 
lent tract of land. I have just bought a very fine suit of clothes. He 
is a very young tall man. All were drowned except the captain and 
other three officers. If I be served such another trick, I'll have my 
brains taken out. — Shak. In a few more years not even an Indian 
burial mound will be left untouched. The dress had a row of silk fancy 
green buttons, and strings of satin pink ribbon. The more intelligent 
and better citizens voted against him. He is one of the most influential 
and richest men in the city. There is not a more fertile, fairer, and 
more delightful valley west of the Mississippi. The eagle soared above 
the mountain high. He is the apparent heir to the crown. The con- 
vent is surrounded by a fifteen feet high and a three feet thick wall. 



ADJECTIVES. 377 

— a wall fifteen — A large reward and pardon will be offered to the 
informer. Pardon and a large reward — 

AIDS AND BEMABKS. 

Either, neither, or each other, should bo used in speaking of two only ; any one or any, 
no one or none, or one another, in speaking of more. All and whole are sometimes misap- 
plied, one for the other ; and less is frequently misused for fewer. " The whole world " 
=" All the world " : but the plural phrases " All the apples," " The whole apples," are 
not equivalent; all being opposed to a part of the number, and whole to a part of each 
object. " The bear received no less than six bails." Say, " no fewer," or, " not fewer." 
Less is apt to suggest quantity, while fewer can suggest number only. This or these is 
applied to what is near to the speaker in place or time; that or those to what is distant, 
or more distant than something else. The phrase "that is," when used to- bring in an 
explanation, is perhaps the only exception. Where two different objects are mentioned, 
and then again referred to, that or those is applied to the former, and this or these to the 
latter. " And reason raise o'er instinct as you can, In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis 
man." — Pope. In such cases, former and latter, one and other, ones and others, may also 
be frequently used ; as, " The cry of danger to the Union was raised to divert attention 
from their assaults upon the Constitution. It was the latter, and not the former, that was 
in danger." — Benton. When a group is mentioned again in several parts, the word some 
is generally used throughout. "There were groups of rangers in every uncouth garb. 
Some were cooking at large fires ; some were dressing and stretching deer-skins ; some 
were shooting at a mark, [ ; ] and some were lying about on the grass." — Irving. 

One, first, second, &c; each, every, either, neither ; this, that, another ; much, all (the whole), 
whole (all the), — point out but one object, or one aggregate ; as, " The first man, the first 
ten men." The numerals above one, (as, two, three, &c.) and these, those, all (number), few, 
several, many, refer to more than one object. 

The ordinal termination is annexed to only the last word of the cardinal term, how- 
ever long this may be ; as, " The one thousand two hundred and fifty-SEVENTK — first — 
second." " The fourth thousandth sixth hundredth and seventieth fifth", is not equiv- 
alent to " The four thousand six hundred and seventy-fifth." 

Comparison. — Most adjectives may be taken either in an absolute or in a relative 
sense. In the former they suggest that the object has the qualit3 r in full, or, in what is 
usually considered the full state ; in the latter, that it merely has of the quality. The 
latter sense must often be inferred from certain uses of the comparative or the super- 
lative degree ; and when these degrees are not used, it is usually expressed by the ending 
ish, or by means of such limiting terms as somewhat, a little, partly, as — as, &c. " My 
voorst horse is better than your best, though neither one is really good." "I feel some- 
what better to-day, though I am by no means well." " Sadder than the saddest night." — 
Byron. " Who canst the wisest wiser make, And babes as wise as they." — Cowper. " The 
poor man that loves Christ is richer than the richest man that hates him." — Bunyan. 
" It is almost as thin as the thinnest paper." " And in the lowest deep a lower deep, Still 
threatening to devour me, opens wide." — Milton. From these examples, which are all 
correct, we may infer that the comparative may sometimes be estimated from the super- 
lative or the comparative ; and that these degrees may occasionally be considered equal 
to or even below the positive, as well as above it. 

1. The comparative may be estimated from the positive taken in the full or absolute 
sense ; as, " Bradford is rich, but Bass is still richer. " " The pipers loud and louder blew, 
The dancers quick and quicker flew." — Burns. 2. It may imply a positive taken in a 
relative, or not in the full, sense ; as, " If you have but five dollars, you are richer than I 
am." "A fuller explanation ; " "A less thorough investigation;" " A more perfect 
system ; " "A less perfect system." 3. Sometimes it is estimated from the comparative 
of the same quality; as, " My kite rose higher, higher, higher, and higher, until it was 
highest, and far higher than the highest of all other kites." 4. The comparative may be 
estimated from the positive of some other quality ; as, " He is more intelligent than rich." 
" They are better clothed than fed." 5. Sometimes it seems to be estimated from the 
comparative of the opposite quality; as, " The wealthier citizens were disposed to make 
peace, but the pooler were not." " The higher classes are generally well educated, but 
the lower are not." 6. Sometimes it implies that the increase or decrease of one quality 
proceeds uniformly with that of another ;, as, "The older the wine, the better it is." 
" The deeper the well, the cooler the water." " The sooner the better." 

1.' Superlative estimated from the positive absolute; as, "The bravest of the brave." 
2. Superlative estimated from the positive taken in a relative or limited sense ; as, " The 
creek was too shallow for dipping with a bucket, even where it was deepest." 3. Superlative 
estimated from the comparative or the superlative; as, " The ripest of the riper peaches 
were delicious ; " " The finest of the finest horses took the sweepstakes." (I think the 
last two sentences are proper.) 

The superlative degree seems not always to imply an intervening comparative, but 
sometimes to be estimated directly from the positive of the same quality; as, " The last 

32 



378 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

years of his practice were more lucrative than the first.'''' " The highest classes are gen- 
erally rich and haughty ; [but the lowest classes are poor and humble]." " He sold the 
largest apples, and made the others into cider." In fact, this degree seems to be allow- 
able in speaking of two, when the design is not so much to show that one is superior to 
the other, as to suggest that there is none above it or beyond it that is superior to it ; 
in other words, when we do not look back to the inferior objects, but rather look for 
superior objects and find none. " An iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
last accented." "This refers to the nearest object; that, to something more distant. 1 ' 
" His antagonist made the ablest speech ; " i. e., I heard none that was better. 

It is worthy of notice, that many qualities or attributes exist in more degrees or in 
much greater variety, than the degrees of comparison can express. Other modes of ex- 
pression are therefore often used to show degrees or varieties of the quality, and fre- 
quently with fine effect. " A light-green — darlc-green — emerald-green — pea-green color." 
"Pink red, crimson red, saffron red, strawberry red, blueish red (== purple)." " Boil- 
ing hot, stark mad, stone dead, dead drunk." "She is most beautiful— incomparably 
beautiful — angelic." "She appeared in a snow-white dress, and a rich saffron -colored 
shawl." Poets take greater liberty, in the use of adjectives, than is allowed to prose 
writers ; as, " That hour heavenlir-st of Heaven is w-orthiest thee ! " — Byron. " And you 
shall see who has the properest notion." — Id. " A foot more light, a step more 
true, Ne'er ftom the heath -flower dashed the dew." — Scott. Perhaps in light literature, 
such expressions as the following are quite proper ; " Her husband was none of the so- 
bered." — Dickens. "None of the most sober," would here, I think, sound rather 
stiff and affected. More and most are sometimes preferred in prose, for greater empha- 
sis, or to express the degree of a shorter and a longer adjective in the simplest, briefest 
uniform manner; as, "He is more bold and active," for, " He is bolder and more ac- 
tive." " She is a most bright, polished, and amiable young lady." Most is usually re- 
quired after a or an, or to express the superlative of eminence; as, "A most polite gen- 
tleman;" " A most queer sight." Such adjectives as perfect, round, extreme, correct, 
blind, and still, are sometimes compared when not used in their full sense. " More per- 
fect ' n =nearer to perfection; "most perfect "=neareat to perfection ;— both implying less 
than perfect. It has been well argued, that if " greater perfection" is an allowable 
phrase, why should not " more perfect'" be allowable. To say, " She is the least imper- 
fect of her sex," would imply that the whole sex is quite imperfect. " Aristides was 
the least unjust of the Athenians," is as much as to say, " The Athenians were all un- 
just, — a set of knaves, of whom Aristides was only not the worst one." The adjectives 
should have been "most perfect," -'most just." Such expressions as "the most un- 
conquerable," " the less imperfect," "the least imperfect," "the more unnecessary," 
"the most unbecoming," " the most unnatural," " most uncertain," "a most superior," 
"a most inferior," " the most blameless," '-the most worthless," " a fuller," "the most 
complete," "the completest," "a most thorough," "the straightest," " a straightcr," 
" a more reddish," "a less yellowish," &c, are all, in certain cases, allowable. 

Many, more, most, have for their opposites few, fewer, fewest ; much, more, most, have 
little, less, least; great, greater, greatest, have little, small, smaller, lesser (implying dig- 
nity), smallest, least. Lesser should generally be rejected ; though it is sometimes used 
by good writers, in opposition to greater. Also the phrase "Lesser Asia," is sometimes 
used for the more elegant phrase " Asia Minor." Worse is itself a comparative, there- 
fore worser must be a double comparative, which is improper. So is " most happiest," 
for instance, a double superlative, and therefore improper. Adjectives should not even seem 
to be doubly compared; thus, "A more elegant and simpler method," might be sup- 
posed to mean, " A more elegant and more simpler method." It should be, "A simpler 
and more elegant method," or, "A more simple and elegant method." 

"A tobacco-seed is the least of any other seed — of all other seeds — of any seed — less 
than any seed." " There is no seed so small as a tobacco-seed." That is, a tobacco- 
seed is a seed of some other kind of seed, or it is smaller than itself— -absurdities. 
" The weakest of the two." That is, one is weaker than the other ; therefore say, " The 
weaker of two." " An old pair of shoes." The meaning is not that the pair is old, but 
that the shoes are old ; hence say, " A pair of old shoes." " That distinguished venerable 
old man." Here each previous adjective qualifies the noun as modified by all the subse- 
quent adjectives. 

When such words as first and last are used with plural numerals, the sense usually re- 
quires them before the plurals ; as, "The first three," "The last four;" not, "The 
three first," "The four last." So, " The first six men," "The last two men," "The 
last ten rows," even if there should not be enough for twice the number, or for " A last 
six," " A first two," or " A first ten." But usage, or the state of things, may sometimes 
allow a different arrangement ; for instance, it would certainly be correct to say, " The 
four first trees of the four rows." If " The first six French kings," should suggest the 
idea of six kings ruling at once, I would rather say, " The six first French kings ; " but 
if this phrase should express the meaning no better than the other, I would prefer 
the other. We usually say, " For the next five years," "The best two out of three," 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 379 

"The best six out of eleven; ana not, " For the five next years," " The two best," &c. 
Bat we say, " The two hindmost wheels ; for the one is as far back as the other : " " The 
two foremost horses," is also correct. We would hardly say, "The laziest two boys," 
but, "The two laziest boys ; " for the former would suggest that they are in some way 
united as a pair, which is not our meaning. 

In favor of " The first two — three — five," "The last four — six," &c, may be urged — 
1. Analogy ; — we always say, in speaking of large numbers, " The first twenty — last 
twenty," &c. ; not, " The twenty first- -thirty last ; " we also say, " The next five." 2. Au- 
thority ; — grammarians and good writers generally, give this form the preference. 
Against : The expressions may suggest that the entire number is divided into at least 
two such groups, which may be neither true nor possible ; as, " The first four acts of the 
play." (The whole play having but five acts.) In favor of " The two first," " The last 
four," &c, may be urged — I. That they avoid the grouping; 2. That many good writers 
(though good writers may be quoted for almost any solecism) not unfrequently use them. 
Against : That the phraseology is apt to suggest, that there can be more firsts or lasts 
than one when this is not strictly true. In short, all other things being equal, I should 
prefer to use the first form given above ; but if the latter would express my meaning bet- 
ter, I should not hesitate to use it. The German language, I believe, favors the latter 
form. 

Adjectives may either precede or follow the substantives, but their position has some- 
times a great influence on the energy of the sentence; as, Excellent as the present ver- 
sion of the Bible is, still we believe &c. " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." " Bright 
flashed the clouds, and loud the thunder rolled." " Young she was, and rich, and beau- 
tiful." "Sublime on radiant spheres he trod." " It was a clear morning, bright and 
balmy.'''' " So that our whole company, young and old, rotten and sound, did not amount 
to more than fifty men." "The scattered clouds tumultuous rove." "The inter- 
minable sky sublimer swells." " Goodness infinite.'" "Woe unutterable.'''' " She was a 
woman heartless, talented, and ambitious". " Sagacious in policy and prompt in action, 
his whole life was a brilliant career." Observe that the adjective, preceded by "the " 
and not followed by a noun, sometimes denotes persons, and sometimes the abstract 
quality ; as, " The humorous may please us more than the witty.''' This may mean, " The 
humorous man, or humorous people in general, may please " &c. ; or, "Humor may 
please us better than wit." 

An adjective immediately preceding two or more nouns in the same construction, is 
usually understood as qualifying them all ; hence, " His luncheon was a small biscuit 
and cheese," was perhaps meant for, " His luncheon was cheese and a small biscuit." 

©. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Note. — The Noun and the Pronoun are related to each other somewhat like Principal 
and Agent. They are used for the same purpose — to denote objects ; and they have ac- 
cordingly a close resemblance and connection. I have therefore arranged the two under 
one general head, as I propose to make the same rules applicable to both, so far as prac- 
ticable, and then to notice the peculiarities of each. 

All the liabilities to error in respect to nouns and pronouns, may be 
reduced to the following heads : — 

T. 1. Usurpation by the adverb. 2. Gender. 3. Person. 
4. Number, 5. Nominative case. 6. Possessive case. 7 . Ob- 
jective case. 8. Same case. 9. Position in regard to case. 

II. 1. Choice of pronouns. 2. Agreement of pronouns with 
antecedents, in gender, person, and number. 3. Position of 
pronoun in regard to antecedent. 4. Pronoun inadequate to re- 
present antecedent. 5. Inelegant insertion of pronoun. 6. In- 
elegant omission of pronoun. 7. Relative pronoun improperly 
used in its conjunctive capacity only. 

1. Usurpation by the Adverb. 

We should avoid the inelegant use of adverbs in the place of nouns 
or pronouns. 



380 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

A diphthong is where two vowels are united in one sound. — the 
union of — A diphthong is when two vowels are*united in one sound 
As I have just looked at the Natural Bridge, I will give you a descrip- 
tion thereof. — of it. When a letter or syllable is transposed, it is 
called Metathesis. The transposition of a letter &c. A deed of trust is 
where the lender has the power to sell in order to secure himself. — is 
a deed giving — Manslaughter is where a man is killed without malice 
or previous ill-will. — is the killing of a man — He drew up a petition 
where he too freely represented his own merits. The law where a 
minor's estate can not be sold, you will find in the next volume. — by 
which — The occasions where a man has the right to take the law into 
his own hands, are but few. The plural of these nouns is formed as in 
the languages whence they are derived. The principles from whence 
he acts, are pure and noble. The knife wherewith he had been killed, 
was found near him. The apostrophe is a mark which shows when some 
letter or letters are omitted. The manner how it was done, and the 
cause why it was done, 1 never could ascertain. Can you give me any 
information how 1 can find the way to the ford ? Is it worth the while 
for a fanner to study Latin and Greek? Motion is while a body is pass- 
ing from one place to another. Fusion is while a solid is converted into 
a liquid by heat. His follies had reduced him to a situation where he 
had little to hope. Personification is when we ascribe life, sentiments, 
or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract qualities. 

2. Gender. 

Nouns should be properly used in gender, according to the sex, the 
general nature of the object, or the particular view of the author. 

a. Unworthy objects should not be personified as male or female. 

b. Care should be taken to ascribe to a personified object the most 
appropriate sex. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
She is administrator. That lady is a Jew. The marquess was cele- 
brated for her wit and beauty. We now have doctors and barbers among 
women. He is the greatest coquet in town. (Garrick uses the term 
male-coquet.) He was married to a most beautiful Jew. The emperess 
Josephine. (Allowable; but empress is more common.) The negro had 
poisoned her master. My neighbor has two mare-colts to sell. She 
was the tallest woman I ever saw ; she was really a giant. No one could 
have managed the estate better than she did while administrator. She 
is considered the best bakeress in the establishment. Mrs. Lydia Smith, 
the editor, lately turned actor, at Memphis. She is not so good a prophet 
as to scare one into belief. (Is a governess the wife of a governor, or is 
she a woman that governs ?) The tiger and her whelps. The tiger 
broke from its cage. Every tree is known by his fruit. They who seek 
wisdom, will certainly find her. (Not personified.) A weasel put his 
head out from an old stone wall. — its — How can a calf distinguish 
his mother's lowing from that of a thousand other cows? How timidly 
the rabbit looks out from his bushy covert, and how briskly the squirrel 
chatters on the limb near her nest in a hole of some tall tree. The sun, 
in its bright career around the world, does not look down upon a lovelier 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 381 

or livelier land; nor does the moon throw its silver mantle more softly 
or beautifully anywhere else upon the slumbering world below. Alas ! 
we only know that the ship sailed from England, but that to England 
it never returned again. Ambition comes, her buskins steeped in blood. 
— his — His form had not yet lost all her original brightness. — Milton. 
— Us — Her power extends o'er all things that have breath; A cruel 
tyrant, and her name is Death. — Sheffield. While Spring shall pour his 
showers. — Collins. While Vengeance in the lurid air Lifts her red arm, 
exposed and bare. — Collins. (Perhaps allowable, as alluding to the 
Furies.) 

3. Person. 
Politeness usually requires that the speaker shall mention the ad- 
dressed person hist, and himself last. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

I, Mary, and you, are to go next Sunday. If James and you take the 
horses, I and Martha will have nothing to ride. Mother said, that I 
and you must stay at home. We and they studied Latin together. 
Alice and her brother, and you and I, are invited to the party. When 
he and you are married, I will come to see you. He came to see me, 
Mary, and you. This law, fellow-citizens, bears hard upon me, upon 
you, and upon every other laboring man. (Proper or not proper, de- 
pending on the sense.) 

4. Number. 

Nouns and pronouns should be correctly used in number, according to 
the sense, and the proper form of the word. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The room is eighteen foot long, and sixteen foot wide. I measured 
the log with a pole ten foot long — with a ten-feet pole. The teamster 
hauled four cord of wood, and three ton of hay, in nine hour. He weighs 
one hundred and sixty pound. .The room is twenty-one foot square. 
The tallest of the Siamese Twins is five foot and two inches in stature. 
Five quintillion, six quadrillion, seven trillion, eight billion, nine mil- 
lion, two thousand, three hundred and forty-five. When we crossed the 
isthmus, we had but five mule-load of baggage. A ten-horses power 
engine will be sufficient. The cask holds five gallon. A five-gallons 
cask. She gathered a few handful of flowers. If six apples cost three 
pence, two apples will cost one pence. The work embraces every min- 
utia3 — all minutia of the science. Success is not always a proper criteria 
for judging a man's character. The prairie-hens were sold by score 
and dozen. 1 bought two pairs of socks. The Chineses, the Japaneses, 
the Malteses, and the Portugueses. The Swede are a patriotic people as 
well as the Swiss. The corpse of the Mexicans were left to the wolf and 
the vulture. The phenomenas of nature are not now ascribed to gods 
and goddesses. The Missouri, near this bluff, is forty foot deep. St. 
Louis is five mile long and two mile wide. Make the rails ten foot long. 
For this dog I paid five pound and ten shilling. The whole fleet con- 
sisted of twelve sail. — ships. Of his oxens, he had just sold six or 
seven heads. For fifty dollars he bought a lot two rod front and eight 
rod deep. All manner of people were at the camp-meeting. — kinds or 
sorts — He used his influence as a mean for destroying the party. In 



382 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

the early settlement of Missouri, beaver and water-fowl were abundant, 
about the rivers and creeks. He never took two shot at a deer. A bag 
of shots will last us a vear. The butcher paid him eight dollars for 
five sheeps. A large quantity of fishes was left unsold. The book is 
full of strange storys. Several chimnies were blown down by the last 
storm. The vermins were so numerous that we could raise no fowl. 
As we emerged from the woods, we saw three deers standing on a small 
eminence in the prairie. We now came to a region where buffalo, tur- 
keys, elk, and bears, were to be found. These are desideratas not 
found every day. I will take no more of his nostra, be the con- 
sequences what they may. Of these plants, there are several genuses. 
She is rather too fond of plays and opera's. The garden of Eden con- 
tained all kind of fruit. The heathen are those people who worship 
idols, or who know not the true God. He is a chemist, and has many 
apparatuses in his office. — much apparatus, or — many kinds of appa- 
ratus — (What is the plural of talisman? German? Mussulman?) The 
ay's and nay s were then taken. Your zs and ys are not well shaped. 
How many 6s in nine 8s? No family s stand higher than the Win- 
throp's, Webster's, and Everett's, of New England. Similies should 
never be taken from low or mean objects, to dignify discourse. How do 
you read this fraction, — five twenty-ones, five twenty-oneths, or five 
twenty-firsts? and this other one, — seven thirty-two — twoths — twos, or 
seven thirty-seconds ? He is too fond of wine and dies. The fowls 
were sold at nine pennies apiece. Byron was one of the greatest poetic 
genii that ever lived. The indexes show the powers of the quantity. 
The boy gave my horse but a few handful of hay. Two of his aid-de- 
camps were killed. His brother-in-laws were educated at the same 
university. The deserters were tried by court-martials. The Doctors 
Stevensons and the Misses Arnolds seem to be on very good terms. 
The two Misses Cheevers, the Misses Boltons, the Messrs Hays, and the 
Mrs. Talbots, were all at the party. The sheafs were carried away by 
thiefs. The provisos were rejected. The beautiful, black-eyed Houri's, 
and the angelic, ministering Peri's. The cargos consisted chiefly of 
calicos, mangos, and potatos. The volcanos of South America. A 
poem in six cantos, bound in two neat duodecimos. The swamps abound 
with palmettos. (Perhaps correct, as being foreign, and ending in 
to.) (Spell the plural of negro, molatto, sambo, grotto, echo, solo, hero, 
junto, manifesto, folio, seraglio, tornado, punctilio, hackney, holly.) The 
second, third, and fifth story, were filled with goods. He lives on the 
fourth or fifth streets. The Old and the New Testaments — the Old and 
New Testaments in one large volume, called the Bible. You may learn 
the ninth and tenth page — the ninth and tenth pages, and review the 
first or second pages. The second, the fourth, the fifth, and the seventh 
line of the Spenserian stanza, rhyme to one another. The English, 
French, and German nation, may be considered the most enlightened. 
The English, the French, and the German nations, are the most enlight- 
ened. Authors of the golden or silver ages. Nouns have the nomina- 
tive, the possessive, and the objective cases ; the singular and the plural 
numbers; the masculine, feminine, neuter, and common gender; and the 
first, and second, and third person. Bushneli's, Halsall's, and Wood- 
ward's stores, occupy the next three buildings. It was for our own 
good that God gave us our reasons. — gave us reason. It was for our 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 383 

sakes that Jesus died upon the cross. Very few persons are contented 
with their lots. In your sights, I sign this my last will and testament. 
It is not worth our whiles, to study stenography. — our time — The 
trees decked with their shades the whole margin of the rivulet. Let 
us drive on, and get our suppers at the next house. The directors did 
little, on their parts, to relieve the bank. The father's and mother's 
loves to their son will certainly spoil him. We shall advocate these 
measures, not in the names of our constituents, but on our own respon- 
sibilities. All these trees send their tap-roots deep into the ground. 
— the tap-root — 

5. Nominative Case. 

A noun or a pronoun must be in the nominative case, — 

1. When it is the subject of a finite verb. 

2. When it is used absolutely or independently. 

a. The object of the active verb, and not of the preposition, should be 
made the subject of the passive verb. 

7. Objective Case. 

A noun or a pronoun must be in the objective case, — 

1. When it is the object of a verb or of its participle. 

2. When it is the object of a preposition. 

8. Same Case. 

A noun or a pronoun used to explain or identify another, must be in 
the same case. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Her and me went to the same school. Them that seek wisdom, will 
find it. You and him are of the same age. Gentle reader, let you and 
I, in like manner, walk in the paths of virtue. Them are not worth 
having. I have tasted no better apples than them. Whom do you 
think stands head in our class? That is the boy whom we think 
deserves the prize. Them are such as I want. Let there be none but 
thee and I. He promised to employ whomsoever should be sent. Whom 
do you think has been elected ? He is the man whom, notwithstanding 
all that has been said against him, we still believe is best qualified for 
the office. That awkward country boy, as you call him, learns faster 
than us all. There is no better housekeeper than her you have dis- 
missed. He is taller than me, but I am as tall as her. He came to 
prepare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him. 
— than he himself. You can not write as well as me. Few persons 
would do as much for him as he and me have done. I do not think such 
persons as him competent to judge. I sorrowed as them that have no 

hope. Who can work this sum? Me. Who spilt this ink? Not me 

'twasn'tme. Who rode in the buggy? Him and her. Tell me in sad- 
ness whom is she you love ? — Shak. Him I accuse, has entered. Y'ou 
can find no better man than him. The whole need not a physician, but 
them that are sick. Let the people elect whomsoever is best qualified to 

lead them — whomsoever they think is best qualified to lead them 

whosoever they know to be best qualified to lead them. 

The Lee's were distinguished officers in the Revolution. The Jones's 



384 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

and Turk's lived near the Osage, in the same county, and had long been 
enemies. Such a man, in the sight of angels, is more illustrious than all 
the Alexander s, Cassar's, and Bonaparte's, that ever lived. He and 
they we know, but who art thou? Can not a gentleman take into his 
buggy to ride with him whosoever he pleases? Who should I meet the 
other day but my old friend ! Ye only have I known. He who com- 
mitted the offense, thou shouldst punish ; not I, who am innocent. They 
that honor me, I will honor. She that is idle and mischievous, reprove 
sharply. Who did she marry? The boy who he raised from obscurity, 
became a great man. This is a friend who you must receive cordially. 
Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. Let each one help his- 
self. He said so hisself. The snake bit its self. Having dressed hisself, 
he went to church. Believing they to be my friends, I had no suspicions 
whatever. If people will put theirselves in a perilous situation, they 
should be willing to bear the consequences. He is kin to we all. We 
are as good arithmeticians as them, but they are better grammarians 
than us. Who broke this pitcher? Not her; it was me. Who is that 
boy speaking to? To whom — Who did you send for? They who 
much is given to, will have much to answer for. From the character of 
those you associate with, your own will be judged. Who servest thou 
under? This is a small matter between you and I. With Thomas, you, 
and I. All save I were at rest and enjoyment. There was no one in 
the room except she. Her price is paid, and she is sold like thou. Who 
shall we send? Whomsoever will go. 

They were paid a dollar a day for their services. I was offered a seat. 
He was left a large estate by his uncle. I have been promised a better 
situation in the South. He was given the best medical aid that could be 
obtained. We were shown some very curious fossil remains. They 
Avere told of the danger, before they started. She was granted the full 
amount by the legislature. You were paid a high compliment by the 
young lady. Pupils expelled from other colleges, will not be allowed 
admittance here. By such a course of proceeding, I am refused that 
protection which every citizen has a right to expect. Thrasea was for- 
bidden the presence of the emperor. He was offered the control of the 
entire school. We were allowed the use of a large pasture near the 
mansion. Let him be shown the method we have adopted. We were 
shown a sweet-potato that weighed twenty-five pounds. 



Him losing the way, we were obliged to remain in the woods till 
morning. Me being absent, the young folks lived high. Their refusing 
to comply, I withdrew. Oh! happy us, surrounded with so many bles- 
sings. And me, what shall I do? The house is in flames! and me, 
me, — whither shall I go? Him Avho had led them to battle being killed, 
they immediately retreated. The whole family believed in spiritual rap- 
pings, us excepted. Her being the only daughter, no expense had been 
spared in her education. Whose gray top shall tremble, him descending. 
The bleating sheep with my complaints agree, Them parched with heat, 
and me inflamed by thee. I mean Noah Webster, he who wrote the dic- 
tionary. The man has just arrived, him whom we expected yesterday. 
Believing the man to be a doctor, or he who had cured the others, we 
applied to him for assistance. We will go at once, him and me. And 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 385 

do you thus speak to me, I who have so often befriended you? These 
are the volunteers from Texas, them who fought so bravely at Monterey. 
We ought to love God, he who created and sustains all things. Christ 
and him crucified is the corner-stone of our Faith. Let the pupils be 
divided into several classes; especially they who read, they who study 
grammar, and they who study arithmetic. — especially those — A mar- 
ble statue of Webster, he that replied to Hayne. — the one that — I 
dread this man, being he that has so often injured me. — because he is 
the one that — The bill was introduced by Douglass, he that is from 
Illinois. To John and James, they who had misspent their time at 
college, their father left nothing. (Omit they.) This superb mansion 
belongs to Santa Anna, he who was defeated by Houston, at San Jacinto. 
The family of Logan was murdered in cold blood, him who had ever been 
the friend of the whites. — of Logan, who — I would say so, were it he 
or any other person whomsoever. — whatsoever. 

It was not me ; it was them or her. Is it me you mean ? I would 
not be the man whom he now is. — that — Whom did you say it was? 
If I were him, I would send for the doctor. If it were me, I know very 
. well what I would do. It must be them — her. It was not us that made 
the noise. Was it him or me that you called? Whom does your brother 
say she is ? It is him whom you said it was. I took it to be he whom 
we had seen in the morning. It was not me that said so. Who did you 
take us to be? It should have been me, not him. I care not, let him 
be whom he may. What you saw was but a picture of him, and not 
him. I knew it was him — it to be he. No matter where the vanquished 
be, nor whom. He did not prove to be the man whom he was recom- 
mended to be. 'Twas thee I sought. But whom say ye that I am. I 
know it to be they. Be not afraid; it is me. She is the person who I 
understood it to have been. — that I — He is a man who I am far from 
considering happy. Ask the murderer, — he who has dipped his hand in 
the blood of another, — he who must terminate a life of iniquity with a 
death of infamy. It is not tit for such as us to sit with the rulers of the 
land. Unless you are the masters, and not me. I bought my dictionary 
of Halsall's, the bookseller's and stationer's. He supported those whom 
he thought were of his party — who he thought true to his party. He 
attacked the enemy, whom he saw were crossing the river — who he saw 
crossing the river. Whom being dead, there was no one to check him 
in his wild career. Its being me should make no difference in your 
determination. (Better: That it is I &c.) There was no doubt of its 
being him. 

6. Possessive Case. 

1. The relation of possession or property should be expressed in the 
most appropriate manner, according to custom and euphony. 

2. The possessive sign should be used but once to express one posses- 
sion, whatever number of words denote the possessor. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

His misfortunes awaken nobody's pity, though no ones ability ever 
went farther for others good. A mans enemies are those of his own 
household. Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. A mothers ten- 
derness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans advantage. The 

33 



386 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

Sphynx her riddle. Linton's, Pope's, and Company's library is very 
large. The library of &c. Essex death haunted the conscience of Queen 
Elizabeth. For decency sake, do not marry before your husband is cold 
in his grave. I have read Burns' poems and James' novels. — read 
Burns 's — We used Pierce' Trigonometry, Loomis' Geometry, and Wells' 
Grammar. Willi's poems. How do you like Douglass' bill. Achaia's 
sons at Ilium slain for the Atridoe" sake. By slow Menander' margent 
green. The peoples' wrath is a fearful thing. Is it yours or her's? 
Their' s is better than ours. Il is neither his'n, yourn, nor our'n. 
Who'se books are these' ? Five years interest remained unpaid. Col. 
Benton is a senator of thirty years standing. Three days time was given 
to the debtors. Four years preparation should be allowed to a lawyer. 
They cast themselves at Jesu's feet. This book is Thomas'. This is 
Thomas' book. The first witness' testimony was sufficient. Rubens' 
pictures. Karnes' Elements. Jones' Commercial College. Adams' ad- 
ministration. Sparks' Washington. Horace' satires — Horace's satires 
= (Find a different but equivalent expression.) Terence' plays — Ter- 
ence's plays=. Socrates's death=. Demosthenes' orations — Demos- 
thenes' s orations=. King James' Translation. Junius' letter to the 
king. Hortensius' wonderful memory =. For ten sake I will not des- 
troy the city. John's brother's wife's sister married a mechanic—. He 
boards at my wife's brother's aunt's house. — at the house of my wife's aunt. 
The grand Sultan's Mahomet's palace. The wife of the captain of the 
Tropic=. (Allowable.) The forces of the Duke of Northumberland 
were victorious= = . The message of the Governor of Missouri is an able 
document. (Allowable.) The Commons' House represents the yeomanry ; 
and the Lords', the nobility. On the day of the Lord, most of the peo- 
ple go to the house of the Lord. On the Lord's day . ... go to church. 
Gods love=. The opinio native man thinks his opinions better than any 
one's else opinions — any one else's opinions. The world's government 
is not left to chance. The extent of the prerogative of the king of Eng- 
land, is sufficiently ascertained. For Herodias' sake, his brother 
Philip's wife. For the sake of — The mayor of St. Louis' — of St. 
Louis's message was well received. The message of the mayor of — 
The Secretary's of State office has just become vacant. Marcy's letter, 
the Secretary of War, is a masterly reply=. Daniel Boone of Ken- 
tucky's adventures. Edward the Second of England's queen. Let us 
ever attend to conscience' dictates. This picture of your mother's is a 
very good likeness. This last work of Longfellow will add little to his 
reputation. He is Clay, the great orator's youngest son. The mayor's 
of the city's office is in that large building. The captain of the com- 
pany's horse was killed. These works are Cicero's, the most eloquent 
of men's. I bought these volumes at Halsall's, the stationer's and 
bookseller's. 

This residence was President's Madison's. Barnum's the humbug- 
ger's autobiography is a scandal to the American people. We deposited 
our money at Wiggins's, the banker's and commission merchant's. It 
was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. 
It was necessary to have both the surgeon and the physician's advice. 
Neither the lawyer nor the doctor's aid was ever needed in this happy 
valley. Allen's, Thompson's, and Hardcastle's store is opposite to our's. 
Allen, Thompson, and Hardcastle's store, are in different parts of the 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. . ^87 

city. Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. We looked at both 
Wyman's and Pope's museums. We looked at both Wyman and Pope's 
museum. We looked at Wyman's and Pope's museums. Morrison's 
and Buffington's farms are the next two on the road. — Morrison 's farm 
and Buffingtovi! 8 are — Morrison and Buffington's farm will be occupied 
by the respective owners. Morrison and Buffington's farms are not 
joint property. Peter's and Andrew's occupation was, to catch fish. I have 
no time to listen to either John or Joseph's lesson. Albert's and Sam- 
uel's heads are shaped like teapots. The family emigrated to this coun- 
try in William's and Mary's reign. Louis the Fourteenth, and Bona- 
parte's reign, are distinguished periods in the history of France. I 
like Macaulay much better than Allison's style. He disobeyed his 
father as well as his mother's advice. You must get either your father 
or your mother's permission. Brown, Smith, and Jones' wife, usually 
went shopping together. The bill had the cashier, but not the presi- 
dent's, signature. I left my horse at Collins, Mr. Preston's overseer. 
Whose dictionary do you prefer, — Johnson, Webster, or Worcester? 
The Jews are Abraham's, Isaac's, and Jacob's posterity. Geo. McDuffie 
was nominated by John Calhoun the senator's request. An iron fence 
is around Biddle the United States Treasurer's yard. A list of some of 
the books of each of the classes of literature will be given. — in each — 
The horse got away, in consequence of me neglecting to fasten the gate. 
— my neglecting, or — because I had neglected — He was averse to the na- 
tion involving itself in war. His father was opposed to him going to 
California. Much depends on the pupil composing frequently. — on 
frequent composing, on the part of the pupil. He being a rich man, did 
not make him a happy man. That he was a rich &c. The time for us 
beginning to plough, is at hand. The time for us to begin &c. What is 
the reason of you not having gone to school ? — that you have not gone — 
There is nothing to prevent him going — his going — your going. — him 
from going — you from going. The time for him making the speech, had 
nearly passed away. Such will ever be the consequence of youth asso- 
ciating with vicious companions. — when young persons associate &c. 
From him having always assisted me, I again applied to him for help. 
Because he — or, Inasmuch as he &c. The situation enabled him to earn 
something, without him losing too much time from his studies. — with- 
out losing — 

9. Position in regard to Case. 

Nouns and pronouns should be so construed with other words, as 
not to leave the case uncertain or ambiguous. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

And thus the son the fervent sire addressed. And all the air a 
solemn stillness holds. The settler here the savage slew. (Which slew 
the other ?) I do not love him better than you. Our hunters caught 
the orang-outangs themselves. He suffered himself to betray 
his friend. Poetry has a measure as well as music. Forrest plays 
these pieces better than all others. She acted her part better than 
any other one. 



388 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

PEONOUNS. 

1. Choice of Pronouns. 

1. In the use of pronouns, great care should be taken to select the 
most appropriate. 

2. In the selection of pronouns, we are governed by the sense, rather 
than by the nouns which they are to represent. 

3. It is inelegant to use pronouns of different sorts for the same ob- 
ject, and in the same connection, when we naturall}' expect uniformity. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
We prepared us to die. — ourselves — Whose book is that? My. 
These are all the things what we want. I gave all what I had. I am 
the boy what is not afraid to go. He is a rascal, if a rascal is a man 
what lies and steals. There is the same thing as we saw last night. 
Ere you remark another's fault, Bid thy own conscience look within. 
He had two sisters, one of which was lame. By this speculation he 
lost all which he had promised to his daughter. He was devoured by the 
very dogs whom he had reared. The very night as suits a melancholy 
pensiveness. Who who has the feelings of a man, would submit to such 
treatment? Marcy was perhaps the ablest secretary who ever was in 
this department. There is the same man whom we saw a while ago. 
There is the same wagon of apples which we saw at the market. Who 
of those ladies do you like best ? I hate persons who never do a gener- 
ous action. I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. Hu- 
mility is one of the moat amiable virtues which we can possess. Moses 
was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament. The 
men and things which he has studied, have not improved his morals. 
He is like a beast of prey who destroys without pity. The heroic souls 
which defended the Alamo. She was a conspicuous flower, which he 
had sensibility to love, ambition to attempt, and skill to win. The 
monkey which had been appointed as the orator on the occasion, then ad- 
dressed the assembly. In a street in Cincinnati is a parrot who has 
been taught to repeat a line of a song which many of you have heard. 
Tin re was a little dog whose name was Fido, and who was very fond of 
his master. — dog named Ftdo, that — Yarico soon became a general 
favorite, who never failed to receive the crumbs from the breakfast table. 
The little ant, which hid a plentiful store, thus spoke to the poor little 
cricket: " We ants never borrow, we ants never lend." My dogs now 
came upon the track of the lion who had caught and eaten the man 
daring the night. With the return of spring came four martins, who 
were evidently the same which had been bred under those eaves the 
previous year. The cook and servants which he has, are certainly none 
of the b'jst. There was a certain householder which planted a vine- 
yard. Give that which you can spare to the poor. — what you — Those 
which are rich, should assi3t the poor and helpless. The character whom 
he represented, was by much the best in the whole play. This lubberly 
boy we usually call Falstaff, who is but another name for fat and fun. 
Even the corpses who were found, could not be recognized. All who 
ever knew him, spoke well of him. I sent every thing what you or- 
dered. So I gave the reins to my horse, who knew the way much bet- 
ter than I knew it. They raise no such horses which we raise. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 389 

They are such persons that I do not like to associate with. He sold his 
best horse, which had been given to him by his father. (Proper; the 
relative clause not being restrictive.) The tribes whom we have de- 
scribed, inhabited the Mississippi Valley. The nations who have good 
governments, are happy. Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of 
light green? I joined a large crowd who was moving towards the 
capitol. I joined a large multitude which were going to the capitol. 
He was a member of the legislature who passed this bill. He instructed 
and fed the crowds who surrounded him.' The committee who was ap- 
pointed to examine the students, was hardly competent to do so. Of 
all the congregations whom I ever saw, this was certainly the largest. 
The family with whom I am boarding, is a very amiable one. The 
novelist which wrote this, understood human nature well. She became 
a clever novelist, who was all she wished to be. Let us not mingle in 
every dissipation, nor enjoy every excitement, which we can. — that — 
He was the first man who noticed this peculiarity. This is the most fer- 
tile part of the state which we have as yet seen. That man is wisest, 

keeps his own secrets. The witnesses and documents which he 

wanted, were soon procured. The passengers and steamer which we 
saw yesterday, are now buried in the ocean. Was it the wind or thou, 
who shut the door ? The land on the east side of the river was claimed 
by the chiefs and tribes who inhabited the land on the other side. The 
third person denotes the person or thing which is spoken of. He does 
not now manifest the same gentleness and amiability which were so appar- 
ent at first. In her looks she is the same as she always was. The same 
objects which have pleised the boy, will not always please the man. 
The objects which &c. It is I who will go with you. 'Tis these which 
early taint the female mind. Would any man who cares for himself, ac- 
cept such a situation? Women who are extravagant, make their hus- 
bands poor. — that are — People who are always denouncing others, 
are often no better themselves. He carried all which he had, in his 
handkerchief. Principles which have been long established, are not 
easily eradicated. Nouns of the common gender denote objects which 
are males or females. It is this alone which has induced me to accept 
the office. — that has — Was it, you or he, who made so much noise? It 
was the frankness and nobleness of his disposition, which I admired. 
This is certainly ungrateful treatment in return for all which 1 have 
done for him. Gather the sequel by that went before. — by what — We 
speak that we do know. 1 am that I am. He is a man who is very 
wealthy. — that is — She is a woman who is never contented. The 
misfortunes of a man who would not listen to his wife. Wilt thou help 
me drive these horses to the pasture? Will you — Knowest thou that 
we are to have a fox-hunt to-night ? Do you be careful that all thy ac- 
tions be honest and honorable. Do thou — or, — that all your actions — 
Thou shouldst never forsake the friend who has ever been faithful to 
you. O thou, w 7 ho hast preserved us, and that wilt continue to preserve 
us. There is the same boat that came last evening, and which will 
go away again this morning. A substantive is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we can form some notion. The poor man who 
can read, and that possesses a taste for reading, can find entertainment 
at home The man who came with us, and that is dressed in black, is 
the preacher. Is it possible that he should know what he is, and be 



390 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

that he is? But what we saw last, and which pleased us most, was the 
character of the old miser in the farce. It is such a method as has 
never been thought of before, and which, we believe, will be generally 
adopted. They are such apples as ours, or which you bought. — or 
such as you — He purchased a small tract of land that lay adjacent to 
his own, and which was sold very cheap. How can you believe that I 
would ever forsake thee? You have mine, but I have thine. The two 
friends highly esteemed one another. All the pupils are kind and po- 
lite to each other. After the United States gained her independence, 
they rose rapidly in power and glory. Policy keeps coining truth in 
her mints — such truth as it can tolerate ; and every die except its own, 
she breaks, and casts away. Learning hath its infancy, when it is but 
beginning, and almost childish ; then his youth, when it is luxuriant 
and juvenile ; and lastly his old age, when it waxeth dry and exhaust. 
Is reputable, national, and present use, which, for brevity's sake, I shall 
simply denominate good use, always uniform in her decisions? One 
does not like to have one's self disparaged by those who know one not. 
A person .... himself .... know him not. 

2. Agreement of Pronouns with Antecedents. 

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents, in gender, person, and 
number. 

a. When the pronoun can not strictly or fully represent its antecedent 
in gender, it prefers the masculine. 

b. The person and number of the antecedent to a pronoun are always 
what they would be if the antecedent were the subject of a finite verb. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
Every person should try to improve their mind and heart. Every 
boy should have their own books. Neither of us is willing to give up 
our claim. (Say, " his claim" if not possessed in common ; " our claim" if 
denoting common possession.) He and I love their parents; i. e., he 
loves his parents, and I love mine. I do not think any one should in- 
cur censure for being tender of their reputation. The tongue is like a 
race-horse, which runs the faster the less weight it carries. — he runs, or, 
race-horse : it runs &c. Where the early blue-bird sung its lay. (The 
male of birds, and not the female, usually sings.) The heron built its 
nest among the reeds. When a bird is caught in a trap, they of course 
try to get out. The peacock is fond of displaying its gorgeous plumage. 
Scarcely any person is so stupid as not to know when they are praised, 
or only made sport of. The Earth is my mother, and I will recline 
upon its bosom. They took the virgin Truth, and marred its lovely 
form. The hen looked very disconsolate, when it saw its whole brood 
rush into the pond. John studies; — John denotes the agent or doer, 
and he is therefore in the nominative case. Horses is of the plural 
number, because they denote more than one. A person who is resolute, 
energetic, and watchful, will be apt to succeed in their undertakings. 
Many a man looks back on the days of their youth with melancholy 
regret. If we deprive an animal of instinct, he will no longer be 
able to take care of himself. To persecute a truly religious denomina- 
tion, will only make thenf flourish the better. Take up the ashes, and put 
it into the large tub behind the kitchen. If you have any victuals left, 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 391 

we will help you to eat it. His pulse did not beat so fast as they should 
beat. He had the small-pox, but they did not mark him much. I have 
sowed all my oats, and it is growing finely. I like those molasses, for 
they are almost as good as honey. Our language is not less refined 
than those of Italy, France, or Spain. There lay all the paraphernalia 
of her toilet, just as she had left it. An orators tongue should be 
agreeable to the ears of their hearers. If a boy wishes to. excel, they 
must be studious. If none of you will bring your horses to the camp, I 
will let mine stay loo. I did not notice which of the men finished their 
work first. Each tribe is governed by a chief whom they have chosen. 
(Perhaps allowable. ) The people can not be long deceived by its dema- 
gogues and selfish politicians. This large army never halted an hour 
on its way. The mob soon dispersed after their leaders were captured. 
Congress have already assembled, and elected its officers. Egypt was 
glad at their departure, for they were afraid of them. The simige can 
stand erect on its hind feet. The United States should ever observe im- 
partial justice in their intercourse with other nations. The first object 
of the multitude was, to organize itself into a body. The Society will 
hold their meetings in the highest room of the building. This genera- 
tion will certainly leave their mark on "the sands of time." The gov- 
ernment will have cause to change their orders. The cabinet seemed to 
be divided in its sentiments. The cabinet was distinguished for their 
wise and vigorous measures. The corps of teachers should have its du- 
ties properly distributed and arranged. The board of directors, for its 
own emolument, located the road through this part of the country. 
The board of directors should have their powers defined and limited by a 
charter. The regiment was much reduced in their number. The court, 
in their wisdom, decided otherwise. Send the multitude away, that it 
may go and buy itself food. The army, being abandoned by its chief, 
pursued meanwhile their miserable march. (Let the construction be 
either singular throughout or plural throughout, but not both.) The 
party, though disgraced by the selfishness and corruption of its leaders, 
made nevertheless a vigorous and successful struggle to regain their 
former ascendency. The twins resemble one another so much as to be 
scarcely distinguishable. People should be kind to each other. 

The sister, as well as the brother, should perform their share of the 
household duties. The industrious boy, and the indolent one too, shall 
find their proper reward. Every soldier and every officer remained 
awake at their station, during the night. Every herb, every flower, and 
every animal, shows the wisdom of Him who made them. Let every 
governor and legislature do as it thinks best. You and your playmates 
must learn their lessons. John, I, and thou, are attached to their coun- 
try. Two or three of us have lost our hats. It is the man, and not his 
riches, that have gained her affections. It is not the man, but his riches, 
that have gained her affections. (Or should "that" be referred to 
" It? ")' Every half a dozen boys should have its own bench. If any boy 
or girl be absent, they will have to go to the foot of the class. If any 
member of the congregation wishes to connect themselves with [to] this 
church, they will please [to] come forward, while the brethren sing. 
" Shanker Hone — (' Absent. 1 ) If any pupil knows if Shanker Hone 
is going to come any more or not, they will please to make it known." 
(Bad phraseology throughout: correct it.) I borrow one peck, or eight 



392 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

quarts, and add it to the upper term. (Perhaps allowable.) Each of 
our party carried a knapsack with them, for their private convenience. 
Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. No man 
or woman ever got rid of their vices, without a struggle. Heat and cold 
have ever its extremes. One or the other must relinquish their claim. 
Many a book has corrupted the morals of their readers. John or James 
will favor us with their company. Neither the father nor the son had 
ever been distinguished for their business qualifications. A man may 
see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture as well as read them in a 
description. Poverty and wealth have each their own temptations. No 
thought, no word, no action, whether they be good or evil, can escape 
the notice of God. Both minister and magistrate are compelled to choose 
between his duty and his reputation. Coffee and sugar are imported 
from the Indies; and great quantities of it are consumed annually. It is 
a wise head and a good heart that constitute a great man. (Or does the 
relative clause relate to "It"?) Avoid self-conceit and insolence; it 
will never increase your wealth or your happiness. Pride ana affecta- 
tion spring from the ignorance of its possessor. If you should see my 
horse or my mule, I wish you would have them turned into your pas- 
ture. If any gentleman or lady wish [wishes] to have their fortune 
told, they now have an opportunit} r . — his or her . ... he or she has — 
I do not see why I or any other man should not have a [the] right to 
express our — his — my opinions of public affairs. ( Avoid the use of the 
pronoun altogether; say, u the ojoinion which either of us may' ) &c.) 
Any man or woman can have their daguerreotypes taken at this place, 
for twenty-five cents. My horse is a little darker than yours; but, in 
every other respect, they are exactly alike. — he is exactly like him; or, 
— your horse . ... he ... . yours. My horse is a little darker than 
yours; but, in every other respect, they are a perfect match. (Allowa- 
ble.) Notice is hereby given to every person to pay their taxes. (Change 
the antecedent; say, " to all persons" &c.) Our teacher does not let 
each one of us do as they please. If any person think it is easy to write 
books, let them try it. Neither the negro boy nor the coach was ever 
restored to his owner. — to the owner ; or. Both the negro .... were 
never .... their owner. Every person and thing had its proper place 
assigned to it. 

3. Position of Pronoun in regard to Antecedent. 

4. Inadequacy of Pronoun to represent Antecedent. 

1. Pronouns should not be so used as to leave it obscure or doubtful 
what antecedent they represent. 

2. It is generally inelegant to make a pronoun needlessly represent an 
adjective, a phrase, or a sentence.. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, who had never 
before done so unjust an action. A man has no right to judge another, 
who is a party concerned. He should not marry a woman in high life, 
that has no money. The axe lay beside the ox which was bloody. 
Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be 
elevated, a pause will be proper. The young ladies caught fewer fishes 
than the men caught, who went the day before. I am the jailor who 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 393 

have come to take you. The jailor am I who will guard you safely. 
Lysias promised his father that he would never forsake his friends. 
Thou art a friend indeed, who hast often relieved me. We admire the 
beauty of the rainbow, and are led to consider the cause of it. John 
told James that his horse had got away. The lord can not refuse to ad- 
mit the heir of his tenant upon his death ; nor ran he remove his present 
tenant so long as he lives. The law is inoperative, which is not right. 
Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which there can be 
no docility. — and without humility — An old man bent with years, 
was languidly digging or attempting it. — to dig. A bird is that which 
has feathers. — an animal that — A muley is one that has no horns. 
Every seat is to be occupied by the one before it. — the person — A 
compound sentence is one composed of two or more others. • — is a sen- 
tence — She is the heiress of a large estate, and she knows it. This 
rule is not strictly true, and a few examples will show it. — as a few 
examples will show. When a man kills another from malice, it is called 
murder. — the deed is called murder. The servant took away the horse, 
which was unnecessary. The accent is laid upon the last syllable of a 
word, which is favorable to the melody. The man brought the whole 
package, which was more than we expected. The prisoners rebelled 
against the regulations of the establishment, of which we shall presently 
give an account. There is among all people a belief of immortality, 
arising from the natural desire of living, and strengthened by uniform 
tradition, which has certainly some influence on practice. 

5. Inelegant Insertion of Pronoun. 

When a pronoun can add nothing to the sense, it should not be need- 
lessly inserted to usurp the place of a better word. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
Henry Holmes his book. Martha Price her grammar. The emigrants 
their tents. Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord General Andrew 
Jackson his residence, called the Hermitage. These lots, if they had been 
sold sooner, they would have brought more money. // these lots had 
been &c. John he went, James he went, and Mary she went; but the 
rest the}' all staid at home. Two nouns, when they come together, and 
signify the same thing, they must be put in the same case. Money, 
though it should not, yet we all know that it does have and ever will 
have a great influence on men's actions. The Latin and the Greek, 
though they are much neglected, yet competent judges know that our 
language can hardly be perfectly understood without a knowledge of 
them. Man, though his time is much occupied, yet has he enough for 
devotion. Disappointments and afflictions, however disagreeable, they 
often improve us. The river rising very rapidly, it began to overflow 
its banks. The woman pitying the poor sufferers, she kindly ministered 
to their wants. These wild horses having been once captured, they 
were soon tamed. Governor Yardley dying, he was succeeded by Sir 
John Harvey. I would like to have it now, what I spent then. What- 
soever you learn perfectly, you will never forget it. (Omit "?X") It 
is not to the point what he has said. Whatsoever she found, she took it 
with her. Whoever thinks so, he judges erroneously. Whom, when she 
had seen him, she invited him to dinner. Whom, when she had seen, 



394 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

ihe invited him to dinner. — seen him .... invited to dinner. It is 
indisputably true his assertion, though it, seems erroneous. His asser- 
tion-is &c. It is marvellous what tricks jugglers sometimes play. — to 
observe ivhat — Every thing whatsoever he could spare, he gave away. 
(Omit " every thing") 

6. Inelegant Omission of Pronoun. 

1. The omission of the relative adjunct, or of the relative in the nom- 
inative case, is generally inelegant. 

2. Parts that are to be contrasted, emphatically distinguished, or kept 
distinct in thought, must usually be expressed with fullness. 

3. The omission of the nominative is inelegant, unless the verb is in 
the imperative mood, or in the same connection with another finite verb. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
He is not now in the condition he was. Yonder is the place I saw it. 
A few remarks as to the manner it should be done, must suffice. The 
money has not been used for the purpose it was appropriated. There is 
Miss Liddy, can dance a jig, raise paste, write a good letter, keep an 
account, give a reasonable answer, and do as she is bid. He was a man 
had no influence. Whose own example strengthens all his laws, And 
is himself the great sublime he draws. If the privileges to which he was 
entitled, and had been so long enjoying, should now &c. Will martial 
flames forever fire thy mind, And never, never be to heaven resigned? 
— And wilt thou never be — W T ho is here so base, that would be a bond- 
man? — that he — There is not a man here w T ould not do the same 
thing. It was this induced me to send for you. It was the man sat 
next to you. There is no man knows better how to make money. This 
is a style of dress to which I am partial, but is not now fashionable. 
The word depends on what precedes and follows. All the young trees 
which I planted last spring, and were growing finely, have been de- 
stroyed by rabbits. The arrangement is very good ; at least so far as 
relates to my convenience. I approve your plan so far as relates to our 
friend. If there are any have been omitted, they must say so. There 
are who can not bear to see their friends surpass them. We had a pleas- 
ant trip over the plains; but there were that fared not so well. He is a 
man of corrupt principles, but has great talents. Any of these prisoners, 
knowing the facts of the case, and will give his testimony in full to the 
court, shall be pardoned by the State. Why do ye that which is not 
lawful to do on the Sabbath-days? — which it is not — The show-bread 
which is not lawful to eat but for the priests only. From these proceed- 
ings may be readily inferred how such men become rich. (Perhaps allow- 
able. ) Neither my poverty nor ambition could induce me to accept such 
an office. — nor my — This part of California is the loveliest country in 
the world, whether we regard its climate or soil. He was connected 
to some of the first families of the State both by his father's and moth- 
er's side. God punishes the vices of parents in themselves or children. 
The future should excite not only our hopes, but fears too. Dr. Jones 
and w 7 ife occupy the front room. His own and father's farm were adja- 
cent to each other. My inability to get employment and destitute condi- 
tion pressed heavily upon my feelings. My duty, my interest, and 
inclination, all urge me to the undertaking. They were rich once, but 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 395 

are poor now. His want of influence, and desire of fame, made him mis- 
erable. He has shot a bullet through the cross once, and may do it 
again. He was in great need, but was nevertheless too proud to ask 
relief from his friends. The mail came this morning, and will leave 
again this evening. (Perhaps allowable; also "leave" which is gener- 
ally used in the West as a less formal word for depart.) 
" Dear Sir,— 

Have received your manuscript, but not had time to 
examine it; will do so in a few days, and may have it published if good. 

Yours, &c. 



Remark. — We sometimes find hasty letters from dandies, and business men — espe- 
cially merchants, written without personal pronouns in the nominative case, wherever 
these can be interred from the context. This style is condemned by all grammarians, 
and therefore should be avoided. Yet in favor of it may be urged — 1. Some foreign lan- 
guages usually omit the nominative pronouns from their verbs ; 2. Tiresome repetition 
and an egotistical air are somewhat avoided, without leaving the sense obscure ; 3. Good 
authors sometimes use this style, or what is equivalent to it, when their discourse is frag- 
mentary, and designed to appear hasty, or full of sprightliness and vivacity. 

Ex. — "Tender-eyed blonde. Long ringlets. Cameo pin. Locket. Bracelet. Al- 
bum. Beads Byron, Tupper, and Sylvanus Oobb, junior, while her mother makes the 
puddings. Says, " Yes ? " Avhen you tell her anything." — 0. W. Holmes. 

7. Pronoun Improperly Used as a Connective. 

A relative pronoun should never be used as a mere connective. 
EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

These evils were caused by Cataline, who, if he had been punished, 
the republic would not have been exposed to so great dangers. — the 
punishment of whom would have prevented the republic from being exposed to 
dangers so great. There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. — that — 
There are few things so difficult but what they may be overcome by per- 
severance and zeal. — that they may not — There was no profit, though 
ever so small, in any thing, but what he took the pains to obtain it. He 
lived in the same house that we now live. — in which — The boat will 
leave at the same time the cars do. — will leave with the cars. The pas- 
sive verb will always be of the same mood, tense, person, and number, 
that the verb to be is, before it is incorporated with the participle. 
Sir Alexander arrived at Charleston, about the time that Governor 
Burrington reached Edenton. At the same time that men are giving 
their orders, God is also giving his. While men &c. He has never 
preached, that I have heard of. / have never heard &c. He has never 
gone to see her, that I know of. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 

They were trained together in their childhoods. The right wing was composed of 
Glover's, Nixon's, and Patterson's regiments. — Irving. The delegates will regard their 
reputations, and not demand exorbitant wages. So both to wreak their wrath on Brit- 
tomart agreed. — Spenser. There is no necessity of the expression's having that meaning. 
These same circumstances have also perverted our judgments with respect to their char- 
acters. — Lord Jeffrey. (Perhaps allowable.) You did fully as well as me. Let such as 
him sneer if they will. Confounded be all them that serve graven images. — Bible. No- 
body squanders away their time without knowing or seeing how necessary it is to employ 
it well. — Chesterfield. Every person whose remains are here deposited, should have a 
small stone laid over them, reckoning their age according to the manner in which they 
have improved or abused the time allotted them in their lives. — Gonuoiseur. Never tie 
yourself to any one before knowing whom the person is you are choosing. There is some 
talk of us getting into a war. Down the hill went deer, dogs, and me. But first, I 



396 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

must show who I mean by the Administration. — Benton. All the torment of musquitos 
there is, a man must feel it here. This excited the curiosity of the Recorder as to whom 
the consequential darkey might be. — Republican. It is them and their posterity who are 
to be the sufferers. A covert corruption of the negro mind to excite them to insurrec- 
tion. He offered his daughter in marriage to whomsoever might subdue the place. — Ir- 
ving. Who can we send with you to Rome to receive it ? He sent a note payable to 
whomsoever should conduct me safe to Rome — Irving. To poor we thine enmity 's most 
capital. — tfliokspeare's Coriohvnus. The people herded together with the instinct of sheep, 
who seek safety in each other's company, when the shepherd and his dog are absent. — 
Irving. " Besides," added he, " between you and I, she murders the king's English 
abominably." I had at that time fallen in love with a young lady whom I apprehended 
was possessed of a large share of both beauty and virtue. — Oupt. Smith. (Correct all 
bad phraseology.) Every family dressed their own leather. (Perhaps allowable.) The 
swallow is a bird that build their nests in chimneys and under eaves. Grains of sand 
they might be, those hoarded moments, but it was golden sand. Quacks are men who 
practise medicine without understanding the principles of the science. A foreigner is, 
after all, but an adopted child ; and they often have cause to feel it. Is it I or he, whom 
you want to see? This is a position I condemn, and must be better established to gain 
the faith of any one. In Britain, the government is said to consist of three forms — mon- 
archy, aristocracy, and democracy ; but, in fact, is but a few removes from absolute 
despotism. — Kent. 

AIDS AND REMARKS. 

For the principles applicable to the foregoing examples, see Book Second, pp. 83 — 119. 

1. Where may be used in place of which and a preposition, when place is the predomin- 
ant idea. " The grave where [in which] our hero was buried. 1 ' — Wolfe. " The ancient 
house where I was born." — 0. W. Holme*. But to say, "The battle where he was killed," 
would be less elegant than to say, " The battle in winch he was killed." In poetry and 
in the familiar style, greater indulgence is generally allowed; and words of time or 
cause are sometimes used in connection with adverbs exactly corresponding in sense. 
Such compounds as hereof, thereof, whereof therewith, wherewith, are not so common as 
they were formerly. 

2. Terms of masculine terminations, or terms that have been formed to denote males, 
and that are usually applied so, may occasionally be applied also to females, when there 
are no peculiar terms for these, or when we wish to include the females with the males, 
and do not speak of them especially in regard to sex. It would be correct to say, " She 
is a better farmer, and manager, and poanan, than her husband was." " The poets of 
America" may include; the poetesses. To brute animals and even to spiritual beings we 
sometimes apply it or its, when we speak of them as things, or when the sex is unimport- 
ant or not obvious. " Every creature loves its like." Here neither his nor her would ex- 
press the sense so well. " Lo ! there it [a ghost] comes ! " — Shale. 

It is worthy of notice, that a peculiar nature or disposition usually accompanies each 
sex, sufficient to distinguish it from the other ; so that we sometimes determine the gen- 
der, not from the sex, but this general nature or disposition — this general resemblance 
or analogy. This principle is particularly observable, when we ascribe life and sex to 
abstract qualities or to inanimate objects, which, in reality, have no sex. Even it and 
its are sometimes used in slight personifications, in a sense analogous to that which they 
have when applied to animals or other living objects. In accordance with the foregoing 
statements, we sometimes speak of a mannish woman as of a man, and of an effeminate 
man as of a woman ; and of a hare, for instance, in the feminine gender ; of a fox, in the 
masculine ; &c. 

The following examples may serve as further illustrations of the subject : " When War 
to Britain bent his iron car." " Pence rears her olive for industrious brows." " In the 
monarch Thought's dominions." " Remorse, that tortures with his scorpion lash." "Or 
if Virtue feeble were, Heaven itself would stoop to her." " Why peeps your coward 
sword half afraid from its sheath." 

In personifications, we are sometimes aided in ascribing the proper sex by reference to 
the gender of the corresponding terms in the Classic languages. But this is not always 
a safe rule. The principles mentioned above, should also be taken into consideration. 

3. For a person to speak of himself before speaking of others, is much the same as if 
he should help himself first at table, and then wait upon others. Instances, however, 
may occur, in which it would be proper or even polite to mention himself first ; as when 
the parties differ much in rank, or when the assertion implies something burdensome or 
not desirable. 

4. It is not always necessary to make a noun plural, because it denotes something 
belonging to more than one. "God has given us our reasons for our own good." This 
sentence hardly expresses the intended meaning. Better : "God has given us Reason for 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 397 

our own good." Who would say, " It was for their goods that I did it," in stead of " It 
was for their good that I did it " ? To say, " These plants have the flowers at the top," 
is ambiguous : it may mean that, each plant has but one top with but one flower; or, that 
it lias a plurality of either or of both. Better: " These plants have the floiver at the top" 
or — " the flowers at the tops," or — "the flowers at the top" according to the sense. Lan- 
guage is not a perfect instrument ; at least, we can not always find expressions that are 
exact or satisfactory ; and therefore must content ourselves when we have the best expres- 
sion the language affords. " Iambic lines may occasionally begin with a trochee" is, I 
think, an allowable though not a perfect expression ; for any other expression, — " Iam- 
bic lines may occasionally begin with trochees,'"' " Iambic lines may occasionally begin 
with the trochee," " An iambic line may occasionally begin with a trochee," &c. — would 
be equally or more liable to give an erroneous impression. 

In imitation of an idiom in the Classic languages, we sometimes prefer the plural to the 
singular, in order to give the expression the greatest comprehensiveness possible, and 
hence greater force ; as, " He gained her affections ," i. e., her whole heart. 

The plural, in some instances, guards us against ambiguity ; thus, " The outpouring of 
the heart," may suggest either the act of pouring or the thing poured, but " outpourings" 
is apt to suggest "the tilings poured," and nothing else. 

Material nouns and abstract nouns can not, when taken in their widest sense, be used 
in the plural number. But material nouns may frequently be used in the plural num- 
ber, when the general substance is conceived as divided into several kinds, pieces, or 
parts ; as, Teas, silks, snows, waters, straws. So may abstract nouns, when used to denote 
different kinds, or different things involving the attribute or quality ; as, Virtues, vices, 
pleasures, rights, liberties. (I once heard an angry dispute among some gentlemen of lite- 
rary pretensions, in regard to the propriety of using the word "cheeses" ; as, " I have 
bought some cheeses," i. e., cakes of cheese. The term is not elegant, but I have met 
with it in the Bible, in Dickens, and in Liddell and Scott's Greek Lexicon.) 

Such expressions as " A ten-fool pole," " A twenty cent piece," &c, are proper; but a 
hyphen should always be used to connect the parts. The noun, in such expressions, be- 
ing used as an adjective, loses its properties as a noun. If these singulars should be plu- 
ral, then it would not seem unreasonable to require he to be him in the following exam- 
ple : " They brought fte-goats." 

The singular is usually preferred in forming compounds, but sometimes the plural ; 
as, " A watch-maker (== a maker of watches), a horse-stealer ; " but, "A salesman, a 
draughtsman, a savings-bank." 

Since we say two-thirds, three-fourths, four-fl/ths, &c, it is more in accordance with anal- 
ogy, and also best, to read such fractions as ^?— , -^~jf fi ve twenty-firsts, seven thirty-sec- 
onds. (Unhyphened : so are large ordinals ; as, one hundred and twenty-five.) 

When the name of a letter is written with letters like the ordinary names of other 
objects, its plural is formed in the same way; as, Tee, tees; ar, ars: ess, es>es. (Always 
capitalized by Mr. G. Brown. Then why did he not capitalize his " ands, ifs, and huts" ?) 
But when the name is represented by the letter itself, the plural is formed* with an apos- 
trophe ; as, T's, r\s, s's. This remark is also applicable to other characters. The plural 
of words when spoken of merely as words, is also written sometimes with the apostrophe ; 
as, " Your composition has too many and's, therefore's, and wherefore's." But all such 
words are better expressed by pluralizing them regularly, and Italicizing them ; as, 
"Your composition has too many ands, therefores, and wherefores." Here the meaning is 
sufficiently obvious. Yet if the regular plural should render the word or its meaning 
liable to be mistaken, then I see no good reason for not using the apostrophe, or any 
other means, to avoid the difficulty. " The extract is full of hies." Full of what ? Per- 
haps bys or by's would have been more intelligible. " The poem is full of/h'esand cries" 
is perhaps not so obvious in sense as, " The poem is full of fly'' s and cry's." 

We frequently find proper names pluralized with an apostrophe : as, Plato, Plato's ; 
Socrates, S>crates's. Such plurals too much resemble the possessive case ; besides, there 
is no necessity for deviating from analogy, and hence I think it would be better to write 
them without the apostrophe. Such plurals as Henries, Ptolemies, Montgomeries, 3faries, 
Scipios, Catos, Catoes, Apollos, Apolloes, Ajaxe.s, Venuses, Confuciuses, are not uncommon. 
— See Book Second, Number. 

Words ending in i or o preceded by a consonant, if they are native, perfectly natural- 
ized, or well known, always take es to express the plural; as, Wo, woes, hero, heroes, 
potato, potatoes, alkali, alkalies: but if the words are foreign rather than English, good 
writers have, in many instances, added s only to form the plural ; as, Teocalli, teoiallis, 
mufti, muftis, stiletto, stilettos. This mode of pluralizing has this advantage: The word 
not being generally known, by annexing simply s, the reader at once sees what the sin- 
gular is. Yet I think the regular plural is always preferable, when there is no liability 



398 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

of mistaking the singular form, or when the Word is so far naturalized as to have already 
found its way into our dictionaries. The Americans do not begrudge an e to mulattoes, 
yet clip musquiios; but the English are more uniform, and treat mulattoes and mosquitoes 
alike, not even regarding toes. 

Should we say, " The Misses Brown," " The Miss Browns," or " The Misses 
Browns ? " (See Book Second, Number.) I would prefer the phrase Misses Brown when 
the ladies are sisters, and Miss Browns when they are not ; because — 1. The distinction 
is well founded ; 2. There is good authority for it ; 3. All the points of analogy, strictly 
applicable, tend to confirm it: the only objection seems to be, that Misses too much re- 
sembles Mistress, in pronunciation. 

I would pluralize the name only, when a numeral or other adjective precedes the 
title: as, " The two Miss Clarks ; " " The two beautiful Miss Clarks." " The two Miss 
Scotts." — Truing. The word Miss, in such phrases, bears more resemblance to an ad- 
jective than to a noun : its use is similar to that of the adjectives in such phrases as " The 
stingy old miser," " The two stingy old misers." 

The two terms should never be both made plural, unless the idea of apposition is very 
prominent ; as, " The lords proprietors," " Knights Templars," " men-servants, women- 
servants." We sometimes find such condensed plurals as these : " The governors of Vir- 
ginia, South Carolina, and Missouri ;" " The earls of Arundel and Buckingham," i. e., 
the earl of Arundel and the carl of Buckingham. The sense is obvious, and hence the 
expressions are allowable; but " Prescott's and Bancroft's Histories'''' is not necessarily 
equivalent to " Prescott's History and Bancroft's History." 

When an author does not mean to intimate that his thoughts are confirmed by oth- 
ers, or derived from them, I do not think that either good sense or politeness can re- 
quire that he should speak of himself in the plural number. " We shall give but a short 
preface to the work ; " better, " / shall give " etc. To use the plural continually as re- 
ferring to the reader, is a sort of grandpa style. Certainly, many of our ablest -writers — 
men understanding the most delicate powers of our language — have not been ashamed or 
afraid to use the abhorred I. Yet, after all, if a writer is young, or unknown, or has 
but a petty production, I imagine it will be safer for him to lean to the We, or use it as 
a veil of modesty : for our cotemporaries are so jealous of a little superiority, that the 
moment a man claims or seems to claim a little more than his share, he is sure to get 
less than his due. — See Pronoun, B. II, pp. 103-4. 

As there is sometimes an ellipsis of the finite verb, it is necessary to bear in mind 
what verb is omitted, in order to determine readily what the case should be. "He is 
wiser than I " [<(m]. " She is as good as he " [is]. " Who will i^o ? I " [will go]. " Who 
Avas it ? Not 1 "—It was not I. 

6. The word in the possessive ease may denote the originator, or the first owner, or 
the full owner, or a partial owner, or a temporary owner, or an intended owner, or the 
whole object comprising the tiling possessed as apart. The other substantive may de- 
note a material object, a quality, an action, or a state. 

Ex. — " Irving's works ; Harper's Ferry ; my horse ; my father ; my country ; my cup 
and Saucer; men's summer clothing for sale; my head; my sufferings." "John's 
brother — happiness — haste — jumping — sleeping." 

The sense of the possessive case is usually expressed either by giving a certain form to 
the word denoting the possessor, or by using of and the objective. These two forms 
should be interchanged in such a way as to relieve each other, and avoid the inadequacy 
and inelegance of either. 

To use the preposition of, or to affix only the apostrophe to the singular when ending in 
the sound of s, seems to be a more formal mode of expression than to annex 's to the singular. 
It does not appear to accord so well with the familiar, earnest style, savoring sometimes 
a little of pedantry and affectation, or having a little " smack of quality." 

In regard to nouns ending in the sound of s, it seems to be a well-grounded principle, 
to annex the possessive s to those of one syllable, and also to those of more syllables when 
the pronunciation is not thereby made too harsh and heavy. Poets are generally at lib- 
erty either to use the possessive s with such words or to reject it. 

A noun or a pronoun before a participle may be put in the possessive case, when the 
sense requires it, and a better expression can not be readily found. Such a phrase is 
sometimes a very convenient one, if not the most appropriate that can be used to convey 
the sense. — See Verb, B. II, p. 1GG. 

The various sorts of terms or phrases that may denote possessors, and the best modes 
of expressing the sense of the possessive case wherever difficulties present themselves, may 
be briefly noticed as follows : — 

Monosyllahles ending with the sound of s, — 's; dissyllables,— ^ or o/, rarely ' ; words of 
more syllables, — of, rarely ', or else '«, when the last syllable thus formed is not too far 
from the primary or the secondary accent. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 399 

Compound names, — sign to the last word. 

Complex names, or single terms with single adjuncts, — sign to the last word, or use of; 
with adjuncts or compound adjuncts, — of. 

Apposition — principal term, with explanatory part short, — sign to either, hut not to 
hoth ; explanatory part long, or consisting of two or more nouns, — sign to the first, or 
use of. 

Series of terms, and common possession, — sign to the last ; hut not common posses- 
sion, — sign to each term. 

Finally, the possessive sign should he used wherever there is a noun expressed or un- 
derstood denoting the thing possessed ; and a phrase explanatory of the possessor, should 
never he placed between the possessing and the governing noun. 

General illustrations : — 

" Sparks's Washington ; " " Fox's career ; " " Collins's odes ; " " Junius's Letter to 
the King ; " " Edwards's West Indies ; " " Montrose's death ; " " Holmes's store ; " 
" Stephens's store ; " " Mr. Wise's room ; " "Lewis's Materia Medica ; " " Dr. Chal- 
mers's Sermons ; " better, " The Sermons of Dr. Chalmers ; " " Warren Hastings' trial," 
or, " The trial of Warren Hasrings; " " St. James's street." (Are not such plurals as 
atlases, seamstresses, actresses, benefactresses, princesses, &c, fully as harsh as any of the 
foregoing possessives ?) "Sir Walter Scott's works;" "In General Hamilton's own 
handwriting ; " " Mr. Gallatin's valuable little work ; " " Lucas's Place; " better, " The 
Lucas Place ; " (possessive changed to adjective ;) " The New-York-city banks ; " " The 
Bank of the United States," or, " The United States Bank," or, " The United States' 
Bank." 

" The House of Representatives' Committee on Ways and Means ; " " The climate of 
Buenos Ayres ; " " The accession of Louis XIV ; " " The era of Edward I." " From the 
death of Edward the Third to the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; " " The wife of a member 
of Congress : " " An act of the legislature of the State of New York ; " " The Report of 
the Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. Dallas ; " " The Court of the King's Bench ; " " He 
lived at the Grand Duke of Tuscany's residence ; " "A brother of the Hon. J. Critten- 
den, the distinguished statesman of Kentucky ; " " Lord Cornwallis's arrival," or, " The 
arrival of Lord Cornwallis ; " " The residence of George Clinton, ex-governor of New 
York, and vice-president of the United States ; " " Charles I, king of England, son of 
James I, and Anne of Denmark ; " " By the kindness of his friend's father, he was en- 
tered at Christ's College ; " " ' The Lord's day is Sunday ; ' but ' the Day of the Lord ' 
sometimes means the Judgment Day ; " " ' A picture of Washington ' is a likeness of him, 
but ' a picture of Washington's ' is one of the pictures belonging to him." 

" Plant's and Allen's store "=Plant's store and Allen's store; " Plant's and Allen's 
stores "=Plant's stores and Allen's stores ; " Plant and Allen's stores," is ambiguous, as 
it may signify either joint or separate possessions. " At Halsall's, the bookseller's and 
stationer's," may suggest three different places; but, "At Halsall's, the bookseller and 
stationer," can suggest but one place. 

Poets write — " Shiraz' walls," " Pelides' wrath," " Ajax' seven-fold shield," "Doug- 
lass's command," " Providence's sway," " The lance's crash." 

9. The nominative most frequently precedes its verb ; and the objective most frequently 
follows the governing word. Both should be so placed as to avoid ambiguity, and pro- 
mote elegance and force. " I love him as well as you," may mean either " I love him as 
well as I love you," or " I love him as well as you love him." 

PRONOUNS. 

1. To ascertain the proper applications of pronouns, see Book Second. 
Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, ye, and you, your, yours, &c, should never be intermin- 
gled, or used promiscuously in the same sentence. The same remark applies to the dif- 
ferent relatives. But when one relative clause is subordinate to another, the relatives 
may differ. " Thou must take care of thyself ;" " You must take care of yourself ." 
"They worship 'the Great Spirit,' who created them, toho preserved them, and to whom 
they expected to go after death." But, " There are men tliat have nothing, who are 
happier than he." 

The predominant sense of who is, to suggest persons; or other objects, viewed as 
having the reason, sympathy, and individuality of human beings ; of which, brute 
animals, or things, or other objects viewed as things. That is usually restrictive. Wheth- 
er it is to be preferred to ivho or which, may sometimes be determined by some preceding 
word that fixes the application of the antecedent, but more frequently by the sense. 
Who and ivhich are generic ; that is specific. Who and ivhich may sometimes suggest the 
entire class of objects ; that perhaps never does, but only the part described by its own 
clause. "I do not like men who do mean little actions," may imply that all men do 
mean little actions ; but, " I do not like men that do mean little actions," expresses the 



400 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

intended meaning. " I took the pigeons which were white," " He is like a boast of prey, 
which destroys without pity," " He is a man who is rich," are not equivalent to— " I 
took the pigeons that were white," " He is like a beast of prey that destroys without 
pity," " He is a man that is rich," better, " He is a rich man." In general, that is 
preferable, when it is doubtful whether who or which should be used ; also, when the 
intention is, to show that a preceding word is restricted to something particular, or to 
something viewed in a particular light. As should be used after such, many preceded by 
as, and same used in the sense of like. 

A very practical rule in regard to personification is the following: "Objects rep- 
resented as persons, take pronouns denoting persons." 

2. A collective noun, when used to denote a group of persons or other beings as one 
whole, is of the neuter gender, and singular number. 

When a pronoun stands for two or more nouns taken together, that are equivalent in 
sense to a plural, or when any one of the substantives referred to is plural, the pronoun 
must be plural ; but when it refers to a singular implying more than one object, or to 
several singulars taken separately or individually, it must'be singular. 

When a pronoun refers to two or more substantives taken together, and of different 
persons, it prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the third ; and when 
a singular pronoun refers to substantives of different genders, it prefers the masculine 
to the feminine. Our language is defective, in not having in the third person, a singular 
pronoun for the common gender. This often leads to an improper use of the plural pro- 
nouns they, their, &c. ; as, " Every member of the church should have their own pews " 
In such cases, we must use either the singular masculine for both sexes, or both the mas- 
culine and the feminine, or the neuter, (if we are speaking of small animals,) or we 
must ploralizethe antecedent. " Every servant knew his duty." " Every member of the 
church should have Am or her own pew." "Every an/raaHoves its like." ** The child 
loves its mother." " All the members should have their pews," &c. To avoid difficulties 
of structure, it may sometimes be best to recast knarly sentences, and express the mean- 
ing in some other way. 

Sir Walter Scott wrote — 

" In Hawick twinkled many a light. 
Behind him soon they set in night." 
And grammarians generally take the trouble to write out a pass for this solitary 
sentence. But as Sir Walter is by no means remarkable for grammatical accuracy, may 
not the couplet stand as well thus?— 

In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
But soon behind him set in night. 

3. & 4 The relative properly relates to the nearest substantive before it, that it 
can represent so as to make sense; and it should generally stand as near as possible to 
its antecedent. " There was very little theory in the discourse that pleased me." " The 
man forsook his wife, who had always been kind and affectionate." The ambiguity of 
these sentences might have been avoided by a different arrangement of the parts. " There 
was, in the discourse, very little theory that pleased me ; " " There was very little theory 
that pleased me, in the discourse ; " " In the discourse that pleased me, there was very 
little theory." "The man, who had always been kind and affectionate, forsook his 
wife;" "His wife, who had always been kind and affectionate, the man forsook." 
When ambiguity can not be avoided by the arrangement of the words, the noun itself 
must be used, or the meaning must be expressed by a different sentence. " The lad can 
not leave his father, for if he should leave his father, the father would die." When two 
or more antecedents are introduced into* a sentence, which denote different objects, and 
are not capable of being distinguished by the pronouns relating to them, it is sometimes 
difficult to make the structure satisfactory. By judicious arrangement and repetition, 
the difficulty may generally be avoided ; and rather than make the sentence clumsy by 
repetition, I think it may sometimes be better even to let the pronouns stand, provided the 
meaning, though liable to grammatical ambiguity, is yet sufficiently obvious to ordinary 
common sense. To avoid obscurity, it is sometimes better to use a suitable noun, than a 
pronoun representing the noun as suggested by the use oi an adjective, a phrase, or a 
clause. " I admit he is sagacious in trouble, but it can not save him now." Say, " but 
his sagacity" &c. 

The following sentences differ in meaning: "lam the general, who gives orders 
to-day ; " "I am the general who [that] gives orders to-day." By the first, you learn that I 
am the general ; by the second, that it is my business to give the orders. Mr. Butler's Remark, 
" A relative pronoun which modifies the subject, should not be placed after a noun in 
the predicate," is too restrictive on the liberty of writers, and would condemn sen 
tences that are good English. At least, Spenser's Fairy Queen condemns the doctrine. 



VERBS. 401 

5. The pronoun may sometimes be elegantly used with the noun, when we wish 
first to draw the attention emphatically to the object itself, and then to assert something 
of it. " Beautiful Mary Porter, — where is she now! " " My banks they are furnished 
with bees." " Harry's flesh it fell away. 1 ' This phraseology is more allowable in poetry 
or impassioned discourse, than in any other kind. 

Compound relatives suggest by means of their termination an indefinite or universal 
antecedent, and hence they are not usually accompanied by an antecedent ; as, " Who- 
ever lives temperately, will be apt to live long." Even the simple relative sometimes 
sufficiently suggests the antecedent; as, " Who steals my purse, steals trash." A rela- 
tive pronoun, in the objective case, may sometimes be elegantly omitted ; as, " There is 
the man I want to see," for, " There is the man that I want to see." " I have brought 
a basket to carry it in." " There is nothing to judge by." But to omit the preposition 
and the relative, is inelegant or improper; as, " In the condition I was then ; " better, 
"In the condition in which I was then." The relative that is frequently used improp- 
erly, without a governing word, as a mere connective. " At the same time that the 
meat was roasting, the bread was baking;" better, "While the meat was roasting," 
&c. What or but what should not be used in the place of that. " I could not believe but 
what [otherwise than that] you had been sick;" "I have no doubt but what [that] 
you will succeed." 

Some grammarians condemn such use of the personal pronouns as is shown in the 
following sentence : — 

" Falstaff. It ascends me into the brain ; dries me there all the foolish and dull, and 
crudy vapors which environ it, makes it apprehensive, quick, and inventive, full of 
nimble, fiery, and delectable shapes." — Shalcspeare. 

But I think such sentences should not be disturbed. The usage was good in its time, 
and the pronoun imparts a peculiar earnestness and quaintness, that could not be 
expressed so well by any other means. 

Poets sometimes omit the nominative relative ; (see p. 212 ;) and in certain kinds of 
sentences, the nominative pronoun is usually omitted after but or than; as, "There ia 
not a child but knows the way," " You have brought more than is needed." 

7. VERBS. 

Note. — The Verb has more modifications than any other part of speech ; and most 
of these originate in more refined thought, — niL,re subtle and abstruse principles than 
those which cause the modifications of the other parts of speech. It is therefore more 
frequently misapplied ; and there is greater difficulty in the attempt to furnish precepts 
so comprehensive and yet so definite as will guard us, on all occasions, against the errors 
to which we are liable. These errors hardly admit of perfect classification ; and hence 
the following precepts are such that some of them include others that are more 
specific, — thus enabling the student to correct some errors by either a more general or a 
more particular formule. For more definite or specific principles, the student should learn 
what is said about Verbs in Book Second; and for more particular information still, he 
must consult good standard authors and good dictionaries. 

The liabilities to error may be reduced to the following heads: — 

1. Choice of verbs. 2. Choice of forms. 3. Promiscuous 

use of different forms in the same connection. 4. Improper 

omissions or substitutions. 5. Verbs improperly made transitive, 

intransitive, or passive. 6. Hoods and tenses. 7. Persons and 

numbers. 8. Construction of infinitives and participles. 

1. Choice of Verbs. 2. Choice of Forms. 

1. The true or most appropriate verb should always be selected. 

2. The true or most appropriate form of the verb should always be 
selected. 

a. The form for the imperfect tense should not be used as a participle. 

b. The perfect participle should not be used to express the imperfect 
tense. 

c. A compound participle should never be used as a part of a com- 
pound verb. 

34 



402 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

d. Of the two forms of tlie verb, called the participle and the infin- 
itive, great care should always be taken to select that which is more 
appropriate. 

e. A participial noun should never be so used that it may be mis- 
taken for an adjective, a participle, or a part of a compound verb. 

f. Of the four* modes of expression, — the ordinary noun, the parti- 
cipial noun, the infinitive, and the substantive clause, — great care should 
be taken to select the most appropriate the language affords. 
EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
We were setting around the fire. He sat down the cup, and declared 
he would never touch it again. I sot next to him in church. I sit me 
down a pensive hour to spend. He is too sick to set up. Mrs. Fidget 
sate opposite Mrs. Frisky. — Addison. The fellow set himself in the most 
comfortable part of the coach. (Say, "seated," or "placed") Many 
books and papers were laying about the floor. We laid down to take a 
nap. And when he was set, his disciples came unto him. — had sat 
down — He raised up to leave. It will make him sick, to lay on the 
damp ground. The emigrants brung all they had with them. He flew 
with his family to America. — fled — They shall fly from the wrath to 
come. There was no escape for him but to fly to Texas. All the lands 
near the Mississippi were overflown. I waked early. The thief illuded 
the police. He was much effected by the news he received from home. 
I spent much to advance my interest, yet affected but little. The ele- 
phant wreathed his lithe proboscis. — writhed — Two or three cats were 
miowing about the place. — mewing — The colt began to nicker. 
— neigh or whinny — Near a spring in Germany are the statues of three 
men that were flayed alive for spiking at night the cannons of an invading 
army. He was drownded in trying to swim across the Mississippi river. 
One of us clomb the tree for a woodpecker's nest. Can all that sage or 
poet ever writ? What was writ by him I never read. The boy rid the 
horse to town. You had better go and lay down. It would be better 

to go and lie down — The farm was hired out. (Say, "rented" o»* 

"leased.") I propose to go to Philadelphia next winter. — purpose — 
I expect it rained yesterday. I expect you had a pleasant time at the 
party, last night. I guess I will go to-morrow. Such a project would 
amount to more than it would come to. Please to remember him of his 
promise. — remind — It irks me to see so perverse a disposition. He 
wot not what he was saying. For want of employment, he stroamed 
about the fields. The garment was neatly sown. I love ice-water better 
than coffee. — like — Rapped with ecstacy, he struck the lyre. Some one 
rapt at the door. I sot the kettle on, and het some water. Ask him 
when we will get those types.. The water biled. He was lift into his 
carriage. Morse discovered the telegraph, and Harvey inventedpthe cir- 
culation of the blood. A candid man avows his mistake, and is for- 
given; a patriot acknowledges his opposition to a bad minister, and is 
applauded. A verb ought to agree with its subject, in person and num- 
ber. (Say, "should" for "ought" implies moral obligation.) Mend 
your defects. What is mortal, passes away; what is mutable, dies ; and 
what is transient, begins to change. He was badly bamboozled, and 
most egregiously sucked in, by that speculation. — much deceived, and 

* Ex. — Her neatness. Her being neat. For her to be neat. That she is neat. 



VERB. 403 

sustained great loss— We were falling trees to build a cabin. Carry the 
horse to water. He was raised in the South. — brought up, or — reared — 
Cotton is grown in the South. (Perhaps allowable, because it is generally 
used.) Fetch this saddle home. Go, bring your slate. Lots are looking 
up. — rising in value — " With Mr. Headley an event always transpires." 
— E. A. Poe. I calculate to invest my money in something else. — in- 
tend, or — expect — Do not scrouge me. — crowd — The queen whom it 
highly imported that the monarch should be at peace, acted the part of 
a mediator. What large rivers from the west empty into the Missis- 
sippi ? An Arkansas newspaper speaks of two or three persons " as 
being slightly killed by a steamboat disaster." I have often admired at 
the barbarity of parents, who so often interpose their authority in this 
grand article of life. — ivondered — His family and expenses were en- 
larged, and his garden and house increased. I have made a thousand 
bushels of potatoes this year. He toted his arm for a long time in a 
sling. (Query: Does tote mean to convey under the arm; and carry, 
above the arm? However, laying jest aside, I believe that tote has this 
peculiar signification : To pick up and carry unceremoniously a, short dis- 
tance. But it is generally considered a low word.) Tote some wood 
into the house. (Suppose you are away from home, would you, in your 
letters, speak of going or of coming home ?) If I can absent myself, I will 
come to see you. Write for me no more, for 1 will certainly go. Not 
seeing any servant, I help — hoped myself. She is possessed of a very 
amiable disposition. — lias — She is possessed of a large estate. — pos- 
sesses, or — owns — Weston is situated on the Missouri river. She is a- 
talking and a-laughing continually. The sheriff summonsed a jury. I 
have this day parted possession with my finest horse. — disposssesed my- 
self of — I opine it would make no difference. — think, or — incline to 
think — I opine such a law would be unconstitutional. To cut didoes ; 
to cut shines; to cut up; to look down in the mouth; to get into a 
scrape; to come out at the little end of the horn; to give jessy to; to 
take the rag off the bush; &c, &c. The accident was not taken notice 
of. — was not noticed. The young aspirant made use of every expedient 
to insure success, —used— The accident was not taken notice of by 
any of the visitors. I have made use of such tobacco for a long time. 
One of the ships was soon lost sight of. — disappeared. He was taken 
hold of by a ruffian. — seized. Having been reared in affluence, he 
knew not how to be economical. Reared in &c. Being favored by a 
multitude of friends, he soon rose to eminence. The warning was not 
taken heed of. — heeded. We were found fault with. — censured. 
Riots in Kansas have not as yet been put an end to. — quelled. The 
landlady says, Our nocturnal carousings must be put a stop to. She is 
now getting the better of her sickness. — recovering from — Hope was 
had of his recovery. (A portico was had by the house.) These docu- 
ments were had recourse to, in the course of the trial. That foppish 
youngster was not taken notice of by the young ladies. I think she felt 
a little niffed, because we came so late. — miffed — His property was 
forfeited to the state. — confiscated — We suspect the trip will afford 
us great pleasure. I certainly would not chuse such a woman for a 
wife. A meeting of the citizens will be holden next Saturday. He 
shewed me his library. The blacksmith shoed my horse yesterday. The 
sun shown with a mellow radiance, and the breeze blowed cool and soft. 



404 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

The horse-thief was sentenced and hung. I give him a dollar, and sent 
him away. I had just diven to the bottom. Let the weeds be throwed 
into the fire. I didn't go to do it. — did not ?ncan, or — did not intend — 
Methinks, I will buy some cabbage for dinner. A line was drawed 
under the word. He knowed it. I seed — seen him yesterday. The 
tree was rove from top to bottom. The pillow swang to and fro. We 
are swerved far from the paths of virtue in which our ancestors trode. 

— have swerved trod — I am necessitated to go. He wist not 

what to do. I was wondring why he was not invited. I was wandring 
about the woods. And resolutely keep its laws, Uncaring conse- 
quences. — Burns. — not heeding, or — not fearing — So and so got among 

horses, and it was all up with him. — Tattler. — began to trade in 

and lost all he had; or, kept a coach; and soon became a bankrupt. 

Loud quackt the ducks. The ground has absorpt the water. The 
little rogue slipt down the tree, and ran away. They pitcht their 
tents near us. The hay was Btackt. I was attackt by a large mastiff. 
The want of money has checkt trade, and, in some instances, entirely 
stopt it. The ripe plums dropt into the creek. Greatness was starnpt 
upon his countenance. The stranger was knockt down and plundered. 
The boy was whipt for tearing his book. Equipt and furnisht. Grog 
is whisky mixt with water. Then Texas was annext. She was much 
distrest. The goods were shipt the next day. Bedropt with azure, jet, 
and go\\\.^Gay. It is a fixt fact. The wind swepped by. I stept in. 
A limb scratch t my face. The simpleton winkt at me. Rather than 
thus be overtopt, Would you not wish their laurels cropt ? — Swift 

Thou diddest — didd'st adore him. — didst — Thou wouldest never 
have recognized her. (See B. II, p. 160-61.) Thou wrapp'st the 
world in clouds. Thou barbst the dart. Thou doest not believe. I 
know thou dost all thou canst do. Spirit of freedom ! once on Phyle's 
brow thou satt'st. Thou mayest depart. Thou mightest depart. How 
well thou reas nest — reason'st, time alone can show. — reasonsl — 
Thou sharp nest — sharpen'st my grief. Thou list'nest — listen'st. Thou 
waken'st — waknest. Thou rememberest well. Thou preservst. — pre- 
servstj or preservest — Thou hopst in vain. — hopst — Thou defend- 
edst. — didst defend. Thou indulgedst — indulged'st — indulg'dst. 
Thou noticedst. And long he try'd, but try'd in vain. — tried — There 
every want shall be supply'd. He bow'd his head and died. 

Wast thou chopping wood? (Say, " Were you" &c. ; for in familiar 
language, the grave forms are not becoming.) Knowcst thou where my 
books are ? Do you know — Dick, hast thou fed the horses? Cleanest 
thou thy nails in company! Thou shouldst get out of the mud. 
Though thou canst not do much, thou mayest and shouldest do some- 
thing. He readeth pretty well. — reads — This word hath long been 
in general use. Addition teacheth to collect two or more quantities 
into one. Learns she her lessons w r ell ? Does she learn — I — you — he 
— she — it — we — they aint. A drive into the country delighteth and 
invigorates us. Surely you are forgetting what is required of you. — 
forget — The child had just been falling overboard. We be all of us 
from York State. If thou beest guilty, confess what you know of the 



VERBS. 405 

transaction. There be more apples than I want. I do not think you be 
in need of such silks. 

We will suffer from cold, unless we go better protected. — shall — 
Were I to go with you, I would get a whipping. If I would give him 
advice, I know he would not take it. In that other world, what 
reflections shall not probably arise ! Give him but the opportunity, and 
he shall soon show you how fast he can spend your money. I am going 
to go to-morrow. I would not be surprised, to see him any day. I 
would not be surprised, to hear that he has escaped. Be that as it will, 
I shall not despair yet. — as it is, or — as it may be — I will be obliged to 
sell this house and lot. We will meet again in another and better 
world. I believe I will be elected. I believe he shall be elected. I 
think we will find him at home. To those that have, shall be given ; 
and they will have abundance. You will see to-morrow what shall 
surprise } r ou. He that dips his hand with me into the dish, will betray 
me. (Say, "shall;" for it was not the design of the Savior- to express 
either compulsion or mere intention, but simply to foretell what would 
come to pass.) I was afraid I would lose all the capital I had invested. 
The snow shall soon pass away, and then we will have warm weather 
again. I would be pleased to be such an heir myself. By relieving 
him, we will do him a great favor. Would we see any thing worth 
seeing, if we would go to the museum? I would think no reasonable 
man could object to such a proposition. I w r as thinking what a happy 
life we would lead together. I desired the lady should walk in. We 
believed all the workmen should be paid, when our employer should 
have received his money. (Perhaps better, — had received — ) I had 
much rather do it myself. — would — 

I was awoke by the noise. Some fellow has took my book. She was 
chose on my side. He has rose from very humble circumstances. The 
river is froze over. Had not that misfortune befell him, I had not came 
back so soon. The birds had flew away. I sown twenty bushels of 
wheat last year. A book was gave to me. I done all my sums. Wine 
is drank by most of the wealthier citizens. The buggy was drawed by a 
large gray horse. Having smote the Indian with a tomahawk, he made 
his escape. The language spoke in this section of country, is not the 
best of English. I have bore his insolence already too long. Beneath 
laid stupendous rocks, broke off from the shaggy cliff above. The deer 
had ran into the bottom, and swam across the river. He drunk too 
much cider. I seen the boy that done it. The unmannerly fellow had 
spat upon my new carpet. I might have went last Saturday. He 
begun to study Latin two years ago. I had mistook your name. The 
horse run away, and come home. It is wore out. John has broke his 
slate. I have saw all I want to see. I seen him do it. I have already 
drunk too much. A cat might have shook every board on our ceiling. 
My watch was stole. Presently there came down a large limb tore off by 
the wind. I have done learned my lesson. — have already learned — I 
have done eaten my breakfast. I have done wrote my composition. Had 
I have known his design, I should not have let him have my horse, 
had have thought of it, I would have sent for you. I had better have 
Had I known / would not have loaned him my horse. If I 



406 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

staid at home. Had I have had the money, I would a bought it ; and it 
would a made me rich. He had much better be without her. It would 
be much better for him, to be &c. Fast hoys had better be without too 
much money. — should not be indulged loith — I had like to have got 
my pocket picked. You had better of let those wasps alone. You 
might better &c. The land had better have been sold at some other time. 
— might better have been — or, It would have been &c. You had not ought 
to have done so. — should not have — He were better try his hand on 
something else. — might better, or — should rather — 

Wheat is now being sold for a dollar a bushel. — is now selling — The 
new capitol is now being completed. He gave me an account of all the 
books now being written or published in Europe. My predictions are 
now being fulfilled. The old man knew nothing of what was then 
being done. The timbers are now being hewed for a new bridge. 
Another Methodist church is now being built in the upper part of the 
city. The statutes were then being revised. His anticipations are now 
being realized. My coat is now being made by the tailor. The tailor is 
now making my coat. Dramshops are now being closed on Sundays. 
— are closed. More than two thousand children are being gratuitously 
educated in this city. — are receiving gratuitous education. The daughter 
is being accomplished at one of the most fashionable schools. Here cer- 
tain chemical mysteries were being secretly carried on by some engin- 
eers. — Harper's Magazine. The family frequently left the house while 
the trees were being cut down. — History of Ohio. Two Irishmen are 
being tried for fighting. — are on trial — Such a poem as this is worth 
being committed to memory. — committing — Whatever is woi^h being 
done, is worth being done well. The apple-trees will bear being pruned 
more. — more pruning — Such a body can not be overthrown without 
the centre of gravity being lifted. — without lifting — 

I would not have let her gone to such a place. — go — He neglected 
doing his duty. — to do — He failed reciting his lesson. He has refused 
paying us for our corn. I shall not hesitate lending him as much 
money as he wants. I intended giving him a piece of my mind. He 
knows better than writing me another letter. I was about sending for 
you when you arrived. That boy is slowest learning, but longest remem- 
bering. He chose building in another place. I preferred staying at home. 
Going to law is giving the matter in dispute to the lawyers. There 
is no telling what he would do, if left to himself. It is impossible to tell 
what &c. The speaking evil of others without provocation, will soon 
injure a man's reputation. You have no right meddling with my prop- 
erty. One nation should not be allowed interfering with the domestic 
affairs of another. It is easier asking questions than answering them. 
Solomon says, " It is as sport to a fool doing mischief." The being 
branded with such a piece of iron, would make the horse run away. To 
brand the horse .... would make him — I will suppose him to be set- 
tled down on a little farm. — him settled — We considered ourselves to 
be badly treated. Would you have me killed? — me to be killed? We 
should never undertake doing too much at once. I proposed bearing 
half the expenses. Relieving misery is a pleasure to the good. To re- 
lieve misery &c. Compromising conflicting opinions, will ever be neces- 



VERBS. 407 

sary in a large republic. To compromise — or, The compromising of &c. 
This does not prevent us to make a new claim. — -from, making — What 
prevents our going immediately ? — us from going — The oil prevents 
it wearing out as soon as it otherwise would. I had bolted the door to 
prevent it being opened — its being opened. The storm prevented bis 
going. The intrigues of factions prevented my friend's being eiected to 
the Senate of the United States. — from being elected, or — my friend's 
election — What prevents such worthless fellows passing for fine gentle- 
men but the good sense of other men ? Nothing but his laziness prevents 
his being the first scholar in his class. What is to prevent us going 
together. The good sense of her mother prevented the daughters hav- 
ing her head made giddy by fops, beaus, and riches. The beautiful 
illustrations prevent his book's being dry and obscure. Apprehending 
danger is sometimes more distressing than the danger itself. The appre- 
hension of &c. There is a strong necessity for us being more frugal. 
I was not allowed associating with bad boys. The party was about 
entering the house. I do not like being in debt. There is in this State 
no law against buying and selling negroes. — the .... of — His beino- 

industrious and frugal will make him rich. His industry and frugality 

I never desired having such a man for a friend. — to have — I never 
feared losing in such investments. — loss — Paying visits will be 

losing time. The of loss of— Barter is exchanging 

different commodities. — the exchange of — The most important busi- 
ness is determining the boundary line. — the determining of, or the 

determination of, or — to deternmie — This measure is taking a bold step. 
This punctuation is giving the sentence a different meaning from the 
true one. — gives — Such a law would not be giving all the States an 
equal right to the territories. Is not this abusing the privileges of the 
House? — an abuse of — Parsing a word is mentioning of its proper- 
ties, and relation to some other word. The parsing of . . . the mention- 
ing of — . Scanning is dividing poetic lines into their feet. To scan is to 
divide — The highway of the upright is departing from evil. Addition 
is collecting two or more numbers into one. His whole speech was beg- 
ging the question. The first remedy should be alleviating the swelling 
with a poultice. He was seen to ride along the road. What is called a 
compound pronoun, from its representing usually two words. — because 
it usually represents — Your being left was altogether accidental. That 
you were — His being acquainted with influential men, was of great 
advantage to him. Nothing that she has done, can justify your having 
treated her so contemptuously. — you in having treated — There are 
not many instances of creditors not being disposed to be oppressive to 

their debtors. — instances in which creditors are not dis2iosed Her 

lameness was caused hj a horse's running away with her. — by a horse 
that ran — The common saying of every one's being the architect of his 
own fortune, is hardly true. The mind soon becomes wearied by its 
being intensely applied to one subject. — by intense application — It is 
not proper to speak of a river's emptying itself. We were speaking of 
the congregation's being so much affected by the sermon. The servant's 
being negligent has caused the losing of the horse. In order to our cor- 
rectly understanding the subject, let us suppose &c. In order that we 
may correctly — The fact of he being a partner — of him being a partner, 
gave credit to the firm. — his being, or — that he was — She was much 



408 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

displeased with him rioting and associating with bad company. She will 
find that behaving thus, is not the way to recommend herself. His being 
so affectionate and devoted to you, should awaken your love and grati- 
tude. His great affection and devotion to you &c. The changing times 
and seasons, the subverting and establishing governments, belong to 
Providence alone. 

3. Promiscuous Use of Different Forms in the same Connection. 

4. Improper Omissions or Substitutions, 

The promiscuous use of different forms of verbs in the same connec- 
tion, is inelegant. 

When the omission of a verb or the representing of it by an auxiliary 
word would lead to impropriety or obscurity, the verb itself should be 
used. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Educating is to develop all the faculties of the mind. To educate &c. 
To refrain from luxuries is better than going in debt for them. To 
strip off old habits, is being flayed alive. To profess regard and acting 
differently, discovers a base mind. Professing regard and to act differ- 
ently, discovers abase mind. Living in such a house, or to entertain so 
many friends, is beyond our ability. So much explanation tends to 
obscure in stead of elucidating the subject. — rather than to elucidate, 
or — and not to elucidate — This had served to increase instead of allevi- 
ating the inflammation. — Murray. But the pointing of adjectives and 
adverbs similarly situated, would tend, in many instances, by the 
breaking-up of the connection, to confuse, instead of assisting, the 
reader. — Wilson s Punctuation. ( Perhaps allowable ; though it seems 
to haunt the conscience of my judgment as being an expression not 
strictly correct.) We can find the product of two numbers, by multi- 
plying one of them by the parts into which we choose to separate the 
others, and then add the products together. Your fortune is your own 
to make or mar. Fierce as he moved, his silver shafts resound. Spell- 
ing is easier than to parse or cipher. Earth hath her solitudes, and so 
has life. To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temperately in 
the pursuit of them, is the best way to attain success. To be kind to 
others, and doing as we would be done by, is the golden rule. If God 
clothe the grass of the fields, and shelters and adorns the flowers, that 
everywhere grow wild upon them, will he not clothe and protect his 
servants and children much more ? lie was playing, and does yet play. 
Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him? Does he 
not study diligently, and gets his lessons as well as any boy in school? 
Though the undertaking be laudable, and is favorable to our interest, it 
will require much anxiety and labor. If these remedies be applied, and 
the patient improves not, the case may be considered hopeless. Thou 
who didst call the Furies from the abyss, And round Orestes bade them 
howl and hiss — Byron. And thou their nature knowest, And gave 
them names. — Pollok. I am the man that has protected thine infancy, 
and have ever loved thee with parental affection. Thou sitt'st on high, 
and measures destinies. If the signature or indorsement be in the 
usual form, but the party receiving it knows that it is given by way of 



VERBS. 409 

suretyship, he must prove the assent of the parties. He comforteth the 
widow, and becomes a father to the orphan. Did you not borrow so much 
of me, and promised to repay it the next day? My money is spent, and 
my time has been lost. Scanning is to divide poetic lines into their 
feet. To scan is the dividing of poetic lines into their feet. For their 
sake, human law hath interposed in some countries, and has endeavored 
to make good the deficiency of nature. He was either misunderstood, or 
represented in a false light. — or misrepresented. The moon was full and 
beamed. — and beaming. And the milkmaid singeth blithe, And the 
mower whets his sithe. — Milton. (Perhaps allowable, unless it can be 
changed without spoiling the measure and poetry.) 

The winter is departing, and the wild-geese flying northward. — are 
flying — Be contented; for neither he nor I am disposed to harm you. 
— neither is he nor am I — ' A room has been secured, and all other 
preparations made. The extremes of heat and cold are great ; but the 
climate, nevertheless, salubrious. Money is scarce, and times hard. 
Who is my mother, or my brethren ? Poverty is not misery ; nor riches, 
happiness. Our breakfast was ready, aud our horses saddled. By such 
companions, his reputation was injured, and his evil habits formed. A 
dollar was offered for it, but five dollars asked. I never have and never 
will assist such a man. — have assisted — I ever have and ever will 
maintain these doctrines. He studied his lessons as they ought to be, to 
make a lasting impression. All those that have or do purchase any of 
these books, will receive a present. I have and do say so yet. As you 
have made the first, so you may do the rest. — mag make — The inten- 
tions of some of these philosophers might, and probably were good. His 
sermons must have and certainly should produce a reformation. Neither 
does he nor any other persons suspect so much dissimulation. No man 
can be more wretched than I. — than lam — No better qualified man 
could be found than he. I can not go, but I want to. — to go — Such 
expressions, I think, are sometimes allowable, in light colloquial lan- 
guage : at least, the best of authors sometimes use them. ) You may 
go if you choose ; but you are not obliged to. Such a law has been 
enacted, but if it has not, it ought to. Be sure to write yourself, and 
tell him to. I have not subscribed, nor do I intend to. I have not 
heard from him, nor do I expect to. He does not write as many others 
have done. — have written. No one ever sustained such mortifica- 
tions as I have done to-day. I shall persuade others to take the same 
remedies for their cure that I have. He does not write as many others 
have done. A daguerreian artist can give a^more exact likeness than 
can be done by any other means. A shower of rain refreshes vegetation 
more than can be done by ever so much watering. The women in 
Bloomerdom are dressed as we do children in holidays. Do not pursue 
the course I have done. He had married another wife, and was become 
a "squire." — and become a 'squire. 

5. Verbs Improperly made Transitive, Intransitive, or Passive. 

Verbs should not be needlessly made transitive, intransitive, or pas- 
sive, contrary to their general use, or contrary to analogy. 
EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He had fled his native land. — fled from — You rejoice me. — cause 
me to rejoice. This is true power : it approaches men to Gods. And 

35 



410 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

Pharoah and his host pursued after them. — pursued them. A verb 
signifying actively, governs the accusative. — Adam s Lat. Gram. — sig- 
nifying action, or — expressing action, or — having an active signification — 
Any word that will conjugate, is a verb. — may be conjugated — I 
think it is yet damp enough for fodder to tie. — to tie fodder. I must 
premise with two or three circumstances. Go, flee thee away into the 
land of Judea. I fear me you will not be able to bear the loss. It now 
repents me that I did not go. / now repent &c. They finally agreed 
the matter among themselves. — came to an agreement — Well, 1 sup- 
pose we are agreed on this point. — agree — Such as prefer, may rise 
from their seats. — prefer to do so — I will stay at home, if you like. 
Sit thee down and rest thee. We had just entered into the house. He 
is entered on the duties of his office. — has entered — We are landed on 
our native shores once more. I am inclined to go. I am resolved to 
go. My friend is returned — is arrived. He is almost bled to death from 
the wound. Haste thee and return. I was now again returned home. 
All the flowers are perished. His time of imprisonment was nearly 
elapsed. He is possessed of great talents. — possesses — The tumult 
was then entirely ceased. — had then — A few were deserted and 
more killed. We were now got into the middle of the stream. She is 
become more fretful than she used to be. Brutus and Cassius are rid 
like madmen through the gates of Rome. His profits will diminish from 
yours. My friend sat himself down in the chair. He ingratiates with 
some by traducing others. — ingratiates himself- — He left this morn- 
ing. (Say, u left us " " left the city ," "went away," or, " departed ;" but 
" leave," 1 think, is now becoming generally current as a more familiar 
or less formal word for "depart.') His estate will not allow of such 
extravagance. You shall not want for any thing while I have it. The 
carriage is so full as not to admit of another passenger. 1 will consider 
of the matter, and let you know by morning. — consider the matter . . . 
. . . know my determination — ( What is the difference in meaning? — "To 
eat an apple," "To eat of an apple;" "To taste an apple," " To taste 
of an apple." 

6. Moods and Tenses. 

1. Every verb should be in the mood and tense best adapted to express 
the meaning intended. 

2. In mood and tense, all the verbs of a sentence should be consistent 
with one another, and also with the other words of the sentence. 

a. The indicative mood expresses matter of fact, or what is assumed 
as such. 

b. The subjunctive mood is used to express a mere wish, supposition, 
or inference. 

c. The subjunctive mood is used to express a future contingency. 

d. The subjunctive mood is sometimes used in the sense of the im- 
perfect or the pluperfect potential. 

e. The infinitive most frequently expresses the purpose, or shows the 
respect wherein. 

/. The participle resembles the indicative mood ; and the infinitive, 
the potential. 

g. W T hat is so at all times, or so from the very nature or condition of 
things, must be expressed in the present tense or in present time. 



VERBS. 411 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

She were as good buried, as married to him. — might as well be — I had 
better staid where I was. — might have better — ("I had rather stay," 
" I had rather have staid," though not most elegant, are perhaps allow- 
able and correct, if we consider "had" a subjunctive, and "stay" 
and " have stayed" infinitives.) The Glenn family will try and requite 
the favor. — try to requite — I will try and catch the horse. * If he ac- 
quires riches, they will corrupt his mind. Should you come up this 
way, and I am still here, you need not be assured how glad I shall be to 

see you. — Byron. — Should you and I be still here — or, If you 

come and I am still here — If it will please God to place me 

once more at the head of eight or ten thousand men, I would not 
despair of driving these rogues out of my kingdom. If a man con- 
sidered that he can not, under the oppression of drink, be a friend, a 
gentleman, a master, he would think of drunkenness with horror. I 
shall walk into the fields to-day, unless it rains. He will not be par- 
doned, unless he repents. If thou censure uncharitably, thou deservest 
no favor. If he speak only to display his eloquence, he is unworthy 
of attention. I wish I was at home. Make haste, lest the dinner cools. 
If the book be in my library, I will send it immediately. If the book is 
found in my library, I will send it immediately. If the book was in my 
library, I would send it. If the book were in my library, some one 
must have borrowed it. If I was in your place, I would accept the oifer. 
If I am at home, I will go with you. Beware that thou sinnest not. 
He talked to me as if I was a widow. If he be safe, I am contented. 
0, that thy heart was tender, and susceptible of pity! If he does but 
save the half of his income, he will be rich. Take care that he runs 
not away from you. If he was stronger, such a trade might suit him. 
If I was five years younger, I would not use my time as I have used it. If 
I was ever so worthless, I would not give myself to her. See that every 
thing is put in the right place. (Right or wrong, depending on the 
sense.) I can not tell whether the opossum be alive or dead. Will you 
tell us who they be ? If there be any person present, who know the 
way, let him be our guide. Try I will, whatsoever oppose. (Say, " op- 
poses" if opposition is considered certain; u may oppose" if doubtful.) 
A book on this science should be such a one as to make perfectly clear 
to the pupil every principle that was obscure or abstruse — that seemed 
obscure or abstruse. He, indeed, would be a useful policeman, that 
should detect all the rogues that were found in every part of this city. 
— might be found — If the hand is removed, the air immediately fills 
the vessel. If .... be ... . will immediately fill — or, When the hand is 
removed . . . .fills — (I think that "fills" might also be allowed to 
stand with "be removed; " and that it would simply make the expres- 
sion a little more spirited.) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he 
shall surely be put to death. — smite .... and the servant die, the man 
shall — If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made 
bread. If it rains all night, the creek will be impassable in the morn- 
ing. (Say, " rain" if the rain is not yet falling ; " continues to rain" if the 
rain is now actually falling.) Though he be poor and helpless now, you 
may rest assured that he will not remain so. Though the winter 
be cold, it is nevertheless pleasant. He will maintain his suit, though 
it costs him his whole estate. (Here the latter verb implies or should 



412 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

imply both doubt and future time.) Though a liar speaks the truth, he 
will hardly be believed. I will give him my seat, unless he should find 
a better one. — unless he find — I will be there, unless I should be sick. 
We may live happily, though our possessions are small. If he was to 
be elected, he would disgrace the party. — were elected — Suppose 
only one side with the adjacent angles was given, how would you find 
the other parts ? Although the bridge be not yet completed, the cars 
pass daily over it. I can not tell whether he were the man or not. I 
will keep this, provided there be no better one in your store. The work 
will be carried on vigorously, until it be completed. It is not easy to 
determine whether greatness of mind show itself better in adversity or 
in prosperity. These hypocrites would deceive, if it was possible, the 
Deity himself. If he were guilty, there was not sufficient evidence to 
convict him. If thou lovedst him, thou wouldst not treat him disrespect- 
fully. If any member absents himself, he shall pay a dollar for the use 
of the Society. The mother hurried her little children up a ladder for 
safety, in case she was overcome by the bear. — Pioneer History. Saxony 
was left defenceless, and, if it was conquered, might be plundered. 
— if it should be conquered — Nay, Father Abraham, but if one went unto 
them from the dead &c. If they did not believe Moses, they will not 
believe, though one rose from the dead. — rise — If duelling be not 
practised among us, it is Because Englishmen have more good sense than 
to resort to such idiotic and murderous means of settling disputes. If a 
man be unqualified for his business, he is apt to fail. If thou seek'st 
him, he will be found of thee; but if thou forsak'st him, he will cast 
thee off forever. If it clears otf, we shall take a walk. But if it be 
true, it has been misrepresented. If thou do sincerely believe the truths 
of religion, act accordingly. Though self-government produce some un- 
easiness, it is light when compared with the pain of vicious indulgence. 
I can not determine whether he be improving or not. If he is but ex- 
pert in business, he will find employment. No one engages in that 
business, unless he aim at reputation, or hopes for some singular advan- 
age. Was he ever so great and opulent, his conduct would debase him. 
Micaiah said, " If thou certainly return in peace, then hath not the Lord 
spoken by me." — thou return — If a man profess a regard for religion, 
but neglect its duties, his religion is vain. In moving bodies, if the 
quantities of matter are equal, the momenta will be as the velocities. 
If the body A be equal to the body B, but A has twice the velocity of B, 
then A has twice as much motion as B. If a telescope is inverted, ob- 
jects seen through it will be diminished. If a telescope be inverted, ob- 
jects seen through it are diminished. If a candle be lighted, and there 
is no obstacle to obstruct the passage of its rays, it fills all the space 
within two miles every way, before it has lost the least part of its sub- 
stance. If the engine move with more than the assigned speed, the 
balls open, or fly asunder, —moves — or, When the engine moves — or, 
If the engine move . ... the balls will open, or fig asunder. If the two 
mirrors were separated, it is obvious that the number of images will be 
increased. If the shorter leg of the syphon be inserted, the fluid runs 
off. (See a preceding remark on the word u fills.") I wish there was a 
prospect of union in our sentiments — P. Henry. Was there not an- 
other evil, I would object. — Id. If this moment goes away unimproved, 
we shall never see its return. — Id. If the new Constitution takes place, 



VERBS. 413 

the duties on imported articles will go into the general treasury. — A 
Hamilton. A corporation is liable for the tortious acts of its agent, 
though he were not appointed under seal. — Parsons on Contracts. ( Per- 
haps allowable ; but I think it would be better to say, u even if he was 
not appointed " &c. ; or, " though he may not have been appointed" &c.) 

If the debtor pays the debt, he shall be discharged. — Id. (See the 
work itself: it will show the importance of studying moods and tenses, 
and refute forever the nonsense about discarding Moods from our gram- 
mars.) But if the note be negotiable, the question might arise whether 
&c. — Id. But if he have moved out of the State, the demand may be 
made at his former residence. — Id. It is sufficient if the notice be de- 
posited in the office. 

The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away. I remember the 
family more than twenty years. They continue with us now three days. 
Knowing him for many years, I confidently recommend him. — having 
known — All the family have been much indebted for their present 
greatness, to their noble ancestor. — are much — In the city of Mexico 
are preserved, for hundreds of years, relics of the Aztec monarchy. He 
has lately lost his only daughter. This style of dress has been formerly 
very fashionable. He has abused his constitution in youth, and now 
he suffers prematurely the infirmities of age. I have seen her last Christ- 
mas. Wherever we have been, the crops were very fine. (Perhaps al- 
lowable.) I have looked at the Niagara falls, a year ago. (Perhaps 
allowable, if the sense is, " I have looked at the Niagara falls; — but it 
was a year ago.") I am now two years in St. Louis. He that was dead, 
sat up and began to speak. — had been dead — I will pay him what I 
have promised him when I was with him. The workmen will finish the 
work at midsummer. The next new year's day I shall be at school a 
year. Learning strengthens the mind, and, if properly applied, would 
improve Our morals too. I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify 
me. Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. It is proper 
and humane to wear a habit suitable to mourning, while those we loved 
and honored are mouldering in the grave. — have loved — If one went 
unto them from the dead, they will repent. He will never be great, 
though you spent all you have, on his education. It will be useless for 
you to raise so many grapes, unless you knew how to make wine. If 
I lend you my horse, I should have to borrow one myself. I thought it 
had been you that was bidding. If the jury believed this evidence in- 
sufficient, they must bring in their verdict accordingly. (Right or wrong, 
depending on the sense.) We should tremble for humanity, lest it 
withered and expired under the grasp of so rough a protector. Yet if I 
should pay his debts, and get employment for him, he will not do any 
better in future. (Say, u would do," if you refer simply to your own con- 
clusion; but I think u will do" may stand, if you mean to express greater 
certainty in regard to his conduct.) If he has a hundred dollars to-day, 
to-morrow he has spent every cent of it. You must have a care upon 
your conduct, for remarks would be made upon all that should pass. If 
we would examine into the springs of action in the imprudent and the 
absurd, we shall find that they move upon very different principles. I 
was going out to tea at dear mother s to-morrow. — Mrs. Caudle. (Al- 
lowable ; for it expresses merely a past determination.) I told him that 



414 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

the cars leave in half an hour — left in half an hour. — would leave — 
(Perhaps the first expression is allowable, as referring to an established 
order of things, — to a certain, punctual, daily occurrence.) As I said 
already, he is the most suitable man for the office. — have already said — 
Saying this, he departed. As I never saw a play before, it was very en- 
tertaining to me. All church members should be pare in heart, that 
they might not be a reproach to Christianity. When I shall have heard 
from you, I will write immediately. As soon as he shall bring the 
horses, we shall leave. When the workmen completed our new house, 
we removed into it. As soon as our new house had been completed, we 
removed into it. Professor SillimaiVs experiments plainly proved that 
the gas was combustible. — is combustible — Our teacher told us that 
the air had weight. He showed clearly what powers belonged to Con- 
gress. Keats said, " Beauty was truth, and truth was beauty." The 
doctor said that fever always produced thirst. Thomas Jefferson did so 
much for Democracy, that he might be said to be the founder of it. He 
remarked that the word had several different meanings. He insisted 
that the article was a mere adjective. Without the name, I could not 
have told that this was a picture of him. I asked the quack whether 
calomel was not his remedy for every disease. He knew not that I was 
a foreigner. When I studied the classics, I observed that many a moral 
lurked in the mythology of the ancients. I have always thought, that 
little was ever gained by marrying for wealth. He declared that no man 
ought to be elected, that was not moral as well as talented. Plato main- 
tained that the Deity was the soul of the world. Newton said that God 
was the sensorium of the universe. Marius ordered a low temple to be 
built to Honor, thereby intimating that humility was the true wav to 
honor. A late writer on horses supposed that a horse could perform 
the labor of six men. The Orator being asked what was the first, sec- 
ond, and third requisite, to make a fine speaker, still answered, Action. 
He said it was a great misfortune, that men of letters seldom looked at 
the practical side of life. He said it was 125 miles from St. Louis to 
Jefferson City. At Athens, he who killed another accidentally, was not 
deemed guilty. He is supposed to be born about three centuries ago. 
— to have been born — My friend was very desirous then to have invested 
his money in lands. — to invest — To be disappointed by him 
now, would have broken her heart. I very much wished to have gone, 
but mother could not spare me. We hoped to have had the pleasure of 
a visit from you. I intended to have gone to see him myself. I feared 
I should have lost it before I reached home. We have done no more than 
it was our duty to have done. It would have given me great pleasure 
to see you. We suffered so much that we feared we should have died 
before we reached home. I was then disposed to have given twice as 
much. The furniture was to have been sold at auction. He was too 
inexperienced to have suspected deception. It would have been very 
easy to have shown^his political dishonesty. I intended to have sent 
your horse home yesterday, that you might not have been obliged to 
send for him yourself. I was under no obligation to have adhered to a 
party that deserted its own principles. It was our intention to have 
attacked them in the night. When I saw into her coquetry, thinks I to 
myself I will let you know that you are not the only woman in the 
world. (Say, " thought I to myself;" yet " thinks," as a light, colloquial 



VERBS. 415 

expression, is not without good authority to sustain it.) Well, says I, 
there is, after all, much genuine goodness and solid happiness in the 
world. How could you forbear to have punished him ? You should not 
have let such an opportunity passed by. ( What is the difference in mean- 
ing? — "Achilles is said to be buried at the foot of this hill;" "Achilles 
is said to have been buried at the foot of this hill.") 

7. Person and Number. 

Every finite verb must agree with its subject, in person and number. 
EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

I called, but you was not at home. Was you there? My outlays is 
greater than my income. You was told not to do it. The picture 
which you was looking at, cost a hundred dollars. Several boats has 
already left. Disappointments depresses the heart. He know me well 
enough, but he not want to know me. I says to him, Be your own 
friend. He dare not say it to my face. Such a temper need to be cor- 
rected. Not more than one man was hurt. If thou knows he is in want, 
thou should relieve him. The molasses are excellent. His pulse are 
beating too quick. The measles have been brought into this neighbor- 
hood. Adjectives belongs to the nouns which they describe. He dare 
not do it at present, and he need not. Every body are disposed to help 
him. Nothing but offices and profits are sought by most politicians. 
Many an Indian were laid low on that day. Neither of them were 
suitable. Every one of the witnesses testify to the same thing. Not 
even the treasure in the vault were left untouched. Each of these words 
imply some pursuit or object relinquished. In proportion as either of 
these qualities are wanting, the Ian guage is imperfect. Every twenty-four 
hours affords to us day and night. Every ten tens makes one hundred. 
That which yourself has asked. 'Tis so; myself has seen it. There are 
not many children in this city whose education have been entirely neg- 
lected. What signifies fair words without charitable deeds? What 
have become of your promises ? What have become of our hats? What 
avails the best maxims, if we do not live suitably to them. Has the 
articles been sold already ? Did thou hear the report of the cannon ? 
thou pale orb that silent shines.— Burns. There seems to be no oth- 
ers included. There appears to have been some buffaloes here last night. 
There was. at this time, a few families at Harper' s-field. There seems to 
be but few merchants that are willing to take stock in this bank. 
There was more than one of us. On each side of the river was ridges of 
hills. Hence comes so many unhappy marriages. Has the horses been 
fed ? There was no memoranda kept of the sales. I do not believe 
there is many marks or indications by which they can be detected. 
There's two or three of us. From this Indian girl has sprung some of 
the first families of Virginia. Thou who are the author of life, can 
restore it. You who has earned it, is best entitled to it. Six is too 
many to ride in the canoe at the same time. I who has done most of 
the work, should receive most pay. She is one of the women that is 
always hankering after towns, crowds, and parties. It is either the rain 
or the sun that cause this corn to grow so fast. It is the rain and the 
sun that cause this corn to grow so fast. Of these poor people we 
assisted such only as was not able to help themselves. Such accommo- 



416 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

dations as was necessary, were provided. This horse is one of the finest 
that were brought to the fair. Thou art not the first that have been 
deceived in the same way. These women have such a complexion as 
indicate health. Goethe and Schiller are men of such genius as have 
but seldom appeared in the human race. Thou art the friend that hast 
often relieved me. Thou art a friend indeed, that has so often relieved 
me. One, added to nineteen, make twenty. Not one of them whom 
thou sees clothed in purple, are completely happy. Frequent commis- 
sion of sin harden men in it. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits 
delight some persons. The victuals was cold. The wages w T as paid. 
The suds were poured out. There is no tidings. Th have two sounds. 
Ph are pronounced like/. In the following words, sion are pronounced 
zhun. Boys are a common noun. Here as well as are used in the sense 
of a conjunction. Here the phrase " as well as " is used &c. The deriva- 
tion of these words are uncertain. The captain with most of the other 
officers were killed. The captain and — or else, — was — The greater 
part of the exports consist of cotton. Each one of us have as much as 
he can do. Not one of the passengers were saved. The mother, with her 
daughter, have spent the summer here. A variety of pleasing objects 
charm the eye. Six months' interest are due on the bonds. The suav- 
ity of his manners were very captivating. The sum of twenty thousand 
dollars have been expended on this bridge. A hundred thousand dollars 
of revenue is now in the treasury. The spirit of our forefathers still 
animate their descendants. Enough of the corn and potatoes have been 
sold to pay the debt. The jurisdiction of the county courts do not extend 
to such cases. This poem, together with those that accompany it, were 
written some years ago, for my own amusement. — was, or — and those 
that — The expense for repairs render it necessary to raise the tuition. 
The desire of amassing riches stimulate him to unending toil. Each of 
the vowels are sounded. Which one of these soldiers were wounded at 
Monterey? Neither of us have a dollar left. Neither of them are 
remarkable for beauty. Either one of the schools afford facilities suffi- 
ciently good. Neither of these hypotheses are well founded, though 
they have each of them their advocates. If a man have built a house, 
the house is his. Thou should remember thy Creator in youth. Thou 
can pardon us if thou will. If thou have oppressed the poor and wretched, 
thou shaltst be punished. If thou have seen him, tell me where he is. 
If a law have not already been made for such crimes, it shall be made. 
Unless better bail have been given, he shall not be set at liberty. A 
committee were appointed to examine the accounts. The committee dis- 
agrees. In France, the peasantry goes barefoot, while the middle sort 
makes use of wooden shoes. A number of new boats has passed up the 
river this spring, and the number are daily increasing. The greater 
part of the audience was pleased. A great part of the corn were sold. 
The public is respectfully invited. The fleet were seen sailing up the 
channel. The jury was not unanimous. All the world is spectators of 
your conduct. The regiment consist of a thousand men. There go a 
gang of deer. The legislature have adjourned. Never were any other 
nation so infatuated as the Jewish nation. Generation after generation 
pass away. The Company were chartered last winter. The corporation 
is individually responsible. Half of the members, at least, was absent. 
The higher class looks with scorn on those below them. Our youth is 



VERBS. 417 

not everywhere properly educated. The number of inhabitants amount 
to twenty-five millions. The Society hold their meetings on Fridays. 
The House were called to order. The railroad company was rather un- 
easy — were rather unsafe. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure. 
This sort of men is always sensitive. (Better: Men of this sort &c.) 
Five head was drowned. The horse was routed with great slaughter by 
the Russian foot. (Better: The cavalry was routed . ... by the Russian 
infantry.) An exploring party that was sent to the north, were appalled 
by the aspect of the Appalachian chain, and pronounced the mountains 
impassable. — Geo. Bancroft. (Structure seldom found, but allowable, I 
think ; for the one verb refers to the party as a whole, and the other re- 
fers rather to the individuals composing it.) 8 apples is no part of 12 
pears. 8 are what part of 12? (If such a subject is viewed as an ab- 
stract whole, the verb should be singular; if viewed in reference to the 
composing units, or to concrete individuals, the verb should be plural.) 
2 are to 4 as 4 are to 8. 4 times 8 is 82. — Bullions. (When a numeral 
subject reads plurally, I should prefer the plural verb.) If 1 of a sheep 
is worth 2 of a calf, and if 5 of a calf is worth 8 of a hog, how many 
sheep are 8 hogs worth ? What part of 1 A. is 2 R. 18 P. 3 sq. yds. ? — 
D. P. Colburn. (I should rather say, " are ;." for, though such a subject 
must be viewed as a whole, it does not therefore necessarily require the 
verb to be singular; as, " The mule, horse, and cow, were sold for $200." 
Furthermore, the subject must be read plurally.) 

Mary and her cousin was at our house last week. Neither Mary nor 
her cousin were at our house last week. When sickness, infirmity, or 
misfortune afflict us, the sincerity of friendship is proved. So much of 
ability and merit are seldom found. Enough ingenuity and labor has 
been bestowed, to make the machine a good one. This gallant young 
officer, with his brave companions, now lie buried near Monterey. 
When the memories and hopes of youth is embittered by early misfor- 
tune, future happiness and usefulness becomes uncertain. Idleness and 
ignorance produces many vices. Temperance and exercise preserves 
health. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his 
own hands. Time and tide waits for no man. What signifies the 
counsel and care of preceptors, when youth think they have no need of 
assistance? Wisdom, virtue, and happiness, dwells with the golden 
mediocrity. The planetary system, boundless space, and immense 
ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. In all her 
movements, there is grace and dignity. Humility and virtue, in poor 
apparel, excels pride and wealth under costly attire. And so was also 
you and I. His sense and sensibility is capable of making him a great 
poet. The climate and soil is unsurpassed. Her beauty, intelligence, 
and amiability, was praised even by her own sex. Considerable expense 
and labor was required. The legality and utility of this law has never 
been called in question. Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing. Four 
and two is six, and one is seven. John, you, and I, am going to visit 
my uncle. He and thou deserv'st most blame. Much trouble and vex- 
ation has turned his head gray. The plural and the singular of these 
words ends alike. Here's no war-steed's neigh and champing. What 
is the gender, person, and number, of the following words? In unity 



418 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

consists the welfare and happiness of every society. There was not a little 
wit and sarcasm in his reply. There is a right and a wrong in human 
actions. There was a man and a woman on our ship, who were natives 
of Borneo. Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. 
There seems to be war and disturbance in Kansas. You may as well 
ask why there is whiteness and coldness in snow. On the same square 
has since been built a large hotel and a museum. Hence comes the 
early decay and misery of such persons. There is a smooth and a 
rough breathing in the Greek language. Both the definite and the 
indefinite article precedes the noun. Vocal and instrumental music was 
heard every night. The price of goods in Nebraska and on Broadway 
differ but very little. In every room there was a large and a small 
bed. This and that house belongs to him. To be moderate in our views, 
and to proceed temperately, is the best way to insure success. To be of 
pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence towards others, and to 
cultivate piety towards God, is the sure means of becoming peaceful and 
happy. To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 
To do unto all men as we would that they, in similar circumstances, 
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. Virtue, 
joined to knowledge and wealth, confer great influence and respecta- 
bility. Luxurious living and excessive pleasure begets a languor and 
satiety that destroys all enjoyment. To be humane, candid, and gener- 
ous, are highly meritorious. That distinguished patriot and statesman 
have retired from public life. To possess superior merit and yet be 
humble and obliging, are the true way to gain the esteem of the world. 
To be old and destitute are truly deplorable. What black despair, what 
horror, fill his mind ! — Murray. It is honor, false honor, that produce 
so many quarrels. To buy such a lot and build such a house upon it, 
require money. That it is our duty to relieve wretchedness and check 
oppression, admit not of any doubt. Neither cold nor heat are absolute 
qualities. "The Sword, the Needle, and the Pen," have been selected 
by her as the subject of her composition. The truthfulness or falsity of 
his arguments have never been satisfactorily established. When or, 
nor, or as well as, connect the nominatives &c. The vanity, the ambi- 
tion, the pride, or the sensitiveness of some men, keep them always in 
trouble. Disgrace not } T our station by that grossness of sensuality, that 
levity of dissipation, or that insolence of rank, which bespeak a little 
mind. The sudden appearance of the banners or the firing of the guns 
have frightened our horses. Neither Holmes, Forbes, nor Jenkins, were 
classmates of mine. Neither the syntax nor the general scope of the 
paragraph are obvious. His great stupidity or his meddlesome curiosity 
have brought him into these difficulties. A silk dress or a flowered 
bounet were then great rarities. — History of Pennsylvania. The violin 
or the banjo, played by some merry old negro, beguile the summer even- 
ings. From such cruelties have arisen the prejudices and hatred of 
these people against the Americans. In him were happily blended true 
dignity with gentleness of manners. Wealth or rank influence most 
marriages. Either Thomas or George have to stay at home. Every 

person are hereby notified to pay his or her taxes. All persons 

their taxes. (It is sometimes better to change the subject than to change 
the verb.) The horse, saddle, and bridle, was sold for $100. The horse 
with the saddle &c. Every one of these houses have been lately built. 



VERBS. 419 

All these houses — Great pains has been taken to make the work 
accurate. Great care — The sagacity and learning of that boy sur- 
passes the rest. In sagacity and learning, that boy &c. At the camp- 
meeting were all manner of folks and viands. — all kinds — The doc- 
tors' and mothers' giving calomel for every little illness, is one cause 
of so many puny women and children. The practice of administering 
&c. There is an elegance and simplicity in Addison's style, that will 
always please. — an elegance, as well as a simplicity, or — an elegance, a 
simplicity, in — It is vanity and selfishness that makes a woman a 
coquet. It is either vanity or selfishness — A man's position in society, 
and his influence, depends greatly on his conduct. — or his influence, or 
— as well as his influence — The clerk as well as the captain own the 
entire boat. — and — He, and not T, am responsible. I, and not he, is 
responsible. Not honor, but emoluments, have induced him to accept 
the offer. Economy, as well as industry, are necessary to make us 
wealthy. Books, and not pleasure, occupies his mind. Pleasure, and 
not books, occupy his mind. He, not less than you, deserve punish- 
ment. He, and his brother too, were in the battle of Buena Vista. The 
father, and the son also, were imprisoned for many years. No one but 
yourself and the lecturer believe such doctrines. The land, as well as 
the personal property, were sold at auction. Nothing save the chim- 
neys of the boat, were visible. (Are both the following sentences cor- 
rect? — "Happiness, honor, yea, life itself, are sacrificed in the pursuit 
of riches;" "Happiness, honor, yea, life itself is sacrificed in the pur- 
suit of riches." What is the difference in meaning?) Every tall tree 
and every steeple were blown down. Every leaf, every twig, every 
drop, every part of creation, teem with delighted existence. Every 
man's heart and temper is productive of much inward joy or misery. 
Every person and every occurrence were beheld in the most favorable 
light. Every seven days makes a week. No wife, no mother, no child, 
were there to comfort him. Each skiff and each canoe were loaded 
almost to the water's edge. No lazy boy or girl love their books. 
Here lie buried every chief and warrior of the tribe. The first or the 
last charge were either of them, by themselves, sufficient to condemn 
him. The first and the last charge were . ... by itself — For the sake 
of brevity and force, one or more words is sometimes omitted. Neither 
beauty, wealth, nor talents, was injurious to his modesty. Neither the 
captain nor the other officers was saved. Whether one or more persons 
was concerned in the transaction, does not appear. The author or his 
printers has made the mistake. Neither he nor you was mentioned. 
Either thou or I art much mistaken. Neither he nor I intends to be 
present. Either you or James have spilt my ink. Either they or I are 
responsible. Neither thou nor I am to blame. Neither thou art to blame, 
nor am I. The forest, or the hunting-grounds, was deemed the property of 
the tribe. (Here "forest " seems to be rejected for the more appropri- 
ate term "hunting-grounds," which, therefore, becomes the nominative 
to the verb "was," and this should accordingly be "were.") Lafayette 
Place, or Gardens, occupy several acres. (Here "Gardens" is merely 
parenthetical. ) A man or two was killed. Neither ammunition nor 
horses was wanting. Neither the potatoes nor the corn are as good as 
usual. (Make the verb agree with the nearest nominative or the most 
important. It is generally best to place the plural nominative nearest 



420 BOOK THIRD— ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

to the verb.) To live in the first hotel, or to drive fast horses, require 
more money than his income. To have very many friends, or to put 
great confidence in persons we know not, are very unwise. Riding on 
horseback or rowing a skiff are good exercises. His food were locusts 
and wild honey. (What am I chiefly speaking of, — his food or locvsts 
and wild honey ?) The quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love. The 
difference between 8 and 12 are 4. Eight apples is the difference be- 
tween twelve apples and twenty. Five dimes is half a dollar. The 
timber are chiefly walnut, elm, mulberry, and linden. — is, or — consists 
of — A great cause of sickness in cities are filthiness and bad food. 
Two parallel horizontal lines is the sign of equality. The sign of 
equality are two parallel horizontal lines. — is, or — consists of — First, 
ascertain what is the texture, color, and weight. The few dollars which 
he owes me, is a matter of small consequence. Twelve single things 
viewed as an aggregate, is called a dozen. Divers philosophers hold 
that the lips is parcel of the mind. — Shak. Said the burning candle, 
H My use and beauty is my death." Virtue and mutual confidence 
is the soul of friendship. To do good to them that hate us, and, on no 
occasion to seek revenge, is the duty of a Christian. To despise others 
on occount of their poverty, or to value ourselves for our wealth, are 
dispositions highly culpable. — indicates a — Temperance, more than 
medicines, are the proper means of curing many diseases. What a 
fortune does the thick lips own, If he can carry her thus I— Shak. 
(Proper; for u thick lips" is here put for "the moor," i.e., Othello.) 
Here is the Republican, the Herald, and the Leader. —Newspaper-boy. 
(Proper; for the design is to keep the objects distinct.) On a sudden, 
off breaks the limb, and down tumbles negro, raccoon, and all. (Proper; 
for the design is to represent the objects as most intimately united — so 
intimately that they may appear as but one thing.) 

8. Construction of Infinitives and Participles. 

1. The participle or the infinitive should never be so used as to make 
the sentence clumsy, obscure, or ambiguous. 

2. It is not always necessary to use or repeat the sign of the infin- 
itive, when it can be readily supplied by the mind. 

3. After the active voice of bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, 
and some synonymous verbs, the sign of the infinitive is usually omit- 
ted. 

4. When a participial noun from a transitive verb is limited by a pre- 
ceding article, adjective, or possessive, it usually becomes intransitive, 
and requires of after it. 

5. When a participial noun from a transitive verb is not limited by a 
preceding word, it may usually govern its object in the objective case. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

He drove his horse with so much parade, as to be seen by every body. 
(W T hat was seen?) We saw the lady while passing down the street. 
He pleaded the case in such a manner as to become tedious and disagree- 
able. (Change the entire sentences, if necessary.) I think of you 
alone more frequently than when surrounded by others. While sleep- 
ing under a large tree, my horse was stolen. Refuting what had been 
said on the opposite side, his speech lasted at least an hour. The man 



VERBS. 421 

rode the horse drenched with rain. I heard the noise of a carriage eat- 
ing my supper. (Proper punctuation might show the sense; but the 
sense should never depend on the punctuation merely, when better 
structure can be found. ) The doctor thus describes eating. — the pro- 
cess of eating. 

You will please send them back immediately, if you can not sell 
them. I bade him to prepare for starting. We were bid remain. We 
durst not to approach any nearer to the elephant. We ought not speak 
ill of others, unless there is a necessity for it. I like to see persons to 
conduct themselves with propriety. If you tail this time, you need 
never to try again. His father compelled him return to his school. It 
is better live on a little than outlive a great deal. They need not to be 
so uneasy about the matter. That old miser was never seen give a cent 
to the poor. Not a single complaint was heard escape the lips of a 
single individual. He was never heard say so. If I bid you to study, 
dare you be idle? We made her to believe it. She was mnde believe 
it. I felt something naked and cold to crawl over my feet. I dare 
not to proceed too hastily. Please hand me the bread. (After "please," 
the sign of the infinitive is very often omitted in the colloquial style; 
but the practice is not authorized by grammarians.) To retreat we 
must not. To go I could not, but to remain I would not. We some- 
times see the righteous to suffer, and the wicked to be favored and hon- 
ored. — suffering favored arid honored. You will find, as you 

proceed, the difficulties disappear. Will you please answer my letter 
immediately ? I would have you read all the books on the subject. I 
have known young men spend more in a week, than they earned in a 
whole year. I forbid him enter. This only made us to care the less. 
He was seen ride the colt. The children were let stay at home. — were 
allowed to slay, or — were left — 

Exceptions to be corrected : My horse bids fair take the premium. 
He was let to go. I dared him bet. Who would dare trouble you. I 
feel it be my duty. How could you make out get along? No one 
needs be told of this. (Perhaps allowable.) She needed only have told 
us that she was unwell. I can not see write this letter. He can show 
his " moral courage" only by daring do right. — G. Browns Gram,, of 
Gram. (Mr. Brown has written this sentence for good English; but to 
my ear, "by daring to do right" sounds better.) 

By speaking of truth, you will command esteem. By the obtaining 
wisdom, you will command esteem. By obtaining of wisdom, you will 
command esteem. Keeping of one day in seven, is required of Christ- 
ians. By reading of books written by the best authors, his mind 
became improved. Learning of languages is difficult. By the exercis- 
ing any of our faculties, it is improved. It is an overvaluing our- 
selves, to reduce every thing to our own standard of judging. Poverty 
turns our attention too much upon the supplying our wants; riches, upon 
the enjoying luxuries. This was a cowardly forsaking his party. By 
the vigorously pursuing his studies, he will soon be competent. By vig- 
orously pursuing his — By vigorously pursuing of his studies, he will 
soon be competent. By vigorous application to his studies, he &c. We 
were agreeably entertained by the visiting of our friends. — by a visit 



422 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

from, or — by a visit to — This mode of dressing of children is in good 
taste. They who accuse us of propagating of such principles, misrepre- 
sent us. This money was used in feathering of his own nest. In fining 
of these men, you will establish a dangerous precedent. The making 
suitable preparations, was very expensive. Luxury, indolence, and a 
fantastic sense of propriety, are the chief causes that lead to the enerva- 
ting and enfeebling our women. His whole life was spent in the doing 
good. He is now engaged in the editing and publishing a newspaper. 
The taking things by force, is apt to produce reaction. This was in fact 
a converting the deposits to his own use. The accumulating too great a 
quantity of knowledge at random, overloads and distracts the mind. 
The dressing ourselves in such masks, will be good for the stratagem. 
The placing yourself in the most conspicuous situation, will tend to 
render you contemptible. (The infinitive is sometimes better than the 
participle; and the ordinary noun is sometimes better than either.) 
Multiplication is the repeating a number a given number of times. 
Emphasis is the laying a greater stress on some particular word or 
words. The cutting evergreens for Christmas-trees, was fashionable 
when I was a boy. The saying what we think, is not always prudent. 
To say what &c. The inviting them will not put us to any more trouble. 
The having invited them to the party, she afterwards regretted. She 
afterwards regretted that she had &c. The not having invited them to the 
party, she afterwards regretted. There is no hiding you in the house. 
— Shak. There is no keeping such children in the house. — no keeping 
of — or, It is impossible to keep &c. A more careful guarding the pris- 
oner would have prevented this accident. For the better regulating our 
governments in the territories. This supplying them with provisions 
and clothing, is very irksome. His breaking so much furniture, is some 
evidence that he was drunk. This amounts to a full relinquishing her 
dowry. His success greatly depends on the proper conducting himself. His 
neglecting my affairs, has been very injurious to me. John's laying 
down the fence, let the hogs into the field. The separating large num- 
bers into periods, facilitates the reading them correctly. (Is each of the 
following sentences correct? — "Your building so fine a house, may 
excite the envy of your neighbors." " My seeing him, will be suffi- 
cient." " My seeing of him will be sufficient." " My having seen him, 
will be sufficient.' " My having seen of him, will be sufficient." "The 
soldiers deserted on account of the captain's ordering him to be 
whipped." " The soldiers deserted on account of the captain's order- 
ing of him to be whipped".) 

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 

There may be other stars, -whose light, has not yet travelled down to ours. — Addison. 
A statesman who is possessed of real merit &c. — Id. Whom Iarbas had hoped to have 
made his own. — C. Anthon. What we learn eagerly, we will never forget. In these 
streets has a thousand heads been uncovered to greet the Hero of Austerlitz. Mr. 
Burke was oifered a very important and lucrative office. — Goodrich. Some new light has 
suddenly broke upon the mind of Pitt. — Id. Sir Henry Wotton used to say that critics 
were like brushers of noblemen's clothes. — Bacon. There is betwixt that smile 
we would aspire to, That sweet aspect of princes, and their ruin, More pangs and fears, 
than wars or women have. — Shak. My robe, and my integrity to Heaven, is all I now 
dare call my own. — Id. We have still slept together, Rose at an instant &c. — Id. It must 
be so, for miracles are ceased. — Id. San Francisco connects with the sea, by an entrance 
one mile wide. On our country shines bright and unchangeably the smiles of propi- 
tious Heaven. It has been a common prejudice, that persons thus instructed had their 
attention too much divided, and could know nothing perfectly. I thought I would 



VERBS. 423 

write about Charity ; but when I reflected that there was such a scarcity of that arti- 
cle, I concluded to write about something else of which there was greater abundance. 
There was hay and corn in plenty, Honor or reputation are dearer than life. — Bouvier. 
The protest laid quietly on the table. — W. Irving. To this, in a great measure, has been 
attributed the successes of the Moslems. — Id. The enemy were broke, dispersed, and 
flying in all directions. — Id. Anaxagoras maintained that the sun was nothing but a 
huge ignited mass of iron or stone. — Id. You have chose the worse. — Id, The most 
glorious hero that ever desolated nations might have mouldered into oblivion, did 
not some historian take him into favor. — Id. Every one went regularly to bed, when 
the sun set, and the fowls went to roost, whether he were sleepy or not. — Id. He had 
an inveterate habit of winking with one eye, as if every thing he said was of known im- 
portance. — Id. When the robin, the thrush, and a thousand other songsters, make the 
woods to resound with amorous ditties. — Id. Oh ! sweet Theocritus ! had I thine oaten 
reed, wherewith thou erst did charm the gay Sicilian plains ! — Id. It was a pity I was 
the only child, for my mother had fondness of heart enough to have spoiled a dozen. — 
Id. I suspect that I was not shown fair play. — Id. The greater part of the forces 
were retired into winter-quarters. — Id. The Indian chief and his son, being a small 
distance from the line of march, was surrounded and taken. — Id. Washington was 
given the command of a division partly composed of his own men. She doubted 
whether this were not all delusion, and and whether she was not still in the palace. — Id. 
Where will we meet with such merry groups now-a-da3 r s ? — Id. He is so cunning that 
there is no detecting him. — Id. His room was always covered with scraps of paper, and 
old musty books, laying about at sixes and sevens. — Id. To which the old gentleman 
replied in a mighty touchy manner : " She need not make herself uneasy." — Id. 
(" Need," in the form here used, is so common, and so much resembles the auxiliaries 
of the potential, that I am not sure it should be condemned.) Montesquieu said that a 
despotism was a government in which the legislate, judicial, and executive pow- 
ers are in one. — KenCs Commentaries. (Correct all the errors.) This would be to con- 
tend that the law was superior to the Constitution, and that the judges had no right to 
look into it. — Id. He insisted that the Constitution was certain and fixed, and con- 
tained the permanent will of the people, and was the supreme law, and could only be 
revoked by the authority that made it. — Id. Ho undertakes to show that the common 
law was the most reasonable and the most ancient in Europe. — Id. He run a parallel, 
in many instances, between the common and the civil law. — Id. I never conversed with 
an intelligent teacher who did not express and wish that he w r as better qualified for the 
work in which he was engaged. — A Teacher's Address. But I have frequently been 
asked what we [teachers] did. — Id. (I. e., at all times.) This was four years ago next 
August. — Id. If there was not a minister in every parish, yon would quickly find cause 
to increase the number of constables. Unawakeued by remorse, the sinner proceeds in 
his course till he wax bold in guilt, and become ripe for ruin. There has been taken 
from these diggings 50,000 lbs of lead, since the 1st of last May. But when the Philis- 
tines would have seized him, he snapped the cords as before. — were about to seize him — 
Thomas Penn, soon after his arrival, aided by seven special commissioners, en- 
tered upon the adjustment of the southern boundary, and running the line be- 
tween the proprietaries and Lord Baltimore. (A very ill-formed sentence. Say, " Soon 
after his arrival, Thomas Penn, aided by seven sptcial .... began to adjust .... and to run 
&c.) If there ever were a season when public tranquillity was ensured by the absence 
of knowledge, that season is pa'st. — Hall. They were not able, as individuals, to have 
influenced the twentieth part of the population. — Thos. Jefferson. The manufacturing 
them, therefore, will become more an object. — Id. To manufacture &c. Each occu- 
pied their several premises, and farmed their own land. — Id. New York, with several 
posts in the neighborhood, were in possession of the enemy. — Id. She was lady-like in 
her manners, highly intelligent, and possessing a well-cultivated mind. My residence 
is at present at his lordships, where I might, was my heart disengaged, pass my time 
very agreeably, as there's a very amiable young lady lives at the same house. — Washington. 
Five hundred thousand acres of land was granted to this company, west of the Alleghanies. 
I can not advise the sending any more troops. — Id. This must be my excuse for seeing a 
letter which neither inclination nor time would have prompted me to. — Id. Do you 
think the people of America would submit to pay the stamp duty if it was moderated? — 
Franklin. I shall conclude by saying, that I wish there was a war. — Hamilton. When 
the dam was being erected, they made quite an excavation in front of this place. He is 
one of the preachers that belongs to the church militant, and takes considerable inter- 
est in politics. 

AIDS AND KEMAKKS. 

Verbs have been so fully exhibited in Book Second, {see pp. 119-69, and pp. 191- 204 ,) 
and so many hints are interspersed among the foregoing exercises, that it is unnecessary 
to say much more on the subject. 

Since the ideas denoted by verbs are not always so tangible or obvious as those de- 



424 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

noted by substantives, we often bear very uncouth or ill-chosen verbs. Verbs differing 
in sense, are sometimes nearly identical either in their primitive forms or in their de- 
rived forms, as set, sit, overflowed, overflown ; and bence they are often ridiculously mis- 
applied. The word ignore is now a well-established ueologism, denoting very appropri- 
ately a sort of silent refusal to confess, own, or avow. But while my gentle reader can think, 
believe, suppose, imagine, conjecture, guess, or even reckon, I hope he will never stretch his 
mouth to let out tbat ugly word opine, whatever opinion he may have to offer. " I can 
but go," implies that I can do nothing more ; " I can not but go," implies that I can 
not do otherwise, but must go ; hence both forms should be retained, because both are 
needed. Can not should be written as two words, unless we mean to prevent not from 
qualifying some other word than the verb ; as, "You cannot consistently deny it." 

To what extent transitive verbs may properly be used intransitive}/), or intransitive verbs 
transitively or in the passive form, must be left chiefly to the judgment of the person using 
them. In imitation of a French idiom, the passive forms of such verbs as become, ar- 
rive, rejoice, sit, &c, were formerly much in vogue ; but the present tendency is, to pre- 
fer the active forms. Mr. G. Brown says, that a few verbs are yet thus used, to signify 
that a person's own mind is the cause that actuates him : as. " He was resolved cu going 
to the city to reside ; " " He is inclined to go ; " " He is determined to go." When a pas- 
sive sense can not be conceived, or when the active form seems equally proper, this 
should generally be preferred. Thus, "I incline to think," is now generally preferred 
to " I am inclined to think." Mistake, in the passive form, is still in good use ; as, " I 
am mistaken:" but the active form is also used ; as, " I mistake ; it is your bull that 
has killed one of my oxen." 

The different Forms or Styles have each of them its appropriate sphere in the wide- 
spread use of language ; and* they should be employed accordingly. Permanent mental 
states can seldom be expressed with propriety, by verbs in the progressive form. We do 
not say, " I am loving him," " 1 am respecting him ; " but, "I love him," " I respect 
him." Progressive forms must generally denote acts or states that are liable to inter- 
missions, cessations, or interruptions. 

Is it ever proper to express passive verbs progressively, by means of the present pas- 
sive participle? that is, may w e say, " Your friend is being buried! " " The young trees 
are being budded?" That these forms or their equivalents are needed in the language, 
seems to be obvious from the fact that all the ploughshares of criticism have not yet 
killed them out. The majority of critics have ever condemned them, yet good writers 
continue to use them as i. they were infidels to grammars. The Atlantic Monthly, 
perhaps the most accurate periodical in the land, has the following : " To other stations, 
when; the new rifle -practice teas being introduced;'''' "The materials of discontent were 
gradually being concentrated." Grammarians say, that such expressions are absurd or 
tautological. Of this I am not convinced. If the present active participle denotes the 
continuous imparting of the act, and if the compound present passive participle denotes 
the continuous reception of the act; then if the present active participle, combined 
with the finite auxiliaries derived from be, affirms the continuous imparting of the act, — 
why should not the passive, combined in the same way, affirm the continuous reception of 
the act? I suspect that these Condemned forms will last to the end of time, — that some 
of the newspapers will then have some of them on the very pages that shall announce 
the coming dissolution of all things. But it must be admitted, that the forms are 
clumsy ; and when this is the case, it seems to be a well-established principle of lan- 
guage, to prefer some kindred simpler form, add to its meanings that of the clumsier 
form, and reject this by using the other iu its place ; so that the ordinary passive form 
or the progressive active form should be preferred when adequate. 

The selection of moods is sometimes a matter of great nicety, especially in argumen- 
tative discourse. The indicative forms denote matter of fact, or matter-of-fact assump- 
tions : they are objective, in the metaphysical sense of the term. The subjunctive and 
the potential forms are less positive : they are subjective: they often denote what is not 
matter of fact, and never will be ; or what is not matter of fact as yet, but may become 
such ; or what simply exists in the mind of the speaker, without the facts to confirm it ; 
or what is so uncertain as to depend upon the uncertain will of another. Indicative 
forms are sometimes preferred as being a little sprightlier, or as relating to what must 
be, if true, permanent facts of nature. 

" I will keep it till he returns.'''' I am sure he will return. " I will keep it till he re- 
turn.'' 1 I doubt that he will ever return. " If Congress have not the granted right, it 
can not exercise it." Said before the Constitution was made. " If Congress has not 
the granted right, it can not exercise it." Said after the Constitution was made. " If 
the government of Virginia passes a law contrary to the bill of rights, it is nugatory." — 
P. Hewy. At anytime. There is no doubt as to the conclusion. "If gentlemen are 
willing to run the hazard, let them run it." — Id. They seem to be quite willing. " If 
a piece of paper be laid on the table of the discharger, and a powerful shock directed 



VERBS. 425 

through it, it will be torn in pieces." "J3elaid" accords best .with " will be torn." 
" If a fresh quantity of water is thrown upon the remaining fragments, it is absorbed 
with a hissing sound." " Is thrown " accords best with " is absorbed ;" besides, the 
former verb here denotes what is often done, and the latter, what certainly follows. 
" When the star E has passed to the opposite point, the star F will have changed its po- 
sition." " If the earth is at H, and the planet at I, the outermost satellite will be in 
conjunction with its primary." (Allowable.) "If an object is [or be] in the principal 
focus, it ivill appear brighter." " If a line is supposed to be drawn, * # * the angles will 
be equal." " If the moon revolves about its axis, its periodical time must be equal to 
that of its revolutions round the earth." " If the two plain mirrors were parallel, in- 
numerable images might be seen.'''' A supposition contrary to fact; though a certain 
conclusion " If the two plain mirrors are parallel, innumerable objects may be seen." 
You say they are parallel, do you ? then the seeing may be done now. " If the two 
plain mirrors be parallel, innumerable images may be seen.'''' At any time, or anywhere ; 
the seeing is probable or possible — in future. 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether the participle or the infinitive should 
be preferred. Sometimes either may be used. The present participle generally denotes 
an act or state as accompanying that of the principal verb, while the infinitive implies 
that the acts or states are successive. The infinitive is generally better adapted, than 
the participle, to express the act or state substantively. When a substantive participle 
or infinitive is to be used in connection with the substantive denoting the object to 
which the actor state belongs, it is often better to use the clause beginning with that. 
When a verbal appositive relates to an initial it, it should rather be the infinitive than 
the participle ; as, " It is useless trying," should be, " It is useless to try." After verbs 
of frying or intending, the infinitive should be used. After the verbs hear, see, and feel, 
either may be used. After verbs of omitting, avoiding, or preventing, the participle 
should generally be used. After verbs of beginning, continuing, or desisting, the partic- 
iple may generally be used, though the infinitive is sometimes more elegant. Whether 
a substantive associated with a participle should be made possessive, depends on which 
term conveys the more prominent idea. " The fair wind is the cause of the vessel's 
sailing;" not, " The fair wind is the cause of the vessel sailing." When a participle 
is limited by such a preceding word as usually requires of after the participle, the of 
may sometimes be omitted before pronouns, when it seems to affect the sense of the 
participle rather than to correspond to the antecedent limiting word. " My seeing of 
her was unexpected, " "Your eating of it made you sick," are hardly equivalent to, 
" My seeing her was unexpected," " Your eating it made you sick." "He said it in 
hearing his father," " He said it in the hearing of his father," differ in sense : the 
word hearing, in the former, relates to " He ; " in the latter, to " father." 

About the tenses, enough has been said in Book Second. (See pp. 133-38 and 
pp. 163-68.) The auxiliaries may, can, must, will, and shall, generally accord best with one 
another, and with the present tenses ; the auxiliaries might, could, ivould, and should, 
generally accord best with one another, and with the imperfect tenses. When words 
are used that carry the act or state forward in time, it is sometimes difficult to deter- 
mine whether the simple perfect tense or the future -perfect should be used. The future- 
perfect should be preferred only wheu we wish to add the modal and not the temporal 
sense of its auxiliary, to the expression. Will, thus used, relates directly to the will of 
the subject ; and shall implies determination, resolution, contingency. " They should 
remember that England entered India from the sea, and that until she shall have been 
subdued on that element, it would be idle to think of dispossessing her of her Oriental 
supremacy." — Atlantic Monthly. I. e., "until resolved upon and accomplished." The 
author does not mean to suggest that he believes this will ever be done ; he rather inti- 
mates the contrary, — or that it is not easy or likely to be done. 

As to person and number, see pp. 152-53 and pp. 198-200. Sometimes the form of the 
subject, though generally its sense, controls the form of the verb. When a verb relates 
to two nominatives, of which one is a predicate-nominative, it is not always easy to 
decide which should be considered the subject. If both stand after the verb, the 
nearer one is its subject. When the arrangement is otherwise, the student, if he has 
been well drilled in Analysis, will generally be able to determine without much diffi- 
culty. 

In regard to collective nouns, no very positive rules can be given. The student 
should look to the sense, and carefully consider whether the reference is to the individ- 
uals composing the group or to the collective group. There is obviously a difference 
between the acts or states of the individuals composing a group, and the acts or states 
of the group itself. Collective nouns, denoting persons, are construed more frequently 
as plurals, than collective nouns denoting things. Sometimes both views are taken of a 
group, in the same sentence. When this occurs, the first or slighter view relates gener- 
ally to the group ; and the second or closer view, to the individuals. 

Nominatives involving numbers, or arithmetical nominatives, are not yet well settled in 

36 



426 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

regard to their syntactical structure. Most of them may be classed with collective 
nouns. In addition, the verb must of course be plural; in subtraction, division, or pro- 
portion, it may be singular or plural, according to the view taken ; in fractions and com- 
pound numbers that must be read pluralhj, the verb should, I think, be generally plural, 
though the principle that a plural term sometimes denotes a single object, or that two 
or more singular nominatives connected by and denote but one person or thing, some- 
times operates in favor of the lingular verb. As to multiplication, I hardly know what to 
say. From the facts I have gathered, I believe the prevailing custom is this : When the 
word time or times is used, it controls the form of the verb ; when once, tivice, or thrice, 
is used, the verb should be singular or plural, according as the expression involves the 
idea of time or times. Mr. G. Brown says, in his large work, that the multiplicand 
should be considered the nominative; and that when this is one, naught, or any other 
singular, the verb should be singular ; and when it rises above one, the verb should be 
plural. This is certainly the most rational view, and can be best sustained by the 
grammatical analysis of the subject, and also by analogy. It accords best with such 
expressions as, "Twice the sum is insufficient to pay my debts; 1 ' "Four times the 
son's age is equal to the father's ; " " Ten times the amount was refused ; " " Five times 
the quantity was sold ; " &c. ; which are perhaps too well established to be condemned. 
The German language also confirms this latter opinion, except, I believe, that it more 
frequently regards the multiplicand a singular collective uoun. 

When two or more infinitives, or infinitive phrases, or substantive clauses, are connected 
by and, it is also sometimes difficult" to decide whether the verb should be singular or 
plural. The writer or speaker best knows his own meaning: let him consider whether 
he refers to all as one thing, or whether he refers to each, and accordingly make the verb 
singular or plural. 

The phrases "as follows," "as regards." "as appears," "as concerns," should gen- 
erally be used as they are here given, unless they occur so closely in connection with a 
plural substantive as to be influenced by it; as, "The exceptions are as follow.' 1 '' — Wil- 
son 's I nnctuatwn : Boston. Mr. Wilson has used this mode of expression several times, 
though I do not remember that it is so often preferred, by other writers, to the singular 
form. 

Person-and-number inflections belong chiefly to the indicative and the potential 
mood, mostly to the indicative. Whether s ores should he added, should always bo 
determined in accordance with the regular mode of forming the plural of nouns; hence 
the forms "wooes," "cooes," &c, which are sometimes found, should be woos, coos, &c. 
Tliou requires the termination t, st, or est. Are, were, shall, and will, take t; the other 
auxiliaries, st. Other verbs take, in the indicative present, st or est, according as they 
require s or es in the third person singular. A few verbs ending in a vowel sound, are 
perhaps exceptions ; as, wooest. In the imperfect tense, the verbs assume st only, if it 
will coalesce in sound; if not, est. The subjunctive mood rejects the termination 
altogether, except in the pluperfect tense, and sometimes in the imperfect. The imper- 
ative mood also rejects it. Poets and even preachers sometimes reject it, to avoid 
harshness of sound or difficulty of pronunciation. In generol, st only should be added, 
when this is sufficient ; and when the verb already ends in the sound of st, or in a clus- 
ter of consonants not coalescing well with s/, the termination may b^ rejected. In the 
solemn style, in stead of s or es, th is added, if it will coalesce in sound; if not, eth. 
Mr. G. Brown teaches thus in his large Grammar: — 

" Note. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usually and 
more properly formed thus : Ind. Thou art, Thou was, Thou hast been, Thou had been, 
Thou shall or will be, Thou shall or will have been. Pot. Thou may, can, or must be ; 
Thou might, could, would, or should be ; Thou may, can, or must have been ; Thou 
might, could, would, or should have been." 

This does not have the right <*ound to my ears, though they may be longer than Mr. 
Brown's. An intelligent townsman of Mr. Brown's, to whom I have referred the para- 
graph, also refuses to own it as beirjg the standard usage of New York. 

8. ADVERBS. 

The liabilities to error in respect to adverbs, may be reduced to the 
following heads: — 

1. Choice. 2. Form. 3. Position. 

1. The most appropriate verb should be selected to express the mean- 
ing intended. 



ADVERBS. 427 

2. Adverbs should be expressed in their true or most appropriate form. 

3. Adverbs should be so placed in the sentence as to make it correct, 
clear, and elegant. 

Note. — This last canon, or precept, is also applicable to some conjunctions. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

1. 

A wicked man is not happy, be he never so hardened in conscience. 
— everso — Though you be never so careful, some errors will creep into 
the book. If some persons' opportunities were never so good, they would 
not improve them. Never a one did I catch. Not one — Ne'er a one 
could be found. Nary one will suit. (Say, "Not one;" or, "Neither 
one" if but two are spoken of.) Snow seldom or ever falls in the 
southern part of Texas. (Say, "seldom or never" or, "seldom,, if ever") 
Seldom or ever has such a storm swept over the country. Whether you 
are willing or no, you will have to pay the debt. He cares not whether 
you write or no. The road is so muddy that we can proceed no further. 
Nothing farther was said about the matter. The potatoes are most all 
frozen. I can get as good a situation most anywhere. It rains most 
every day. He is most too young to go to school. This wheat stands 
most, too thick. — rather — I have mighty little money. — very — 
He is a mighty insignificant fellow. A gentle breeze wafted us there in 
a few days. Where shall I flee? Proceed there immediately. Gen. 
Scott and his staff are coming here to-night. (Allowable, as being col- 
loquial.) Let us remain thither. Whither can we find a more conve- 
nient situation? The boat is tending here. We remained a week at 
Galveston, and proceeded from thence to Indianola. From whence we 
may likewise date the period of this event. From whence are we, and 
where are we going? Who brought me here, will also take me from 
hence. . About two weeks since, two grocery-keepers at Doniphan had a 
fight. — ago — Related not only by blood, but likewise by marriage. 
— but also — James is studious, but Thomas is studious also. — too. 
I am some better than I was. — somewhat — The flowers appear to be 
some fresher than they were. He felt something encouraged on receiving 
the news. No other tree, in its old age, is as beautiful as the elm. Have 
you done like he directed you? — as — Directly he comes, we shall 
go. (Say, "As soon as" for directly is not a conjunctive adverb.) Im- 
mediately when they arrive, we shall go. Such cloaks were in fashion 
about ten years since. I never before saw such large trees. — trees 
that were so large — She is such a good woman. — so good a woman. 

2. 

Speak slow and distinct. You have behaved very bad. Such conduct 
illy accords with his professions. She reads good. This pen does not 
write good. She is excessive prodigal, though she is exceeding fair. 
He lived an extreme hard life. He behaved manlily. She behaved very 
sillily. Push the wagon backward. — backwards — Come hitherward. 
We should be employed dailily in doing good. 1 received the gift with 
pleasure, but I shall now gladlier resign it. — more gladly — These are 
the things highliest important. We went direct to the cave. It is won- 
derful how preposterous the affairs of this world are sometimes managed. 
These Indians were remarkable handsome, well-mannered, and kindly 



428 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

even somewhat effeminate. I shall first notice why we should worship 
God ; and second, how we should worship him. You have not behaved 
quite as good as I expected you to behave. As like as not you intend to 
marry her yourself. The carpenter performed the work agreeable to his 
promise. 1 can easier raise a crop of hemp than a crop of tobacco. 
She dresses suitable to her station and means. She was dressed as fine 
as silk could make her. She converses good, and plays admirable on 
the piano. I am only tolerable well, sir. She is a vemarkable pretty 
girl. An abominable ugly little woman officiated at the table. A fox is 
an exceeding artful animal. Abstract principles are easiest learned 
when clearest illustrated. 'Tis horrid dark. He can not vote for this 
bill, consistent with his last speech. Previous to our arrival, the cap- 
tain was taken ill. He struggled manful, and became independent of 
friends and riches. The Irishman was so bruised that he said he scarce 
knew himself again. The field was near planted, when the rain came. 
We have near finished our work. He is doing fine. He was near out 
of debt, before he finished that house. The dirge was sung very slow 
and solemn. Fifth and last, I would remark that he never succeeded at 
any thing. Agreeable to the present arrangement, I shall have to recite 
my Greek during the first hour. I myself am but indifferent honest. 
He is a man of wonderful versatile genius. They say he is independent 
rich now. The insolent proud soon acquire enemies. His speech was a 
fair sample of the transcendent absurd. Sure there is not a finer gen- 
tleman in the country. You have been wrong informed on the subject. 
The name America was wrong given to the western continent. 

3. 
Every man can not afford to keep a coach. Not every man can — All 
their neighbors were not invited. All that we hear, we should not be- 
lieve. Not all that rue hear — I only recited one lesson during the whole 
day. By hasty composition. Ave shall acquire certainly a very bad style. 
The argument is very plausible, certainly, if not conclusive. The two 
3'oung ladies came to the party nearly dressed alike. The two twins 
always were nearly dressed the same. They became even grinders of 
knives and razors. I am not as attentive, to the studies I even like, as 
I should be. He can not show me where ever I voted different. No man 
has ever so much that he does not wish to accumulate more. Corn 
should be generally planted in April. — should generally be planted — 
He is thought to be generally honest. For beginners and generally 
young men. The farmers sell their produce generally to the merchants. 
There was another man still who had lost his horse also. — was still an- 
other man — There is still a shorter method. — a still shorter — We 
do those things frequently, which we repent of afterwards. Most na- 
tions, not even excepting the Jews, were prone to idolatry. Sextus the 
Fourth, if I mistake not, was a great collector of books, at least. If he 
was not one of the greatest politicians, he was one of the greatest in- 
triguers, at least, that ever retained tha confidence of his party. My 
opinion was given after rather a cursory perusal of the book. Such 
discipline will rather make him sulky and stupid than amiable and 
sprightly. I was a little inclined to marry her once. — was once a lit- 
tle — Having lost once a thousand dollars by speculation, he would 
never venture again. Having almost lost a thousand dollars by the 
speculation, he was able only to pay a part of the debt. There could not 



ADVERBS. 429 

be found one man that was willing to enlist. Having not known or 
having not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. She 
not denies it. Our boat had fortunately left the ship, previous to the 
explosion. He promised to send to me as much again as he had borrowed 
the next day. In promoting the public good, we only discharge our 
duty. Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. He is only so, when 
he is drunk. I only bought the horse, and not the buggy. I have bor- 
rowed this horse only, yet I intend to buy him. Such prices are only paid in 
times of great scarcity. Her bosom to the view was only bare. — Dry- 
den. These words were not only uttered by a mortal man, but by one 
who was constantly exposed to death, and expecting it. The word couple 
can only be properly applied to objects in connection. Bibulus could 
only escape outrage by not only avoiding all assemblies of the people, 
but every solemn and important meeting of the senate. The interest not 
only had been paid, but the greater part of the principal. Pompey 
played a despicable part enough between them. They were almost cut 
off to a man. There is nothing more pleases him than to praise his 
performances. There is nothing that pleases him more, than for others to 
praise &c. We may happily live, though our possessions are small. 
These things should be never separated. Not only he found her em- 
ployed, but pleased and tranquil also. She will be always discontented. 
How much would the difficulties be increased, were we solely to depend 
upon their generosity. The following bet is said actually to have been 
made between an Adams and a Jackson man. — is said to have actually 
been made — I occupy the same political position nearly, that I occupied 
five years ago. They managed so as to completely elude their pursuers. 
The w r ords should be arranged so that harmony may be promoted. — so 
arranged — The front part of the house was very differently built from 
the back part. The goods could not be possibly shipped any sooner. 
He seems clearly to have understood this part of the Constitution. 
— seems to have clearly — He seems early to have applied himself to the 
study of Law. We should not be overcome totally by present events. 
It is impossible continually to be at work. The Secretary was soon ex- 
pected to resign. The Secretary was expected daily to resign. We 
have often opportunities to do good. A school must carefully be con- 
ducted to please such patrons. It seems but three miles distant, and 
yet it perhaps is twenty. Nature mixes the elements variously and 
curiously sometimes it is true. We are not too nicely to scrutinize mo- 
tives, as long as action is irreproachable. — Burke. If you have only 
learned to spend money at college extravagantly, you may stay at home. 
If you have learned, at college, only to spend money extravagantly &c. In 
other countries, where the fate of the poor is wretched indeed, offices 
are merely created for the emolument of certain classes. If he speaks 
but to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention. We are not in- 
clined to unnecessarily place ourselves in so perilous a situation. You 
are to slowly raise the trap, while I hold the sack. The sealing of the 
documents up also delayed me. The sealing-up of — Spelling is the 
putting of letters together, so as to make words. It can not be imperti- 
nent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate. He is unqualified for either 
teaching mathematics or languages. I shall neither depend on you nor 
on him. — neither on you nor on him. The farm will then either be 
rented or sold. Some nouns are either used in the singular or in the 



430 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

plural number. Some nouns are used either in the singular or the plural 
number. Mules are both imported from Kentucky and Missouri. Mules 
are imported both from Kentucky and Missouri. Mules are imported 
from both Kentucky and from Missouri. 

4. When two negatives contradict each other, they can not express a 
negation. 

Note. — It is hardly proper, though according to custom, to place this class of errors 
under Adverbs ; for sometimes neither one of the negatives is an adverb. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

I will never do so no more. We didn't. 5nd nobody at home. I don't 
know nothing about your affairs. There can not be nothing more con- 
temptible than hypocrisy. The scene was truly terrific; nothing never 
affected me so much. But, ! the greedy thirst of royal crown, That 
knows no kindred, nor regards no right. — Spenser. Congress has not 
nor never had the Constitutional power to intermeddle thus. He won- 
lered that none of the members had never thought of it. Be honest, 
nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. Do not let no one disturb 
me. Never was a fleet more completely equipped, nor never had a na- 
tion more sanguine hopes of success. Neither that nor no so such thing 
was said in my hearing. There was no bench, nor no seat of any kind, 
that was not crowded with people. Neither he nor nobody else ever 
raised so many bushels of potatoes on one acre, in one year. She will 
never grow no taller. For, h,ence I will not, can not, no, nor must not. 
Death never spared no one. "And yet say nothing neither;" "And yet 
say nothing either." (Usage is unsettled as to this phraseology.) 
AIDS AND REMARKS. 

1. No, in such expressions as " whether or no," should be not. Everso properly ex- 
presses indefinite or unlimited degree ; its place, therefore, should not be usurped by never 
so. Most means in the highest degree, and it is often improperly used (or almost, or rather, or 
as a contraction of the former. "The little chickens are most all dead." " Mv is most 
too indolent to work." Nearly should rather be applied to quantity, time, or space ; 
and almost, to degree. Ho, entirely and scarcely rather imply quantity; completely 
and hardly, degree. Hither, thither, and whither, are usually to be preferred, except per- 
haps in the colloquial style, to heie, there, and where, when the principal idea is motion 
to or from a place. Hence, thence, and whence, imply the idea of from something ; hence, 
to place from before them, makes the expressions tautological and generally inelegant. 
Likewise strictly implies something more in like manner ; also, something more; and too, 
something more of the same act, state, or kind of things. But these distinctions are not al- 
ways observed. " I have done like he directed," should be, " I have done as he direct- 
ed." Like suggests a similarity of manner in the two actions ; but as properly properly 
expresses their connection and correspondence. So, with a modifying word, expresses 
degree ; and, in this sense, such or as is sometimes incorrectly or inelegantly used in the 
place of it. k ' She is not such an amiable woman as her sister ; " i e., not an amiable 
woman of the same kind as her sister. " She is not so amiable a woman as her sister ; " 
i. e. ; not amiable in the same degree. But since different grades are often the same as 
different kinds, the two modes of expression are often equivalent, and are so used by 
many good writers. The same remark applies to sentences of this kind : " She is not 
as amiable as her sister." Better: " She is not .so amiable as her sister." But without 
the preceding negative,"we might properly say, " She is as amiable as her sister ; " " It 
is as good as the other." The German language requires so even in such sentences. 
Farther = beyond this; further = in addition, and is not usually applied to place. 

2. Adjectives and adverbs are often confounded, because they resemble in significa- 
tion ; because some words are used in either capacity, while others are not ; because 
most adverbs are derived from adjectives, and because they are sometimes really inter- 
changeable without injuring the sense, for the nature of every act is intimately con- 
nected with the objects on which it depends. Grammarians have tried to guard pupils 

against the liability to error, by the precept, "Adverbs should not be used for adjec- 



ADVERBS. 431 

tives, nor adjectives for adverbs ; " i. e., the words of each class should be expressed in 
the most appropriate form. 

Different Forms : Well, for instance, is the adverb corresponding to the adjective 
good. Same Forms : Better, best, worse, worst, &c, are used either as adverbs or as adjec- 
tives. Derived Forms: Previous, previously ; easier, more easily; &c. The ending ly 
or s should be preferred, when it will serve to distinguish the adverb from the correspond- 
ing adjective ; as, scarcely, upwards, downwards. Licensed Forms : The adjective may 
sometimes be used in stead of the adverb ; or rather 'he form of the adjective, especially 
the comparative or the superlative preceded by an article, may be used as an adverb. 
" He lives best who acts the noblest.'''' " Swift to the breach his comrades fly "= They 
are swift in flying to the breach. "Swiftly to the breach his comrades fiy." = They 
fly swiftly to the breach. Perhaps the adjective in most such expressions implies a fixed 
and permanent quality or attribute, and the adverb only a temporary state. " S ft sighed, 
the flute ; " i. e., with that sweetness and softness which are peculiar to it, — which it al- 
ways has. " Softly sighed the flute " [in that particular instance]. When the adverbial 
ending would change the meaning, the adjective form must be used. " To stop 
short," differs from " To stop shortly.'''' "He came contrary to my expectations;" not 
contrarily. " For gentlemen who speak me fair." Sometimes the adjective form is 
proper, because the expression is, in thought at least, elliptical. " Though she paint an 
inch thick ; " i. e., paint her face with rouge an inch thick. " It happened, contrary to 
my expectations. "== It happened; which thing was contrary to my expectations. 
" He hit the tree wide from the mark;" i. e., a wide distance. "Speak true', " i. e., 
what is bu°. If I say, "The machinery works smoothly," I refer simply to its oper- 
ation ; but if I say, " It works smooth," 1 I refer to its parts as affected by its operation. 
So, " The mahogany polishes finely" expresses the sense better than, " The mahogany 
polishes fine ;" for the meaning is, that it not only becomes fine, but admits polish bet- 
ter than most other things. 

When the meaning is a mongrel of adjective and. adverb, I believe general usage is in 
favor of the adjective form. 

To avoid the disagreeable termination lily, we sometimes use a synonymous word ; as, 
piously for holily ; sometimes we use the corresponding adjunct; as, " In a wily man- 
ner" for wilily ; and there is some tendency to use the adjective form for both the ad- 
jective and the adverb : as, " A manly act it was ; " " He acted manly." 

To poets is allowed great liberty in the use of adverbs ; especially in the form. But 
neither poets nor any other persons are allowed to use them so as to pervert their mean- 
ing. A poet may say, "The swallow sings sweet from her nest in the wall; " or, 
" To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes ; " or, " From thence to other scenes he 
passed ; " for we understand him. Rut, " Her bosom to the view was only bare," does 
not convey the meaning intended ; and should be, " Her bosom only to the view was 
bare." 

3. The position of adverbs is regulated, in the first place, by the sense; and next, 
by em -masis and melody. 

Adverbs are generally placed after the verb, or after the first auxiliary, before or after 
participles, and before adjectives or adverbs. 

Enough follows its adjective or adverb ; as, " A place good enough." Not usually pre- 
cedes the participle or the infinitive ; as, " Not to know some things, is an honor." 
" Not to give you any more trouble, I will" &c. "Not receiving your letter, I" &c. 
Ever, never, sometimes, often, always, most frequently precede the verb. Such adverbs as 
only, merely, solely, chiefly, at least, &c, may be used to limit almost any part of the sen- 
tence, and should therefore be placed near to the parts which they are intended to mo- 
dify. The is sometimes elegantly required before a comparative or a superlative adverb, 
to express emphasis ; as, " Whose sweet entrancing tones he loved the best." — Collins. 

Emphatic Position : " Then never saw I charity before." " In their prosperity, my 
friends shall never hear of me ; in their adversity, ahvays." 

Metrical Position : " Peeping from forth their alleys green ; " " To swiftly glide 
o'er hill and dale." 

4. Two negatives make an affirmation, as in the following sentence : " I never said no- 
thing to him about it "=I said something to him about it." The sentence should have 
been, " I never said any thing to him about it ; " or, " I said nothing to him about it." 
Not followed by only, or some equivalent word, modifies this, and does not affect the neg- 
ative coming after it ; so that a sentence with two negatives thus situated, is still nega- 
tive ; as, " I not only never said so, but never thought so." Two negatives independent 
of each other, a negative repeated, or a negative strengthened by its correlative, — do not 
destroy the negation ; as, " No, never." " I wiWnever, never give my consent." " There 
was no peace, no happiness in the family." " I have seen Christians that have neither 
love nor charity." " It may not be popular neither to take away any of the privileges of 



432 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

parliament." — Mansfield. " I do not understand this business. — Nor I neither.'''' — Gar- 
rick. " Tou shall not pluck this rose, nor that one neither.' 11 Here, either, 1 think, would 
be incorrect ; for neither is the proper correlative to nor. Such peculiar expressions as 
the foregoing are sometimes used, when one or more denials have already been 
made, and the speaker wishes to anticipate the now impatient hearer, and preclude him 
from even something more. 

It is sometimes difficult to determine whether or or nor should be used to continue a 
negative sense after a preceding negative. I believe most good usage is in favor of nor ; 
especially when the parts connected are long, or emphatically distinguished, or do not 
have a common dependence on the first negative. "The King has no arbitrary power 
to give him ; your Lordships have not ; nor the Commons ; nor the whole Legislature." — 
Burke. " But no community will bear three-pence, or will bear a penny, when the gen- 
eral feeling of men are irritated." — Id. " Never calumniate any man, nor give the 
least encouragement to calumniators." " But not thieves ; nor robbers ; nor mobs; nor 
rioters, insurgents, or rebels." — Parsons on Contracts. " We are told that the represen- 
tatives will not be known to the people, nor the people to the representatives." — Wilson. 
Here not does not sufficiently affect the latter part of the sentence, and hence nor is pre- 
ferred to or. So, "Yet Paul did not waste all his hours in this idle vaporing, nor in the 
pleasures of the table." — Prescott. "lean not see better than another, nor walk so 
we ll." — Garrick. " I can not tell which way his Majesty went, nor whether there is any 
one with him." — Fielding. " The powers not delegated to the United States, nor prohib- 
ited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people." — Con- 
sitution of the United States. 

But or may be preferable to nor, when the parts are short and closely connected, or 
when the preceding negative plainly affects all the parts, or when the parts are not 
emphatically distinguished, or when the latter part is merely explanatory or alterna- 
tive. " No senator or representative shall be appointed to" &c. "This was not to be 
ascribed chiefly or solely to political animosity." — Maeaulay. No"tie of gratitude or 
of honor could bind him." — Id. "He was not supposed to be constitutionally or habit- 
ually treacherous." — Id. " He had wver known father or mother." " So long as they 
did not meddle with politics or religion." — Prescott. "No special words, or form, are 
necessary, to make the contract binding." — Parsons. "We found no towns ; nor even a 
single house, or person, or vestige of civilization." "Iain not disposed to give or to 
take." Nor sometimes cuts off preceding modifying or other words, and then or must 
be used ; as, " You can not be too pxaci or honest in your business ; " i. e., nor too hon- 
est. " You can not be too exact nor honest in your business," implies that it is impos- 
sible to be honest. "These syllables are not always sounded or accented in the same 
way." " She is not sufficiently neat or good-natured." " There was no excess of fraud 
or cruelty of which he was not capable." — Maeaulay. Here nor would suggest "no 
cruelty," and not, " no excess of cruelty." So nor sometimes excludes the idea of indi- 
viduality, or allows the word after it to have the widest application ; as, " There is no 
person nor law to prevent him ; " i. e., nor law in general. Better : " There is no per- 
son, no law," &c, or, " There is no person or law " &c, or, " There is no person nor any 
law "&c. When or would suggest that the latter part is merely alternative when it 
really is not so, nor must be used, or else some other mode of expression ; as, "No 
dependent proposition, nor clause," &c, or, " No dependent proposition, or other 
clause," &c. 

Two negatives are sometimes preferred to express a modest, an elegant, or a forcible 
affirmative ; as, " He is not unschooled in the ways of the world ; " i. e., he is shrewd 
enough. " I urn not unaware of his efforts to gain my place in her affections." "I 
mean the riding-habit, which some have not injudiciously styled the hermaphroditical, 
by reason of its masculine and feminine composition."— Gay. " There is no climate that 
is not a witness of their toils." — Burke: American Colonies. 
" Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 
In which they were, or the fierce pain not feel." — Milton. 
A negative question is answered like an affirmative one. " And did they not catch 
you ? — No, thank Heaven. — You were not kicked then ? — No, sir. — Nor caned ? — No, sir. 
— Nor dragged through a horse-pond ? — 0, Lord ! No, sir." — Garrick. 



9. PREPOSITIONS. 

The liabilities to error in respect to prepositions, may be reduced to 
the following heads : — 



ADVERBS. 433 

1. Choice. 2. Position. 3. Insertion or Omission. 

4. Repetition. 

1. In the use of prepositions, great care should be taken to select the 
most appropriate to express the relation intended. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

It was done a purpose. The sultry evening was followed, at night, 
with a heavy storm of rain. A cruel and sinful life is generally fol- 
lowed with the vengeance of Heaven. A deer ran cross the road. She 
is too stupid to have any taste of literature. Some of the warriors wore 
an extra tuft of feathers, in distinction to those who had brought in no 
scalps. Congress consists in a senate and a house of representatives. 
Of what does happiness consist? In respect of age and rank, they 
were nearly equal. I learned it of others. Not any syllable in a word 
may take the accent. He insisted in reducing the fort immediately. 
— on the immediate reduction of — The Saxons reduced the Britons to 
their own power. He was sadly cheated of a Jew. He left of neces- 
sity. The government is based in republican principles. The case has 
no resemblance with the other. The soil is adapted for hemp and to- 
bacco. Said client believes that said judge is prejudiced to his cause. 
It was no diminution to his greatness. He died with the bilious fever. 
He died for thirst. Such bonnets were brought in fashion last year. I 
confide on his ability and honesty. He went above stairs. The profes- 
sion is in unison to my disposition. He was accused with having acted 
unfairly. His residence is to the north side of the public square. But 
what is all my grief in comparison of that which she bears ? We had 
no relish to such viands, I assure you. Our passions are bloodhounds 
that tear our hearts in pieces. Above this, who shall fix a limit to his 
cares ? The judge is disqualified from deciding on this case. — disquali- 
fied/or — To his insignificant charges I shall make no defence. I have 
an aversion for such things. He made the order in authority of the in- 
structions which he had received. — by authority of — The persecu- 
tions of these wretched people were truly barbarous. — against these — 
I have examined your book, and am favorably impressed with it. — 
by it. I wrote the recommendation on a slight perusal of the book. 
— after — It is an affair on which I am not interested. In some deriva- 
tive words the e is omitted. — from some — The e is left out in the de- 
rivative words. I have little influence with him. — over him. To 
some adjectives, most is annexed in the superlative; as, foremost. — -for 
the — A list of some of the books of each class will be given. — in 
each class — He enjoyed the office to his death. — till his death. This 
training is necessary in all that are expected to excel. They appear in 
a very different aspect in one man to what they do in another. I have an 
abhorrence to such abusive politicians. I am traveling for Philadel- 
phia. He ended with a panegyric of modern science. In this occa- 
sion, I will freely declare my sentiments. In compliance to custom. 
The pleasure in seeing you. He left us of a sudden. — suddenly. He 
came of a sudden. — on — I take a walk of evenings. — a walk every 
evening ; or, / take a walk almost every evening. Religion and membership 
may differ widely with each other. He remained a year at Costa Rica, in 
a little village. You will find me in No. 25, at Olive Street. He has no 

37 



434 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

capacity of learning mathematics. He was soon initiated in the mys- 
teries of the club. When she has arrived to years of discretion. He 
does not aspire at political distinction. I was disappointed in the pleas- 
ure of meeting with you at the party. I was disappointed of the horse 
I bought. The one was not joined with the other. He swerved out of 
the true course. Several instances have fallen into my own observation. 
— under — There is no need for so much preparation. This is a very differ- 
ent dinner to what we had yesterday. I beg the favor of your accept- 
ance of a copy of a view of the manufactories of the West Riding of 
the county of York. I have been to New Orleans, and I am now going 
for New York. The word man is derived of a Sanscrit word that signi- 
fies to think. His hardships have produced little change on his appear- 
ance. It was not a change to the better. You may rely in what 1 say. 
He soon rose beyond his classmates. This remark gave occasion to a 
bitter reply. The castle is seated by the Garonne. — seated beside, or — 
situated on — Lord Byron was born at London. Among every class of 
people, self-interest prevails. There is constant hostility between these 
several tribes. They quarrel amongst one another. — with — He di- 
vided his estate between his son, daughter, and nephew. Such a series 
of words have generally a comma between each. — after each word. 
A comparison of three or more. The space between the three lines 
is the area of the triangle. — within — A combat twenty Texans against 
fifty Mexicans. (Say, "of ... . against, " or, " between .... and. 11 ) Will 
you step in my garden ? He stepped from one coach in another. The 
hawk flew up in the tree. Charles let his dollar drop in the creek. I was 
not thinking on you at all. About two months ago, he went out of a 
fine morning with a bundle in his hand. — Irving. Col. Washington 
was very ill with a fever. — Id. And what would you substitute to what 
is here laid down? He is now residing at the South. I was at New 
York at the World's Fair. He was eager of making a display. — eager 
to make a display. I find no difficulty of keeping up with my class. 
— in keeping up, or — find it no difficulty to keep up — The sheriff imme- 
diately laid hold of him. The sheriff immediately took hold on him. 

2. Position. 

1. Adjuncts should be so placed in the sentence as to make it correct, 
clear, and elegant. 

2. A needless separation of the preposition from the word which it 
governs, is generally inelegant. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

There we saw some fellows digging gold from China. A lecture on 
the methods of teaching geography at ten o'clock. (Judicious punctu- 
ation often serves to bring out the meaning rightly in regard to adjuncts ; 
though the construction should always, if possible, present the precise 
meaning, independently of the punctuation.) He obtained a situation 
of great profit in the beginning of his career. These verses were writ- 
ten by a young man who has long since lain in the grave for his amuse- 
ment. Wanted — A young man to take care of some horses of a religious 
turn of mind. At that time I wished any body would hang me a thou- 
sand times. He went to see his friends on horseback. A physician was 
soon obtained for the young man of eminent abilities. By prosecuting 



ADVERBS. 435 

the course pointed out, with zeal, you will soon acquire a knowledge of 
law. After he had gained five thousand dollars, by speculation, he lost 
more than half of it. Habits must be acquired of temperance and self- 
denial. At the same time, there are some defects which must be ac- 
knowledged, in his Odyssey. — Blair. In every church it must be ad- 
mitted there are some unworthy members. The customs and laws are 
very different from ours in some countries. He was taking a view from 
a window of a cathedral in which some of the troops had stationed 
themselves. As our parts open and mature, by degrees, we rise from 
the gratifications of sense to relish those of mind. — Addison. Many 
act so directly contrary to this method, that from a habit of saving time 
and paper, which they acquired at the university, they write in so dim- 
inutive a character, that they can hardly read what they have written. — 
Swift. Two hereditary enemies, among the Highlands on a narrow pass, 
met face to face. Are these designs which any man who is born a 
Briton in any circumstances or in any situation ought to be ashamed 
or afraid to avow ? 

Whom did he give it to? — to whom did he — I never could ascer- 
tain what it is useful for. Whom was the message directed to? Which 
of the books can I find it in ? How much did you send him to market 
with? He rushed into and expired in the flames. — rushed into the 
flames, and expired in them. They were refused entrance into, and for- 
cibly driven from, the house. The first law is different from, and much 
inferior to, the second. The cost of the carriage was added to, and 
greatly increased my account. 



a. Objectives of time or measure should not be joined, by a preposi- 
tion, to a word which they are not designed to limit. 

My mistress had a daughter of nine years old. — Swift. (Omit "of" ; 
for " nine years " was meant to limit " old," and not to limit " daughter.") 
Almost any boy of twelve years old knows as much. They enclosed 
the garden with a wall of six feet high. A monument of several centu- 
ries old. A room of twenty feet long, and eighteen feet wide. 



3. Insertion or Omission. 

1. We should not insert or omit prepositions so as to destroy the prop- 
er connection between other words. Prepositions should not be omitted, 
when required by the sense. 

2. Prepositions should not be inserted or omitted contrary to long 
and general usage. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
It was to your brother to whom I was mostly indebted. It was 
your brother — It is in vain to remonstrate. Notwithstanding of my 
warning, he persisted in his course. There was a deep creek between 
him and between his house. Allow me to present you with a gold 
watch. — to present to you a gold watch. The performance was ap- 
proved of by all that saw it. 1 will now present you with a synopsis. 
— Smith's Grammar. — present you a synopsis. I will yield to none 
except to him. — except him. Women are governed by fancy in stead 



436 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

of by reason. The proper course of action, in this case, is by assump- 
sit. — is assumpsit. By a deed of trust there will a less troublesome 
security than by a mortgage. A deed of trust will be a less &c. From 
having heard of his distress, I sent him relief. From abusing his con- 
stitution in youth, he became prematurely old. Having abused — The 
remark is worthy the fool that made it. — worthy of — The attack is un- 
worthy your notice. There was no disputing the point. — Irving . Or 
failing that, they might build a rival fort in the vicinity. It is not given 
human wisdom to foresee all events. What went ye out for to see? Pa 
sent me for to learn arithmetic and grammar. San Francisco is the 
other side the Rocky Mountains. He is like to his father. *He was ban- 
ished the country — expelled the college. The king of France or England 
was to be the umpire. I am rather inclined to be studying of my lesson than 
to be fishing. He departed the province a few days afterwards. I will 
consider of your proposition. I admit of what you say. You have an- 
ticipated on what I was going to say. It was rather the want of money 
than customers that induced him to abandon his business. — than of 
customers — Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. I 
put some apples into the buggy and my hat. He goes oftener to the 
tavern than the church. Many talented men have deserted from the 
party. The calf followed on alter its mother. He pulled a little bottle 
of brandy from out of his knapsack. The passion of anger leads to re- 
pentance. Anger leads — Wanted — A young man of from 16 to 21 
years of age. He offered to me his horse for the journey. The man 
was thrown from his horse near to his house. Let that one remain, but 
take the one next it. At about what time will you come again ? The 
sycamore was 15 feet diameter, and 120 feet hight. What use is it to 
me? The horned frog is nearly the size of a lizard. My business pre- 
vented me attending thelast meeting of the societ}^. He refused taking 
any further notice of it. — refused to take — I shall oppose the grant- 
ing this company any more privileges. — the granting of any more privi- 
leges to — She could not refrain shedding tears. You will seldom find 
a dull fellow of good education, but (if he happen to have any leisure 
on his hands) will turn his head to one of those two amusements for all 
fools of eminence, politics, or poetry. — to one of .... of eminence, 
— to politics or to poetry. He was right in that which you blame him. 
— for which — To every one whom it will apply. — to ivhom — She 
took it more to heart than I thought for. — than I thought she would. 
One should not be omitted without the other. They should be either 
both omitted or both inserted. Let us consider the works of nature and 
art with proper attention. An event so unexpected to my mind and 
many others. 

4. Repetition. 

A preposition relating to a series of objectives, must be used but once 
before the entire series, or be repeated before each term of the series. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
He is a man of sagacity, experience, and of honesty. By industry, 
by economy, and good luck, he soon accumulated a fortune. Their hearts 
are torn by the worst, most troublesome and insatiable of all passions, — 
by avarice, by ambition, by fear and jealousy.— Burke. 



ADVERBS. 437 



AIDS AND REMARKS. 

1. The various meanings and uses of prepositions are so fully exhibited in Book Second, 
that little needs to be added here. What preposition is most appropriate in any given 
instance, does not always depend on the preceding or the following term, but on the rela- 
tion of the terms, or on the view that is taken of them. A different preposition may 
sometimes express the meaning as well or more forcibly ; or it may be sufficiently defi- 
nite by the aid of some principle in the Figures, to suggest the relation intended. 

To, into, and in, are analogous, in signification, to up, upon, and on. To stops at a 
boundary ; into passes a boundary ; and in does not pass out of a boundary. Into is an 
inverted expression for to-in. The prominent idea of up is elevation ; of on, place : upon 
unites both meanings, and is sometimes used as a stronger term for on; as, " Dependent 
upon; insist upon.'" When we say, " Office up stairs ", " To get on a horse ", " To cut 
in two ", " To dash to pieces ", the preposition should perhaps be considered as used figu- 
ratively. (See Metonymy and Synecdoche, pp. 215-16.) By and with are often confounded. 
By rather directs the mind to the Jause or the indirect means ; with frequently implies 
accompaniment : by annexes the agent or the means ; with, the means or the manner. 
" I was favorably impressed by his remarks." " I was impressed with great esteem for 
him." " It was with great difficulty that we succeeded." " He walks ivith a staff by 
moonlight." To say, "He died with a fever", would imply that both died. Of fre- 
quently refers to something past ; and for, to something future ; as, " I have had a taste 
of it ", " I have a taste for it" : but for may also refer to the past ; as, " Baptized for [on 
account of] the remission of sins." I am disappointed of a thing, when I do not get it ; 
disappointed in it, when it has failed to answer my expectations. Among relates to 
number, and amidst to quantity; but the distinction is not always observed. To is 
definite ; towards, indefinite. To implies approach from a distance ; at, rest or motion 
near, sometimes aim ; as, " He went to a large sycamore, and took his stand at the roots 
of it, to shoot at the bear." At and in are often used in speaking of places or residences. 
In suggests the idea of something surrounding ; at does not : in implies inclosure ; at, 
proximity. Places remote dwindle in the mental vision to a mere point, and hence at is 
often preferred before the names of single houses, of villages, or of foreign cities. But 
perhaps a better view of the matter is this : In is more definite than at; it vouches for a 
more exact or for a certain knowledge of the relation. When I say, " He is in the tav- 
ern — in Constantinople ", I assume to know that he is within these places, and not outside 
of them; but when I say, "He is at the tavern — at Constantinople", I simply mean 
that he is somewhere about these places — occasionally within them. Betiveen refers to 
two ; among, to more. Mr. Fowler has used the expression, " between the intellectual 
and natural worlds " ; which should rather be, " between the intellectual and the natu- 
ral world." The same preposition that is required after a primitive word, is generally 
required after its derivatives ; as, " To comply with ", "In compliance with " ; but " De- 
pendent on", "Independent o/." 

In regard to the use of prepositions and conjunctions, much must be left to the stu- 
dent's knowledge, judgment, and taste. To be able to use them rightly, requires not 
only a thorough knowledge of them — of their various powers, or shades of meaning, but 
also an extensive and sagacious insight into the whole fabric of language. 

2. Adjuncts should generally be placed as near as possible to the words to which they 
relate. A troublesome adjunct is sometimes placed most advantageously at the begin- 
ning, seldom at the end. Adjuncts should not be needlessly inverted. "Of whom did 
you buy it ? " is a better expression than, " Whom did you buy it of? " But when the 
relative is omitted, the preposition must be put at the end ; as, " I have nothing to tie 
him ivith" i. e., I have nothing with which to tie him. To place an object common to 
both, after a transitive verb and a preposition, or after two or more prepositions separa- 
ted by several intervening words, sometimes produces a disagreeable hiatus in the sense. 
When the objective term is short, it is better to place it after the first governing word, and 
its pronoun after the second ; but when it is long, it may be allowed to stand after all the 
governing words. " Here he saw, and was soon after surrounded by, several Indians'''' ; 
better, "Here he saw several Indians, by whom he was soon afterwards surrounded." 
" The second proposal was different from, and inferior to, the first" ; better, " The second 
proposal was different from the first, and inferior to it." "He has quarreled with and 
betrayed every friend that he ever had." " He was descended from, and allied to, some of 
the best families of the State." 

We may say, " A child of six years ", or, "A child of six years of age ", or rather, " A 
child six years old " ; but not, " A child of six years old ", for " six years " should mod- 
ify "old", and not "child." A necessary modifying phrase or clause may sometimes 
be allowed to separate the adjunct from the preceding term ; as, " In this dialect we find 
written nearly the whole of what remains to us of ancient Greek literature." — Crosby. 
Adjuncts, in regard to position as well as signification, are much like adverbs or adjec- 
tives. 



438 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

3. The proper insertion or omission of prepositions must be determined by the sense 
and by custom. After some words, such as like, worth, near, give, offer, &c, the prepo- 
sition is usually omitted, and the relation — a very obvious one— is readily inferred with- 
out it.' The object of the omitted preposition is sometimes called the indirect object, to 
distinguish it from that of the verb, which is called the direct object. When not emphat- 
ically distinguished, the indirect object usually precedes the other ; as, " Give me the 
knife" : but when placed after the other, the preposition must be expressed; as, "Give 
the knife to me " [, not to some other person]. When the insertion or the omission of the 
preposition would cause a slight variation in the sense, we should be very careful to 
select the most appropriate expression. " To eat a thing 11 , is to consume the whole of 
it ; " To eat of a thing ", is to consume only a part of it. The same distinction applies 
to many other similar expressions. To know differs from to know of; and to meet, from 
to m^et with. " I m> t with an old friend, who showed me all the curiosities of the city. 1 ' 
" I met the stranger, but passed on without stopping. 11 For can not, according to mod- 
ern usage, be properly used before the infinitive. " What went ye out for to see ? " 
should be, " What went ye out to see. 11 When the antecedent term relates to two or more 
adjuncts after it, the preposition must, in many cases, be repeated, to show this com- 
mon relation ; as, " Religion is a comfort in youth as well as old age. 11 — as in old age. 
" Wealth is more conducive to wickedness than piety. 11 — than to piety. 

4. Judicious repetition adds sometimes much to the vigor and solemnity of the sen- 
tence; "This bill, though rejected here, will make its way to the public, to the nation, 
to the remotest wilds of America. 11 — Chatham. " All his talents and virtues did not save 
him from unpopularity— -from civil war— /Vow a prison— /row a bar — from a scaffold. 11 — 3 
Macaulay. To avoid the tediousness caused by placing many objectives after the same 
preposition, or by repeating the same preposition very often, a long series of terms is 
sometimes elegantly separated into groups, as in the following sentence : " I could 
demonstrate that the whole of your political conduct has been one continued series of 
weakness, temerity, and despotism ; of blundering ignorance, and wanton negligence ; 
and of the most notorious servility, incapacity, and corruption. 11 — Chatham. 

10. CONJUNCTIONS OR CONNECTIVES. 

The liabilities to error in respect to conjunctions or connectives, may 
be reduced to the following heads: — 

1. Choice. 2. Insertion or omission. 3. The parts connected. 

1. Choice. 

1. The simplest and most appropriate connective should always be 
selected. 

Two or more connectives occupying different places in the sentence, 
and serving to unite the same parts, should exactly correspond. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Your notions are too refined, so as we are not likely to agree. — so 
that — He was dismissed, not so much because he was too young, but 
because he was unskillful. — as because — A conjunction connects 
words, phrases, and clauses. To borrow or to lend are sometimes equally 
imprudent. The land is equally adapted to gardening or to farming. 
The antiquities of Mexico and Peru indicate considerable civilization. 
(Say, " or Peru" or, " and those of Peru." ) Progression is arithmetical 
and geometrical. The rise and fall of a nation forms a history worthy 
of study. I can not conceive how my horse got away, without somebody 
unfastened him. — unless — I do not know why he should have bought 
the lot, without he bought it for speculation. The report is the same 
with that which I heard. — the same as that — I have the same opinion 
of the matter with my friend. A man of great ability, but for all that 
he is not successful in business. — and yet — They told us how that it 
happened. — how it — He is too reckless and indolent that we should 



CONJUNCTIONS. 439 

put confidence in him. —for us to put — He told us how that he would 
go to New York next summer. (Say, u He told us how he" or, " He told 
us that he" according to the sense.) The multitude rebuked them be- 
cause they should hold their peace. The donation was the more accept- 
able, that it was given without solicitation. I will see if it snows or 
not. — whether — Nobody knows if he is able to pay his debts. I 
strenuously opposed those measures, and it was not in my power to pre- 
vent them. — but it their adoption — As four cost 12 cents, one 

will cost 3 cents. Since four &c. As the denominator is greater, the 
value must be less. He determined not to accept the office, except he 
should receive a fair compensation. — unless he — But and if that evil 
servant say in his heart &c. But if that evil — So as that his doctrines 
were embraced by great numbers. To go by water will be equally as 
expensive as to go by land. — as expensive as — So as you sow, so you 
shall reap. I will assist you, if that you can not do the work yourself. 
It is two years ago, that 1 paid the family a visit. — years since I — 
He built his residence on a lofty hill, and which was crested with a beau- 
tiful clump of trees. Some useful maxims, and which I shall never 
forget, I learned from him. Some of the land, and for which he paid the 
highest price, was liable to be overflowed. He soon discovered some 
qualities in her of a disagreeable nature, and which gradually implanted 
aversion. The money w r as stolen at the time that the boat was landing. 
(Say, " while" or. " when") At the time that I saw her, she was young 
and beautiful. This is one reason that he will not comply. — why — 
This is the chief reason that preaching does not more good. It is said 
that Caesar wrote in the same manner that he fought. No problem is so 
difficult which he can not solve. — that he can not solve it. He holds no 
opinion but what is supported by authority and reason. — Kent. — that 
is not supported — This passion arises from much the same cause with 
sympathy. — Burke. —from which sympathy arises — I will go ex- 
cept I should be ill. 1 saw them all unless two or three. If a body 
moves in a curve, the curve is all in one plane. When — He had 
scarcely reached his home, than he was taken ill. — when he — A wise 
man will be contented that his glory be deferred till such a time as he 
shall be truly glorified. — till the time at which — He has neither 
learning or manners. I could not buy it nor borrow it. — neither buy 
nor — Neither the Indians, the chase, or the majestic forests, will re- 
main. Neither flatter or contemn the rich or the great. The fact can 
neither be disguised or denied. We need not nor do not confine the pur- 
poses of God. — and do not — He has no love nor veneration for his 

superiors. (Say, " neither nor" or, " no no") There was 

no place so hidden nor remote as the plague did not find it. I will de- 
fraud nobody, nor nobody shall defraud me. He could not deny but 
what he had borrowed the money. — deny that — I have no doubt but 
what you are to blame. Who can tell but what he will yet succeed in 
his undertaking ? — that he will not yet — No occupation is so easy and 
simple, but it requires some care and attention. — that it does not re- 
quire — There is no question but the universe has certain bounds to it. — 
Addison. I have no doubt but that I preached a better sermon on that 
day. I can not see but what you are right. A corrupt governor is 
nothing else but a reigning sin. — than a — The loafer seems created 
for no other purpose but to keep up the ancient and honorable order of 



440 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

idleness. — Irving. (Say, " other than," or, u no purpose ex- 
cept.") Hardships that would have killed any other human being but 
an Indian, a backwoodsman, or the devil. — Irving. 1 have no doubt but 
that the pistol is a relic of the buccaneers; — who knows but it belonged 
to Kidd himself? — Id. fairest flower, no sooner blown but blasted ! 
There is no other umbrella here but mine. She thinks of little else but 
dressing and visiting. He is fond of nothing else but play and mischief. 
I can not otherwise reduce these fractions but by multiplying by the 
denominators. This is none other but the gate of Paradise. Such 
writers have no other standard but what appears to be fashionable and 
popular. Unaccommodated man is no more but such a poor, bare, forked 
animal as thou art. — Shak. An ant never goes- into any other nest but 
her own. — Addison. He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
He has little of the scholar than the name. We were afraid iest you 
would suffer from cold. He took only such things which he needed. 
The book is not as accurate as I wished it to be. — so accurate — He 
is, as far as I can judge, well qualified. So still he sat as those who 
wait, Till judgment speak the doom of fate. His weakness is such ns he 
can not set up. Do your work so as you will not be obliged to do it 
again. There is no disposition naturally so good as that it does not re- 
quire cultivation. I will not go away till your brother returns. (Per- 
haps allowable; though before seems preferable to till.) I was greatly 
affected; in so much that I was obliged to leave the place, notwithstand- 
ing that my assistance had been pressing! y solicited. — so that 

though my — The man, with his family, were murdered by the Indians. 
— and — Moses with two of his companions had concealed themselves 
in a log cabin. His life is neither tossed in boisterous seas or the vex- 
atious world; or lost in slothful ease. 

2. Insertion or Omission. 

1. Connectives should not be so frequently used as to encumber speech. 

2. Connectives should not be used so seldom that the discourse is ren- 
dered too fragmentary, or the connection between the parts obscure. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
John, and Mary, and William, and Susan, went to visit their uncle. 
He is a man of visionary notions, unacquainted with the world, unfit to 
live in it. I could find neither the man, nor the horse, nor the rifle. 
The important relations of masters and servants, and husbands and 
wives, and brothers and friends and citizens. No rank, station, posses- 
sions, exempt men from contributing their share to public utility. While 
the earth remaineth, seed-time and harvest, cold, heat, summer, winter, 
day and night, shall not cease. It happened one day he went out of 
curiosity, to see the great Duke's lions. — Addison. — that he — I have 
no doubt you will succeed. Surely no man is so infatuated to wish for 
a different government than what we have. — so infatuated as to tvish . . . 
from what — As you have requested me to write to you, so I have con- 
cluded to write to-day. 

The following paragraphs exhibit, the one, frugality, the other, profu- 
sion, in the use of connectives, carried perhaps to the farthest point of 
endurance: — 

" Morning came : we rushed to the fight; from wing to wing is the 



CONJUNCTIONS. 441 

rolling strife. They fell like the thistle's head beneath the autumnal 
winds. In armor came a stately form : I mixed my strokes with the 
chief. By turns our shields are pierced: loud rung our steely mails. 
His helmet fell to the ground. In brightness shone the foe. His eyes, 
two pleasant flames, rolled between his wandering locks. I knew Cath- 
rnor of Atha ; I threw my spear on the earth. Dark we turned, and 
silent passed to mix with other foes." — Ossian. 

"And then the three companies blew the trumpets, and brake the 
pitchers, and held the lamps in their hands, and the trumpets in their 
right hands to blow withal. And they cried, The sword of the Lord, and 
of Gideon. And they stood every man in his place round about the 
camp ; and all the host ran, and cried, and fell." — Bible. 

3. The Paris Connected. 

1. To vary connected or related parts needlessly, in kind or form, is 
generally inelegant. 

2. When a part has a common dependence on two connected 
parts before it or after it, it should be proper when construed 
with each. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

In the morning of life w r e set out with joy and hopefully, but we soon 
pursue our journey sorrowfully and with despondence. (Say, " joyfully 
and hopefully" or, u with joy and hope." ) Enjoying health, and to live in 
peace, are great blessings. You may take some or all the apples in the 
basket. (Hardly allowable; say rather, " You may take some of the apples 
in the basket, or all of them." ) He either could not, nor wished to re- 
fute the argument. It is grammatically independent, but referring 
logically to some indefinite person. To borrow is easier than paying. 
— than to pay. She was a young lady of great beauty, and possess- 
ing an ample fortune. — and an ample fortune. The author is more 
remarkable for strength of sentiment than harmonious language. — 
than for harmony of language. He did not mention Leonora, nor that 
her father was dead. — nor her father's death. He can bribe, but he 
is not able to seduce; he can buy, but he has not the power of gaining ; 
he can lie, but no one is deceived by him. — but he can not — He 
embraced the cause of liberty faintly, and pursued it without resolution; 
he grew tired of it, when he had much to hope ; and gave it up, when 
there was no ground of apprehension. 

He ought and will go this evening. — ought to go and v:ill go — He 
can and ought to give more attention to his business. Cedar is not 
so hard but more durable than oak. — so hard as oak, but more durable — 
She is fairer but not so amiable as her sister. It is different but better 
than the old. The court of chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks 
the teeth of the common law. — Addison. We could not find the place 
nor the persons by whom the goods had been concealed. That lot is 
preferable and cheaper than the other. The opinions of the few must 
be overruled and submit to the opinions of the many. Into this cave 
we luckily found the way, and a comfortable shelter. — and it afforded 
us a comfortable shelter. The comparison depends on the sound or 
the number of syllables composing the word. Whatever we do shall 
be displayed and heard in the clearest light. 



442 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

AIDS AND REMARKS. 
1 The various uses and meanings of conjunctions are perhaps sufficiently explained and 
illustrated in Book Second. And either connects parts that may be referred separately to 
a third, or it connects parts that must be referred conjointly to a third. To avoid this 
latter sense, we must sometimes use or, or some other connective. kk Conjunctions con- 
nect words and sentences," may mean, "Conjunctions connect words to sentences;" 
hence we should say, " Conjunctions connect words or sentences." Or is either exclusive 
or distributive. " The punishment is $100, and imprisonment in jail for three months." 
" The punishment is $100. or imprisonment in jail for three months." " Sheep are white 
or black ; " i. e., some are white, and some are black. " The relative pronoun is resump- 
tive or restrictive ; " i. e., sometimes resumptive, and sometimes restrictive. " Nouns arc 
proper and common," means that the same nouns are at the same time both proper and 
common ; hence say, " Nouns are either proper or common." " Proportion is simple or 
compound." "I have learned simple and compound proportion;" better, "I have 
learned simple proportion and compound." As should be used after sw:h implying simi- 
larity or comparison ; and after same; when equivalent to such. As should be used before 
the infinitive to express a consequence ; as, "The disease was so severe as to produce 
death." As before a participle sometimes implies cause, or points to the special view to 
be taken. " He was tried «.s having passed counterfeit moiu-y." " He was represented 
to us as being well educated in mathematics." That properly serves to introduce a con- 
sequence or purpose. " It was such that I would not buy it." " I came that you might 
assist me with your advice." After words of fearing, doubting, denying, and some others, 
but, but what, but that, lest, or lest (hat, should not be used for that. Than should be used 
after comparatives, and after other, else, otherwise, rather, and words of similar meaning. 
Besides may also be used after else or other, when the sense requires it. It joins on some- 
thing as additional or to be included with what is previously mentioned. " The remark 
applies to other men than me ; " i. e.. to men of different character from mine. " The 
remark applies to other men besides me ; " i. e., to other men as well as to me. " He will 
hold the land against all others than the king ; " i. e., but not against the king. " He 
will hold the land against all others besides the king ; " i. e., not merely against him, but 
against all others too. Whether, and not if, properly serves to introduce some matter of 
doubt in a dependent clause. " I know not if he will come," should be, " I know not 
whether he will come." W hen is sometimes preferable to if, in order to avoid the sub • 
junctive mood, and express a condition leading to a general truth. " When water is at 
32° above zero, it freezes." The two meanings of but — the reservative and the directly 
adversative — may be seen in the two following sentences: " He is poor, but (yet) he is 
honest ;" " The horse was not white, but (, on the contrary, he was) black." Except 
takes out ; hence, " All went unless two or three," should be, " All went except two or 
three." The chief correlatives are either or; neither nor; (in poetry, some- 
times, or or;) nor nor; whether or; though, although yet, never- 
theless; as as, and as so, denoting equality. The correlative as attaches 

something that determines the degree or character of what the corresponding part de- 
notes. And, or, and nor, are the chief conjunctions for connecting serial parts. 

2. That, if, and some other conjunctions, are frequently omitted to avoid heaviness or 
harshness of expression ; or when the connection and dependence of the parts is suffi- 
ciently obvious. " I am satisfied that is the proper plan "==I am satisfied that that is the 
proper plan. "Were it so "=7/ it were so. The judicious insertion or omission of con- 
junctions sometimes contributes much to the elegance or expressiveness of sentences. 
Repetition implies deliberation, or a desire to make the most of the matter. The omis- 
sion of the conjunction usually implies rapidity, haste, or so deep an interest, on the part 
of the speaker, in what is uttered, that he can not pay attention to connectives or unim- 
portant words. A series of terms are sometimes elegantly connected in pairs or groups. — 
See pp. 281-87 and p. 438. 

3. " He managed the affair wisely and with caution ; " better, " He managed the af- 
fair wisely and cautiously ; " or, — " with wisdom and caution." There is a mode of ex- 
pression, seldom avoided, I believe, even by good writers, that has always seemed dis- 
agreeable to me. It is the attaching of a participial noun by means of in stead of to 
some different form of the verb ; as, " He went to plunder in stead of governing the col- 
ony." Would it not be better to say, " He went to plunder, and not to govern, the col- 
ony ; " or, "He went to plunder rather than to govern the colony ? " When the mind 
naturally expects uniformity of structure, a deviation is generally harsh, and should be 
avoided. But when the sense or even the melody of the sentence requires a difference of 
structure, a deviation is allowable; as, "He has merely strung together words gram- 
matically and without absurdity " To say, "He has merely strung together words 
grammatically and not absurdly," might convey a different meaning. 

A part relating to two or more connected parts, is usually construed in the mind with 
each, and hence it should make sense with each. " He can and ought to go this eve- 
ning "=He can to and ought to go this evening. " It is different and inferior to the sec- 



INTERJECTIONS. 443 

ond "=It is different to and inferior to the second. Therefore say, " He can go and ought 
to go this evening ; " " It is different from the second, and inferior to it." " He was as 
much beloved but less admired than his brother "==He was as much beloved than his 
brother, but less admired than his brother ; say, " He was as much beloved as his brother, 
but less admired." In such sentences, it is customary to make the third part relate to 
only one of the connected parts, by completing the structure with the first connected 
part, and requiring the reader to supply the third part in a suitable form after the sec- 
ond connected part. When the two connected parts are very short, and the other part 
is very long, I question the impropriety of placing the latter after the other two, and re- 
quiring the reader to supply it in its proper form after the first of the connected parts. 
Why not supply a proper expression after the first as well as after the second of the con- 
nected parts? "An improper fraction is equal to, or greater than, 1, because it ex- 
presses as many or more parts than it takes to equal a unit.'"' — D. P. Colburn. To put the lat- 
ter part of this sentence in a different form, would make the sentence rather stiff, affected, 
and pedantic. Besides, the structure seems to be no worse than that of such well-estab- 
lished expressions as, " Preceded by one or more consonants.''' 

11. INTERJECTIONS. 

Liabilities to error : — 

1. Choice. 2. Redundancy or Deficiency. 

1. In the use of interjections, great care should be taken to select the 
most appropriate. 

2. Interjections should be used neither too often nor too seldom. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 
Oh! that for my quiet and his own, he were in Halifax! 0, that 
for — Oh ! m 4 y father! oh ! my friend ! how great has been ni} r ingrati- 
tude ! my father ! ingratitude ! Oh, piety ! virtue ! how amiable 

thou art. Few, few, shall part where many meet. Oh ye hypocrites. 
Alas, I am so happy to see you. — British Drama. 

AIDS AND REMAEKS. 

Interjections, originating in the heart rather than in the mind, are perhaps moro 
capricious, or less logical, than other words. They do not seem to be so fixed and defin- 
ite in form and signification. Thus, and oh denote a variety of emotions, and are used 
by some writers indifferently, one for the other. Perhaps it would be better to make 
denote only such emotions as are lively .and joyful; and oh, such as are violent and sor- 
rowful. Some always prefer when an address is made. This is a convenient distinc- 
tion, but it is not always observed. Hem, ahem, and urn, are all three, I believe, used 
indifferently to express the same emotion. I have also occasionally found, in English 
dramas, some very common emotions — such as wonder, anger, or joy — expressed by in- 
terjections that can not be found in any of our grammars or dictionaries. In short, in- 
terjections are natural sounds, the propriety of which depends not altogether on conven- 
tional usage, but to some extent on the peculiar character and condition of the person 
using them. Frequently, a speaker merely takes some word or words of the previous 
speaker— those which chiefly excited the surprise, approbation, or indignation — and uses 
them interjectionally. " Consider, Sir Charles is upon a visit to his bride. — Bride ! he is 
fitter for the gallows." — British Drama. 

It is perhaps needless to add, that the words of swearing or cursing, which rowdies 
use for grace and emphasis, are interjections as superfluous as ungentlemanly. 



-*-o^^->- 



13. RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. No word should be used that is not needed to express the meaning 
correctly, clearly, and forcibly. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

A genius is never acquired by art, but is the gift of nature. Old age 
will prove a joyless and a dreary season, if we arrive at it with an 



444 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS ^ND CRITICISMS. 

unimproved, or with a corrupted mind. These counsels were the dic- 
tates of virtue and the dictates of true honor. His reputation and his 
estate were both lost by gaming. His sisters were both of them hand- 
some. By presumption and by vanity we provoke enmity, and we incur 
contempt. He is temperate, he is disinterested, he is benevolent; he is 
an ornament to his family, and a credit to his profession. Perseverance 
in laudable pursuits will reward all our toils, and will produce effects 
beyond our calculation. Changes are almost continually taking place 
in men and in manners, in opinions and in customs, and in private for- 
tunes and in public conduct. The two horses were both sold. Thought 
and language act and react upon each other mutually. By a multi- 
plicity and variety of words, the thoughts and sentiments are not set off 
and accommodated; but, like David dressed out and equipped in Saul's 
armor, they are encumbered and oppressed. There can be no order or 
regularity in the conduct of that man who does not give and allot a due 
share of his time to retirement and reflection. His happy, cheerful tem- 
per, remote from discontent, keeps up a kind of daylight in his mind, 
excludes every gloomy prospect, and fills it with a steady and perpetual 
serenity. God is eternal, and his existence is without beginning or end. 
Being content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it. He 
led a blameless and an irreproachable life, and no one could censure his 
conduct. We sat on the verdant green, in the umbrageous shade of the 
woody forest. Opium produces sleep, because it possesses a soporific 
quality. He succeeded in gaining the universal love of all men. They 
returned back to the city from whence they came forth. Failing in his 
first effort, he again repeated it. They met together, quarreled, fought, 
and were both killed. The neck connects the head and trunk together. 
The more that you give him, the more will he want. These savage peo- 
ple seemed to have no other element but that of war. One after another 
of their hunting-grounds were reluctantly given up. James is tall, but 
Henry is taller than he. — is taller. If I mistake not, I think 1 have 
seen you before. Whenever he sees me, he always inquires concerning 
my health. — he inquires. Let us be ready according as opportunities 
present themselves, to make a prudent investment of our means. Man- 
kind are desirous of liberty, and they are kept in submission with diffi- 
culty. It is not more than six months ago, since the duke fought that 
battle. — Swift. Our debts and our sins are generally greater than we 
think for. — Franklin. Like as a war-worn charger, grazing in peaceful 
plains, starts at a strain of martial music &c. — Irving. I send you a 
Virginia bill which is equally as good as Kentucky money. — is as good 
as — He died in less than two hours time. We sought in vain to find 
the path. These examples serve to explain both the parts of the rule. 
— both parts — The two twins. All of my time. The brilliance of the 
sun dazzles our eyes and overpowers them with light. "There is a 
sweetness and sacred holiness in a mothers tears, when they are dropped 
and fall on the face of her dying and expiring babe, which no eye can 
see, and no one can behold with a heart untouched and unaffected. But 
the tear is wiped; his eyes are dried ; and though when he returns and 
comes back to his domestic hearth and fireside at home, the playful and 
sportive laugh comes up to his remembrance, and is recalled to his 
recollection; the succeeding day blunts and removes the poignancy of 
his grief, and it finds no permanent and lasting seat." The passion of 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 445 

love, the passion of anger, and the passion of envy. The inhabitants of 
Italy were divided into the three classes of nobles, indigent citizens, 
and slaves. The Incas, or kings of Peru, and all those partaking of or 
being within a certain degree of consanguinity to them, * * * * were 
allowed this privilege. — all those within a certain degree — 



2. No word should be omitted that is needed to express the meaning 
correctly, clearly, and forcibly. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

How shall we, any other way, account for this natural affection. — in 
any other way — It is not only the duty, but interest of young persons, 
to be studious and diligent. The speculation will produce great gain or 
loss. — or great loss. The people of this country possess a healthy cli- 
mate and soil, and they enjoy also a free country and laws. By these 
happy labors, they who sow and reap, will rejoice together. How a seed 
grows up into a tree, and the mind acts upon the body, are mysteries 
which we can not explain. — and how the mind — The court of France 
or England was to be the umpire. By this habitual indelicacy the virgins 
smiled at what they blushed before. — blushed at — Groves, fields, 
and meadows, are at any season of the year pleasant to look upon; but 
never so much as in the opening of spring. — so much so — The wise 
and foolish, the virtuous and the vile, the learned and ignorant, are 
often, like the w'heat and tares, blended together. We speak that we 
do know, and testify to that we have seen. That is a property most 
men have or at least may attain. By such a course, the progress of the 
pupil will be greatly facilitated, and many difficulties avoided. A serv- 
ant whose duty was to take care of the children. — duty it was — From 
this deduction may be easily seen how it comes to pass, that personifica- 
tion makes so great a figure. (Allowable; for u how it" &c. is the 
proper subject of "may be seen.") Which road should be taken was not 
easy to determine. — it was not easy to determine. We were at the fair, 
and saw every thing there. — that was there. He regards his word, but 
you do not. — regard yours. Webster, in force of eloquence, is infe- 
rior to no orator. — no other orator. The natural abilities of some men 
much exceed others. — those of others. Lawyers so young and inexpe- 
rienced, ought neither to be trusted nor expect much practice. — nor to — 
At that place we were neither well paid nor fed. I am inclined to adopt 
your book as soon as convenient, and encourage others to do likewise. 
— and to encourage — The Scribes made it their profession to study and 
teach the laws of Moses. It was neither the buying of lands, nor deal- 
ing in mules, but extravagance of his wife, that made him a bankrupt. 
Not only the peace of the family was broken, but their dignity consid- 
erably diminished, by this alliance. Not only the mansion was leased 
out, but several lots sold to pay the debt. Neither my brother nor sis- 
ter went to the fair. — nor my sister — He did not know whether it 
would be best to sell his lot or farm. — or his farm. The hawk was 
chased by the martins as well as crows. Whether we take the upper or 
lower route, we can not get there in two clays. The cholera is said to 
be in New Orleans and vicinity. — and its vicinity. The doctrine is 
inculcated both by the Old Testament and New. He is eminent both as 
a lawyer and politician. — and as a politician. Not a fence nor fruit- 



446 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

tree was to be seen. — Irving. — nor a — He ought either to be fined or 
imprisoned. (Say, " or to be fined" or, " ought to be either fined or impris- 
oned.") English verse is regulated rather by the number of syllables, 
than of feet. You can not read too much of the classics, nor too well. 
— nor read it — 1 saw most, if not all the curiosities of the show. Simon, 
son of Jonah, lovest thou me more than these? (Ambiguous.) The 
sale of one farm or several will take place to-da}\ How can 1 distin- 
guish the good from bad? There is no better situation anywhere. 
— ant/where else. I suppose he prefers her, because she possesses more 
beauty, more accomplishment, and wealth, than the other. — and more 
wealth — His honor, interest, and religion, were all embarked in the 
undertaking. I think his works more classical than all our other histo- 
rians. Bonaparte gained dominion over France, Italy, Spain, Austria, 
Russia, and Egypt. (Repeat and.) This is what best became us to do. 
— Swift. — what it best became — He met with such a reception as those 
only deserve who are content to take. — Id. The climate is always mild, 
healthy, but never more than in autumn. He was a warrior by neces- 
sity if not choice. Such were the first settlements in Texas, claiming to 
be civilized, but have now passed away. It is foreign to the present 
purpose to more than allude to these facts. Spanish authority was ban- 
ished the country, and Spanish officers tied the capital. — from . . . had 
fled from — How great the difference between the pious and profane! 
I believe when things are at worst, they will certainly mend ; and when 
they are at best, they will soon deteriorate. Miss Clark, Miss Eliot 
and Cheever were at the party. I do not remember any place where he 
said so. — he ever said so. Here lies the body of Thomas Brown, who 
was the owner of this town, who departed this life March 1797. 



3. The words, the modes of expression, and the arrangement, should 
be the best the language affords for the author's meaning. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

You may as well spend the balance of the evening with us. — the 
remainder of, or — the rest of — I do not, however, imagine that the water- 
spout would have endangered the loss of the ship. — caused — 1 love 
beef-steak and biscuits. — like — 1 joined some of the salts who were 
smoking round the fire. (Affected pertness ; say, " fellows") Will you 
fix the clock so that it will run? In that undertaking he is bound to 
succeed. A pellucid stream wanders among these mountains; then, 
calmly flowing about 200 yards, it is precipitated upwards of 80 feet. 
— more than 80 feet. Destitute of all the fixtures of a stable society. — 
E. Everett. (Say rather, " settled society" or, " permanent society.") 
Haled out by violence, they returned. — Bancroft. Hauled — I believe 
he is a faultless man, yet his character in his own neighborhood is not 
very good. The business will suit any one who enjoys bad health. 
France has long been celebrated for its health, and many persons resort 
thither for their salubrity. Religion will afford us pleasure when others 
leave us. I am willing to pay a hundred or two dollars. — to pay one 
or two hundred dollars. The more I see of his conduct, I like him 
better. Avarice and cunning may gain an estate, but avarice and cun- 
ning can not gain friends. — but they — I had a good deal to do, and 
I had fixed myself so nicely on the sofa. — The Wide, Wide World. What 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 447 

is human life to all, but a mixture, with various cares and troubles, of 
some scattered joys and pleasures. Form your measures with prudence, 
but all anxiety about the issue divest yourself of. That is the business 
which I am to proceed upon. Though virtue borrows no assistance from, 
yet it may be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune. The Greeks 
fearing to be surrounded on all sides wheeled about and halted with the 
river on their backs. lie soon became aware of his having been 
cheated by the huckster. — that he had been — I was not aware of 
your friend's having become a candidate for the same office. — that 
your friend had become — His conduct was unbefitting the dignity of 
his station. — did not become — Replevin is when suit is brought to 
recover property in the possession of another. — is a process of action 
for recovering — The mill stood between the old and new bridges. — 
between the old bridge and the new. He wrote the recommendations both 
of the first and last editions. The manner of these authors' writing 
books so fast, I will now explain. (Say, " The manner in which" or, 
" IIoio these authors write. 11 ) By this amendment to the compromise, all 
controversy will be avoided, on this point. I can not find one of my 
books. (This may mean, I have found all but one, or, I can not find 
even one.) We have not the least right to your protection. He soon 
found these politicians like himself. When if precedes a verb, it is in 
the subjunctive mood. (Cobbett says, " Beware what you say when you 
put an it on paper.") A comma is placed after each of a series of words 
of the same pait of speech. I have 1500 copies bound up. (Has he 
any other copies or not?) Porter, however, fired some three or four 
times at Jones before he fell. — History of Dueling. Lysias promised his 
father that he would never forsake his friends. The Romans stipulated 
with the Carthaginians to furnish them with ships for transport and 
war. — Arbuthnot. The furniture is more showy than useful, but which, 
I suppose, was not taken into consideration. — but its utility, I suppose, 
ivas not taken into — He came on the boat; which his friends, expected. 
— according to the expectation of his friends. He sent me the books 
which he had promised. — as he had promised to do, or — according to promise. 
John Roe bought the farm, which is well known to the defendant. — as is 
well known — The magistrate punished him for some misdemeanor, which 
was approved. - — which punishment — Be honest, for it certainly is 
the best policy. — for honesty — He was thought to be very polite, 
which indeed he was to those of whom he expected favors. — and 
indeed he was so to those — He is always still and grave, which makes 
him to be thought wise. — and therefore he is thought — 1 was think- 
ing for the best place for an office. — what place would be best — The 
heads of the horses were all adorned with ribbons. Hie heads of all the 
horses icere — He is not rich, and incompetent for business. • — nor is 
he competent, or — and he is incompetent — He has little regard for your 
and my friend's welfare. — -for your welfare and that of my friend ; or — 
for the welfare of our friend. White sheep are much more common than 
black. — black ones. The heads of a panther and a cat are similar in 
shape. The head of a panther and that of a cat — Their horses" are 
like their cattle, distinguished only by their marks and brands. Solo- 
mon, the son of David, who built the temple of Jerusalem, was the 
richest monarch that ever reigned over the Jewish people. The pretend- 
ers to polish and refine the English language, have chiefly multiplied 



448 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

abuses and absurdities. They who have pretended — Dryden makes a 
very handsome observation on Ovid's writing a letter from Dido to 
iEneas, in the following words. God heapeth favors on his servants, 
ever liberal and faithful. The gain of these men was a considerable 
acquisition. The perplexity that attends a multiplicity ot criticisms by 
various hands, many of which are sure to be futile,' many of them ill- 
founded, and some of them contradictory to others, is conceivable. 
There is no country in the world which has produced so many great 
statesmen and eminent writers. No other country — Their intimacy 
had commenced in the happier period, perhaps, of their youth and 
obscurity. — Irving. The work, in its full extent, being now afflicted 
with an asthma, and finding the powers of life gradually declining, he 
had no longer courage to undertake. — Johnson. And he entered into a 
certain man's house named Justus, one that worshiped God. — entered 
the house of a certain man named Justus — The moon was casting a 
pale light on the numerous graves that were scattered before me, as it 
peered above the horizon, when I opened the small gate of the church- 
yard. — Dickens. There will, therefore, be two trials in this town at that 
time, which are punishable with death, if a full court should attend. 
As it is necessary to have the head clear as well the complexion, to be 
perfect in this part of learning, i rarely mingle with the men, but visit 
the tea-tables of the ladies. — Addison. After we came to anchor, they 
put me on shore, where I was welcomed by all my friends, who received 
me with the greatest kindness. — Swift. Here was a fair opportunity for 
any man's making a fortune. — for any man to make — This, Mr. 
President, was the reason of their holding a caucus in the cellar last 
night. — the reason why they held — I never heard mentioned that 
fellow's being a poet before. — heard that fellow mentioned as being a 
poet ; or, — heard it mentioned that that fellow is a poet. The long undis- 
turbed possession implies the title to be good. — that the title is good. 
But the hyena, they pretend, to have been brought from Abyssinia. 
— they pretend, was brought — or, But they pretend that the hyena was — I 
have often noticed some persons to have very little regard for others' 

happiness. — that some persons have for the happiness of others. 

A participle is a word derived from a verb, and which denotes action or 
a state of being. — and denoting — John, if Thomas shall meet me, I 
will tell him that you want to see him. — if Thomas meet — I lost my 
book from omitting to write my name in it. — -from not writing — In a 
man's being honorable is implied something more than his paying his 
debts. By analyzing is meant the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements. To analyze a sentence is to resolve it — We were exceedingly 
kindly treated. — very kindly — The hosts stood still, in silent wonder 
fixed. (A want of euphony.) Bones are made use of in refining sugar. 
The family treated him in the same manner that they treated their own 
sons. — treated him as — We prefer to use analysis in all cases when 
the given problem can be solved by it. — analysis whenever — What is 
the reason that you are here yet? Why are you — By agitating and 
discussion, the truth is elicited. I shall not wave my claim, unless he 
can show a better one. Some governments forfeit the property of out- 
laws. — confiscate — When there is no heir, the estate of course for- 
feits to the state. — escheats — Notice is hereby given to every person 
who have not yet paid their taxes, to pay them immediately. — to all 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 449 

persons that — I wish to cultivate a farther acquaintance with you. 
— a nearer — She was wofully tickled at your blunder. You had as 
good accept his offer as go to law. — might as well accept, or — would 
do as well to accept — The articles we have included under the head of 
adjectives. (Say, " included among, with, or perhaps, in the adjectives.") 
Thursday is set aside for thanksgiving day. — set apart — I have been 
from home a matter of four weeks, or a month, more or less. That is a 
very good handwrite. Give him a chunk of bread, and let him go. He 
exposed himself so much that he had like to have gotten one or two 
broken heads. He was very dexterous in smelling out the views and 
designs of others. At first he was received with great* favorableness. 
His question indicated great stupidness. The book is not in the place he 
said. The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one 
another. — among themselves. An eloquent speaker may give more, but 
not more convincing arguments, than this plain man offered. Our dead- 
lights were in, or the vessel would have filled. Our cabin-windows were 
shut, &c. He is an antiquarian. He was deserted by his friends for 
good and all. — entirely deserted — He is a thorough-paced knave. 
— consummate — He charged me with want of resolution; but in which 
he was greatly mistaken. — but in this charge he — Politics too often 
sets men by the ears. When they come to words and fall out, reason is 
lost sight of. I should not wonder but on this occasion there might be 
broken heads agoing. We have the power of retaining, altering, and 
compounding those images which we have received, into all the varieties 
of picture and vision. And this is it men mean by distributive justice, 

and is properly termed equity. — is what and what is- — We 

hear the sound of the wind, but we can not tell whence it cometh, or 
whither it goeth. It was an unsuccessful undertaking; which, although 
it has failed, is no objection to an enterprise so well concerted. — the 
failure of which, however — By intercourse with wise and experienced 
persons who know the world, we may improve and rub off the rust of a 
private education. I should prefer him to be rather of slow parts than 
of a bad disposition. No other employment beside a bookseller suited 
his inclination. There is no talent so useful towards rising in the 
world, or which puts men more out of the reach of fortune, than that 
quality generally possessed by the dullest sort of people, and is, in com- 
mon language, called discretion. — that is more useful and that 

puts than that quality which is generally possessed by and 

which is — Intemperance produces death, misery, and want. — want, 
misery, and death. They died and fought for liberty. The merciful are 
blessed, for they shall obtain mercy. Many would gladly exchange 
riches and honors for that more quiet and humbler station which you 
are now dissatisfied with. As the guilt of an officer will be greater than 
that of a common servant, if he prove negligent; so the reward of his 
fidelity will be proportionably greater. Some of our most eminent wri- 
ters have made use of this Platonic notion, so far as it regards the sub- 
sistence of our affections after death, with great beauty and strength of 
reason. We came to our journey's end, at last, with no small difficulty, 
after much fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather. Some years 
after, being released from prison, by reason of his consummate knowledge 
of the civil law, and of military affairs, he was exalted to the supreme 
power. Beautiful women possess seldom any great accomplishments, 

38 



450 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

because they study behavior rather than solid excellence, for the most 
part. Never delay, till to-morrow, (for to-morrow is not yours ] and 
though you should live to enjoy it, you must not overload 
it with a burden not its own,) what reason and conscience tell 
you ought to be performed to-day. (Take out the parenthesis, 
and put it after the rest of the sentence, in a separate, dis- 
tinct sentence.) The discontented man (as his spleen irritates and 
sours his temper, and leads him to discharge his venom on all with 
whom he stands connected) is never without a great share of malignity. 
The old may inform the young; and the young may cheer those who are 
old. — may Cheer the old. Plow will that man be able to bear his con- 
dition, when reduced to poverty, who was educated only to magnifi- 
cence and pleasure? I want to see what he wants. I favored him. be- 
cause in looks he favored my brother. By the means of society, our wants 
come to be supplied, and our lives are rendered comfortable, as well as our 
capacities enlarged, and our virtuous affections called forth into their 
proper exercise. During the time this person spoke, not a man of them 
was observed to whisper or smile ; the old grave, the young reverent in 
their deportment. — While this person .... not a man was .... the old 
were grave, and the young were reverent, in their deportment. The 
wealthy merchant and the journeyman tradesman were seen marching 
side by side, and often exchanged the contents of their canteens with 
each other. — History of the United States. The weather has been so bad, 
it seemed like as if nobody could do any thing. His being poor — the 
circumstance of his being poor — the circumstance of his poverty, will 
only make him study the better. His poverty will &c. A bright 
genius often betrays itself into many errors, without a continual bridle 
on the tongue. As much as the Athenians rejoiced at the extirpation 
of a Lacedemonian, will, if we are disunited, a citizen of Massachusetts, 
at the death of a Connecticut man, or a Yorker. A systematic attack 
was now meditated upon, by Powhatan, against the colony. Each word 
is followed by as an exact pronunciation as can be given. The soup 
had already been discussed, when we came to the table.— Irving. There 
they were, sitting over a half-and-a-half-sort-of-a fire. — History of Ohio, 
The water privileges are good at Kingston. — Id. — the facilities for ob- 
taining water — If one did but dare to abide by one's judgment, one's 
language would be much more refined ; but one fancies one's self 
obliged to follow where the many lead one. If we ... . our &c. A 
father, were he to be actuated by his desires, and a son, were he to con- 
sult himself only, could neither of them behave himself as he ought, to 

to the other. — Addison. — Were a father neither could behave — 

The pay of judges and clerical fees were exhorbitant. They were fierce- 
whiskered, broad-shouldered, coal-brand looking swaggerers — not one 
of whom but looked as though he could eat up an ox, and pick his teeth 
with the horns. — Irving. — coalbrand-looking .... every one of whom 
looked as if — In this great collision of hard heads, it is astonishing 
the number of projects were struck out. — Id. — what number .... were 
— In seeking to dig up one fact, it is incredible the number of facts I 
unearthed. — Id. The asylum was founded upwards of two centuries since, 
on an old monastic establishment. — Id. — ago — By this system, 
money became plenty — such as it was. — Id. A letter written by an in- 
habitant of that place speaks of the sudden apparition of the army. — 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 451 

Id. — sudden appearance — Three of Washington's horses were knock- 
ed up, before they reached Winchester. — Irving 's Washington. ( " Knock- 
ed up ?? is rather too low an expression to be admitted into such a his- 
tory.) The blunder was detected on an order being issued for a new 
supply of cartridges. — Id. — when an order was issued — These 
measures rejoiced the royalists. — caused the royalists to rejoice — Such 
I never saw before, and I trust may never be witness to again. — have 
to witness, or — be obliged to witness — So they sat drinking and smok- 
ing, and telling stories, and singing Dutch and Irish songs, without un- 
derstanding a word each other said. — Id. He made a bitter attack upon 
his opponent. I know that all words which are signs of complex ideas, 
furnish matter of mistake" and cavil. I know that all those words tvhich 
are signs — Such nouns as end in y preceded by a consonant, are 
made plural by changing y into ies. Those nouns which end — He is 
not always to be had for calling for. No nation can or have any right 
to look for respect abroad as being just, that is not first honest at home. 
— Swift — has or can have — Which, when Beelzebub perceived, than 
whom none higher sat. — Smith's Grammar, and nearly all others. (Is it 
not better to banish this uncouth snarl from our language by using al- 
ways in its stead the nominative personal pronoun? Thus say, " than 
he none higher sat; ? ' or, u none higher sat than he. 11 ) Satan excepted, 
than whom none higher sat. 



4. 

a. We should always think with clearness, vigor, and a full compre- 
hension of the subject, and speak or write accordingly. 

b. What is said or written, should be sensible and becoming, — or in 
accordance with nature, truth, and reason. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Last Saturday a gang of high way men broke into an empty house, 
and stripped it of all its furniture. — Neivspaper. — an unoccupied house — 
Whatever is done now, is done in present time. It is always objec- 
tionable to use the same word too often. A vest which from a naked 
Pict his grandsire had won. The night was perfectly clear, and the 
stars were shining. When a collective noun conveys unity of idea, the 
verb must be singular. — the idea of unity — In familiar conversation 
we frequently make use of ellipsis. (To make use of a nonentity, or 
of the absence of a thing, is absurd. Say, " ellipses are frequently allow- 
able. 11 ) Orthography means word-making or spelling. — means, literally, 
correct writing. When a person is spoken to, he is of the second person. 
When a person is spoken to, the noun or pronoun used for addressing him 
is — John is masculine gender, singular number. lis the speaker; it 
is therefore the first person. Several reports of pistols quickly followed 
one another. — were he\rd in quick succession. The nominative case is 
the doer, or that which declares something. To be convicted of bribery, 
was then a crime altogether unpardonable. Bribery was then — Eogs 
always rise when the weather turns colder. (Not true. Say, " generally 
rise. 11 ) If one partner confesses judgment, he will bind the whole firm ; 
for the court can_pass sentence on A by passing it on B. Time is one of 
the most important events. In case of no election by the people, the 



452 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

legislature elect an equal and highest number of votes. — Constitution of 
New Hampshire. (Unintelligible.) Abercrombie had still nearly four 
times the number of the enemy. — Irving. — -four times as many men as — 
The Latin tongue, in its purity, was never in this country. — has 
never been spoken, in its purity, in this country. Yet when that flood in its 
own depth was drowned. — Dry den. The notions of Lord Sunderland 
were always good; but he was a man of extravagant habits. (Here the 
parts brought together, have no natural connection: we should hardly 
expect the latter part of the sentence, after hearing the first.) The cat 
went out to walk alone ; The dog sat down to gnaw his bone; The sun 
shone brightly o'er the hill; The pigs did want their swill. Fixed in 
astonishment I gaze upon thee, like one just blasted by a stroke from 
heaven. — Addison. (An excited person does not naturally give vent to 
his feelings in such a comparing way.) Now, villain, renounce all right 
and title to her this minute, or the torrent of my rage will overflow my 
reason, and I shall annihilate the nothingness of your soul and body, in 
an instant. — Garrick. The vertical power of Christianity will measure 
with its horizontal power in the world. — Rev. Henry Ward Beecher. 
(What does he mean?) When a church is faithless to its duties, the 
real church is outside its walls, in the community. — Id. (That is, the 
worse the church, the better the community. But Mr. Beecher simply 
meant to say, that Christianity is imperishable.) A State in which the 
citizen is the pabulum of the State, will soon have nothing to feed on. 
— Id. (That is, a State may eat itself up, and have nothing left.) The 
thinkable, even when compelled by analysis to make the nearest ap- 
proach that is possible to a negation of intelligibility, thus implies phe- 
nomena objectified by thought and conceived to exist in space and time. 
("If thou hast any tidings," says Falstaff to Pistol, "prithee deliver 
them like a man of this world.") 

Fallacies from Whately's Logic. 

Every group of three propositions combined in form like those given 
below, is usually called a syllogism. An erroneous syllogism is called a 
fallacy. Every syllogism must have a general proposition, called the 
major premise ; a particular proposition, called the minor premise ; and a 
conclusion. When any one of the three is erroneous, a fallacy is pro- 
duced. Every syllogism involves three terms; a middle term, and two 
extremes which are compared with the middle term and must agree with 
it to form a sound argument. The middle term is found in each of the 
premises, and its meaning should be carefully scrutinized in each, to 
ascertain whether there is or is not an agreement. Most fallacies arise, 
because the same word has often several different significations, or 
because it may be applied to objects of the same general class, with 
greater or less comprehensiveness. The chief axiom which lies at the 
bottom of reasoning, is this: When two terms agree with one and the same 
third, they agree with each other ; but when the one agrees and the other 
disagrees with one and the same third, they disagree with each other. 

In the following examples, point out the errors: — 

None but whites are civilized: the ancient Germans were whites: 
therefore they were civilized. (Observe here that the whites in the sec- 
ond proposition are none of the whites referred to in the first proposition.) 
Nothing is heavier than Platina : feathers are heavier than nothing: 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 453 

therefore feathers are heavier than platina. (My dog has more legs than 
no dog : no dog has twelve legs : therefore my dog has more than twelve 
legs.) If a State has a right to enforce laws, (and it must have to secure 
itself, ) it must have a right to prescribe what the religion of the people 
shall be. He who calls you a man, speaks truly: he who calls you a 
fool, calls you a man : therefore he who calls you a fool, speaks truly, 
(Observe that "man" is here used in different senses.) All cold is to 
be expelled by heat: this person's disorder is a cold: therefore it is to be 
expelled by heat. He who is most hungry, eats most : he who eats least, 
is most hungry: therefore he who eats least, eats most. (Observe that 
"most hungry" is used in different senses.) Every hen comes from an 
egg : every egg comes from a hen : therefore every egg comes from an 
egg. (Figuratively allowable.) Repentance is a good thing: wicked 
men abound in repentance: therefore wicked men abound in what is 
good. (Observe that "good" is here used in different senses.) He is 
the greatest lover of any one, who seeks that person's greatest good: a 
virtuous man seeks the greatest good for himself: therefore a virtuous 
man is the greatest lover of himself. Every one desires happiness: vir- 
tue is happiness: therefore every one desires virtue. If Abraham was 
justified, it must have been either by faith or by works: now, he was 
not justified by faith, nor by works: therefore Abraham was not justified. 
Whatever body is in motion, must move either in the place where it is, 
or in a place where it is not: neither of these is possible: therefore there 
is no such thing as motion. 



Phraseology of Disputed Accuracy. 

" Every village or garrison has one or more scape-goats of this kind." — • 
Irving. "A vowel followed by one or more consonants, is usually long." 
" When there is an infant or infants who are not interested" &c. — 3fissouri 
Statutes. Nothing, in reality, renders legitimate governments so inse- 
cure as ignorance in the people." — Bishop Hall. "Nothing is more 
contemptible than vanity." " There is not in this wide world a valley 
so sweet, As the vale in whose bosom the bright waters meet." — T. 
Moore. (The "valley" could not have surpassed itself.) Of all these 
military apostles, none was so zealous as Khaled." — Irving. (Query: 
May not all such expressions be considered as simply hyperbolical ; i. e., 
as meaning less than they denote? ) " I have no wealth nor prospects 
to entitle me to her hand." — Irving. There were no evening nor morn- 
ing guns." — Id. " No wars, nor mobs, nor bankruptcies have disgraced 
the place." "The cause I can not dream nor tell." — Byron. "The 
abuse of what he deems wo mean nor trivial trust." — Cowper. " I well 
remember Peyton Randolph s informing me of the crossing of our messen- 
gers." — Jefferson. " There is no doubt of my seeing him." But what gave 
it most interest, was its being in some way connected with the pirate 
wreck." — Irving. [Is there any difference in meaning, and what is it f — " It 
is not I that do it " ; " It is not I that does it." ) 

Remark. — Most of the foregoing modes of expression are too well 
established, 1 imagine, to be shaken by the fulminations of grammarians. 

It is generally better to avoid, if possible, expressions of doubtful 
accuracy. My experience in writing has taught me this : Whenever a 
person feels any doubt as to the propriety of any expression of his &wn, he 



454 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

should almost invariably reject it ; for such is probably his partiality for 
his own expressions, that he will not be apt to suspect them guilty 
when they are not. 

The best way to improve unsatisfactory sentences or paragraphs, is, 
to recast them entirely. 

"Full many a floivcr is born to blush unseen, And waste its fragrance 
on the desert air." — Gray's Elegy. "Full many a lady Have I eyed 
with best regard; and many a time The harmony of their tongues hath 
into bondage Brought my too diligent ear." — Shakspeare: Tempest, Act 
iii, Scene 1. Hence, grammarians have said, that when many a and 
the pronoun relating to it occur in the same clause, the latter should be 
singular; if in different clauses, the latter should [may] be plural. The 
plural structure seems to violate the general principle that governs the 
syntax of every, each, no, nor, &c: but the example quoted from Shak- 
speare, stands doubtless best as it is; for the singular pronoun would 
seem to refer to one particular lady, and "many ladies" would not sug- 
gest that he fell in love from time to time. But even in the following 
example quoted and justified by Mr. G. Brown, I should rather use the 
singular structure throughout: " Hard has been the late of many a great 
genius, that while they have conferred immortality on others, they have 
wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to posterity." — 
Welwood. I should prefer the plural pronoun only when it obviously 
conveys the sense better. The authority of good writers should not 
be always considered an absolute criterion, for it would not be very 
difficult to quote abundance of such authority for almost any solecism. 



OBSERVATION^. 



In speaking or writing, we should avoid redundancy, deficiency, tautol- 
ogy, ambiguity, obscurity, affectation, pedantry, vulgarity, silliness, falseness, 
absurdity, nonsense, self-contradiction, and any phraseology — either in re- 
gard to words or in regard to their arrangement — that is not the best 
that can be obtained. 

In general, the fewer the words we use to express our meaning, the 
better. Many of the most esteemed and durable paragraphs in our lite- 
rature are such as tell much in very few words. It is easy to multiply 
words ; but it is disagreeable to be obliged to read through a large vol- 
ume, to get what might have been told us as well — as intelligibly — in a 
small pamphlet. 

To characterize the abundant or excessive use of words, we commonly 
use the terms verbosity, pleonasm, redundancy, and tautology. Verbosity 
implies the use of circuitous expressions, or it is the telling of things in 
a round-a-bout way : it is opposed to senteniiousness or conciseness. " They 
who first settled in the country, made choice of the most desirable lands ; " 
better, " The first settlers took the best lands.' 7 Pleonasm is the use of 
some word or expression that is not essential, but still adds to the vigor 
of the sentence: as, " I saw it with my own eyes;" " Busk ye, busk ye, 
my bonny, bonny bride;" "One of the few, the immortal names That 
were not born to die." Redundancy is a needless repetition of words, 
or a needless fullness of expression : as, " We both of us went on the 
same day, and besides, moreover, we both of us returned back on the 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 455 

same day;" corrected, " Both of us went and returned the same day." 
Tautology is the telling of the same thing, or nearly the same thing, again 
and again, in some other way. "The dawn is overcast, the morning 
lowers, And heavily in clouds brings on the dajv" — Addison, as quoted 
and criticised by Johnson. " Let observation, with extensive view, Sur- 
vey mankind from China to Peru." — Johnson himself. As much as to 
say, Let observation, with extensive observation, observe mankind from 
China to Peru. Law and lawyers abound in tautology and redundancy, 
and sometimes in needless technical terms. 

It is generally much easier to find other ways of telling the same thing, 
than to find more new thoughts to what is already told; hence it very 
often happens, that persons, in order to fill up the time, add new words 
and expressions without adding new ideas: they string together synony- 
mous terms and expressions, just as if they meant to repeat what they 
had learned in some dictionary. It is said that Daniel Webster re- 
solved — " Never to use a word that does not add some new idea, or 
modify some idea already expressed." Those words may in general be 
omitted, which are readily inferred, by the hearer or reader, from the 
words that are given; and those thoughts may be left unexpressed, 
which are readily inferred from the thoughts that are expressed. The 
chief faults to be guarded against in seeking for brevity of expression, 
are obscurity and deficiency ; which frequently arise from the use of very 
general and comprehensive terms, and from the omission of words. The 
allowable or elegant omission of words is termed ellipsis. Dialogue, and 
discourse uttered under the influence of great excitement, are most fre- 
quently elliptical. 

Coleridge, to give his notion of a perfect style, once said that he had 
lately read, of Southey's prose, several pages so well written that nothing 
in them presented itself to his mind except the author's meaning, — that 
no word, no mode of expression, and no jar in the train of thought, 
diverted and drew his attention. A perfect, style, then, is so transparent 
a medium for the thought as to become itself invisible, — a train of words 
presenting the meaning so well and impressively that it passes by itself 
unobserved. It has been truly said, " Nature's chief masterpiece is 
writing-well." A person's skill in style depends chiefly on his knowl- 
edge, judgment, and taste, and his practice in composition. His dis- 
course should be, throughout, one entire, consistent, congruous, and per- 
fect picture of all that is pertinent to the subject, his aim, and the read- 
ers capacity; presenting neither too much nor too little. Nothing im- 
portant should be left out, and nothing useless should be allowed to 
come in. In short, the piece should be such that no word, phrase, 
clause, sentence, or paragraph, can he omitted, inserted, transposed, or 
changed, without injuring the excellence of the whole. The natural 
order of things should be observed, or such an order as will make the 
greatest impression. If thoughtful of what we are saying, we would 
hardly say, " She dressed and washed herself;" " He tumbled head over 
heels into the river;" "He will kill, steal, cheat, and lie, for gold." 
Things that have no connection, should not be jumbled together; as, " I 
am well, and hope you have got my last letter." We should not be so 
flighty as to say something on one topic, and then pass to another topic, 
then come again to the first topic: nor should we, in a subsequent part 



456 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

of the discourse, tell, as if we had not told, what we have already told ; 
or make any statement inconsistent with or contradictory of some other 
statement at some distance before it. The transition from one topic to 
another should be natural and easy. Not so many different subjects 
should be introduced into one sentence as will make it confused. The 
most important parts should be placed where they will make the strong- 
est impression. Modifying parts should be so placed or distributed as to 
encumber the discourse as little as possible, and to show clearly and read- 
ily what they are intended to modify. The longer and more important 
parts of a sentence should generally follow the shorter and less import- 
ant parts. To conclude a sentence with an insignificant word or phrase, 
is nearly always inelegant. When a serial structure has been adopted, 
it is generally disagreeable to discontinue or to change it, before the en- 
tire enumeration is made. Parts contrasted or emphatically distin- 
guished, should generally be expressed with fullness. " It is not by in- 
dolence, but by diligence, that you will succeed." " Spring borrowed a 
new charm from its undulating grounds, its luxuriant woodlands, its 
sportive streams, its vocal birds, and its blushing flowers." Parts con- 
nected by correlative words, and parts implying contrast or comparison, 
must generally be expressed so nearly alike as possible. Observe the 
elegance of arrangement and expression in the following sentence: 
"Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuosity; Virgil leads us 
with an attractive majesty: Homer scatters with a generous profusion; 
Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence." — Pojie. Short sentences 
and long ones should be properly intermixed. Many short sentences, in 
succession, are apt to have a disagreeable hitching or jerking effect; and 
long-winded sentences also displease, by becoming tiresome and tedious. 
Most of the best modern writers rather prefer short sentences and sim- 
ple structure, to long and complicated sentences. Long and involved 
sentences should generally be avoided, by expressing the same meaning 
in two or more shorter sentences. A long parenthesis within a sentence 
is generally better expressed by taking it out, and putting it after or be- 
fore the other part, as a distinct sentence. It is sometimes better to re- 
cast a disagreeable sentence altogether; or to dismiss it, and express the 
meaning in some other way. Mr. Bancroft says, in his History, " Private 
interest, directed to the culture of a valuable staple, was more productive 
than the patronage of England: and tobacco enriched Virginia." Here 
the tobacco clause is hitched on very abruptly and awkwardly. Perhaps 
Macaulay would have said: "Private industry, directed to the culture 
of a valuable staple, was more productive than the patronage of England. 
The Virginians turned their attention to tobacco; and tobacco enriched 
them." 

In selecting words, or modes of expression, the question is not whether 
they are perfectly adapted to express the meaning, but whether they are 
the best the language affords for the meaning; if they are, then they are 
proper. The preference should, in general, be given to those words and 
expressions which are most popular, or understood by the greatest num- 
ber of people; and whose fundamental meaning, when they are analyzed, 
or traced to their etymology, accords best with the sense in which they 
are meant to be used. We should never use foreign words, expressions, 
or idioms, when we have native ones that will express the meaning as 
well. Such a use of language is nonsensical, affected, and pedantic. 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 457 

" Is Lizzie on the carpet adhuc ? Are things still in statu quo ? I shall 
put out in a few days, and go quo animus fert; — you know where." — 
From a Letter. " Tres humble serviteur. Et comment sa porte, Mad- 
emoiselle ? Why you look divinely. But, mon enfant, they have dressed 
you out most diabolically. Why, what a coiffure must you have! and, 
oh mon Dieu! a total absence of rouge. But perhaps you are out.'' — 
Foote : Englishman returned from Paris. When we adopt from foreign 
languages what we have not in our own, we are so much the richer ; 
but when we discard our own for something worse, we are so much the 
sillier. 

The following paragraph is composed in the French idiom : " I no 
sooner found myself here than I visited my new apartments, which are 
composed of five pieces ; the small room which gives upon the garden, 
is practised through the great one, and there is no other issue. As I 
was exceeded with fatigue, I no sooner made my toilette than I let my- 
self fall upon a bed of repose, where sleep came to surprise me." 

It is not always easy to determine what is true English idiom. Our 
language, being formed from several others, has idioms from them all. 
To what extent foreign idioms may be allowed in our poetry, it is not 
easy to determine. I incline to think, that in the whole of our 
poetry — English, Welsh, Scotch, Irish, and American — may be found all 
the intelligible idioms from all the foreign languages that our writers 
ever studied. 

Another species of nonsense and pedantry is the grandiloquent use 
of learned language, when the speaker or writer has nothing to say, or 
does not himself comprehend, or only in a shadowy way, what he pre- 
tends to explain or prove to others. 

Ex. — " We may state that fancy and imagination not only perform the 
same office and report the same facts, ascribed to the two poles of con- 
sciousness, and are hence identical therewith; but, also, that what we 
call recollection and memory are functions belonging to this dualistic ar- 
ticle of all possible forms and materials ; recollection thus pertaining to 
fancy, while memory attaches to imagination." 

Much such language may be found in Swedenborg, Coleridge, and 
spiritual or transcendental writers and speakers generally ; especially 
divines and metaphysicians. In fact, we are all liable to use language 
thus, whenever we attempt to draw forth into light what is beyond the 
reach of the limited faculties of the soul. 

Another species of pedantry or affectation is the excessive or needless 
use of technical language. "Lay in your oars, my lads ; step the short 
mast — close-reef the storm-lug, and beach the galley under canvass." — 
From a Novel. None but a seaman knows what is meant here. Most 
people are too indolent to search out the meaning of the words they do 
not understand, nor is it always convenient to do so. In writing a sci- 
entific treatise, or in addressing scientific persons, technical language 
may sometimes be necessary or most appropriate. For a remarkable 
specimen of dry technical jargon, see Percival's Geological Survey of 
Connecticut : none but a geological bookworm can understand it ! 

Another species of pedantry, or rather, of affectation, is the ridiculous 
aping, in fine or pompous language, of those people that are deemed 
worthy of imitation. 

Ex. — "Administer your proposition; you will have mv concurrence, 
39 



458 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

Sir, in any thing that does not derogate from the regulations of con- 
duct; for it would be most preposterous in one of my character to de- 
viate from the strictest attention. Nor would there, Sir Gregory, did 
circumstances concur as you insinuate, be so absolute a certitude, that I, 
who have rejected so many matches, should instantaneously succumb. 
And had not Penelope Trifle framed irrefragible resolutions, she need 
not so long have retained her family name." — Foote, ridiculing an 
old maid. 

Much akin to the foregoing fault is silliness, which also should be 
carefully avoided. 

" Lawyer. Have you the confidence to believe that you had informa- 
tion sufficient to form a correct opinion of what you actually saw ? 

Witness. In my humble opinion, I had, Sir! " 

A very popular book on physic thus describes the process of eating :— 

"Prehension, or the taking of food into the mouth, is performed 
mainly by the hand, assisted by the lips and cheeks, as well as the ante- 
rior teeth and the tongue. The contact of the solid food with the inte- 
rior of the mouth, excites the act of mastication, performed by alter- 
nating contractions of the muscles which pull the lower jaw upward, 
downward, backward, forward, and laterally, by acting on the bone in 
which they are implanted." This paragraph, 1 believe, needs no com- 
ments of mine. Mr. G. Bancroft very solemnly begins a chapter of his 
History with the following independent sentence: "The sun of July, 
1748, shed its radiance on the banks of the Hudson." An idle truism ; 
for why should not the sun have shone on the banks of the Hudson as 
well as on other places. 

To defer the main subject in order to define the meaning of w T ords, 
borders frequently upon silliness ; and so does most of the unbecomingly 
florid or figurative language. These two faults may be termed the sopho- 
moric style, as being natural to and generally found in the half-green 
and half-ripe age of college sophomores. Similar to silliness of expres- 
sion is another fault, which I have often noticed, and which sometimes 
affects whole communities as well as individuals. It is the hackneyed 
use of some particular word, phrase, or sentence. 

Some people are always guessing ; some, reckoning ; some, calculating ; 
and some, 'sposing : some find every thing sweet; some, first-rate ; some, 
mighty good ; some, mighty bad; and others have all things in the super- 
lative degree: some always respond with a "That's so," " Did you 
ever!" "Yes?" " Well, to be sure!" or, "That's a fact." A certain 
politician was never known to make a speech without having " our 
great and glorious Union" in it. Some speakers are flooded with " my 
fellow-citizens." An excellent college friend and neighbor of mine re- 
peated almost daily, for about a year, " Fade ye wild-flowers, memo- 
rials of my doom ! And sink ye stars that light me to the tomb ! " Poets 
often exhibit this fault in their use of rhymes. In fact, the fault 
seems to be a natural infirmity of the human mind, whenever it be- 
comes morbid or indolent, or when it comes to a stand in the growth of 
its knowledge. We are often annoyed by remembered scraps buzzing in 
the head like gadflies, especially if they find there something of a Pegasus. 

Low, vulgar, or provincial expressions should generally be avoided. 
The following are the ones chiefly used by the American people : — 

" He was about to absquatulate — vamose the ranche. To be some 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 459 

punkins. To be small potatoes. To get into a scrape. To charge an 
all-fired price. To acknowledge the corn. I am hoaxed, gloriously 
hoaxed ; I acknowledge the corn. The way them gals there pitched 
into the pies, was a caution — was nothing to nobody. I will go any- 
how. She is devilish pretty, but does'nt know B from a bull's foot. I 
was in a bad snap, and hardly saved my bacon. To do a thing a heap. 
To go cahoot with some one. To catch a Tartar. To catch a weasel 
asleep. To clear out. To cut didoes. To cut dirt. To cut shines — cut 
up shines. To cut a figure. To look down in the mouth. To have 
Sunday fixings on. To bark up the wrong tree. To 'possum. To hang 
up one's fiddle. To hang out one's shingle. He can't hold a candle to him. 
To fire into the wrong flock. Born with a silver spoon in the mouth. 
To draw cuts. To get the hang of. To have a fair shake at. To be on 
the fence. To play second fiddle. To be flummuxed. To be bamboo- 
zled a nation deal worse. To have the blues — the blue devils. By fits 
and starts. The Devil to pay. She gave him the mitten. She gave him 
his walkin-gpapers. To have a blow-up. To fork over the cash. To 
have a hard row to hoe. To go the whole hog or none. To be half 
seas over. To be fuddled. To be honey-fogled. To be a huckleberry 
above the persimmon. He held forth from an old oak stump. Not by 
a jugful. Not by ahornful. There was a barbecue and general jollifi- 
cation. To kick the bucket. To keep a stiff upper lip. To knock into 
a cocked hat. To beat all hollow. To have the fidgets. To burst one's 
boiler. To put the cart before the horse. To be square with. To get 
one down. To be chief cook and bottle-washer. To take the shine off. A 
kinder yellow. A sorter better. In the long run. Up to the hub. I 
used to could do it. The show is to come off to-night. Pop goes the 
weasel. By George. Like a thousand a brick. Teetotally. Sure as a 
gun. More girls than you can shake a stick at. Out of sorts. A 
plagued sight worse — better. To see how the cat jumps. To raise one's 
bristles. To settle one's hash. To row up salt-river. Savage as a meat- 
axe. By the living jingoes." And a few others. 

Some of these expressions are well founded and very energetic ; and 
I am not sure that those persons who chiefly use them, — politicians, 
newspaper writers, and the lower classes of society, — could always find 
more suitable or expressive terms for the delicate and gentle thoughts 
which they wish to communicate. 

All uncouth, harsh, antiquated, obsolete, unauthorized, or new-fangled 
terms should generally be avoided, unless they are meant to be imita- 
tive, or are peculiarly appropriate and expressive. 

Ignorant people often pervert words, or confound words that resemble 
in sound, or imagine that words belong to the language that are not in 
it, or not authorized: as, critter for creature; disgracious for ungracious ; 
prehaps for perhaps ; contagious for contiguous. "Such a fellow as he, to 
transpire after an office ! " " They got out a capeas horpus. 11 

The same word or the same mode of expression should not be so often 
used as to indicate poverty of language; nor in so many different senses 
as to render the meaning doubtful, or to disappoint disagreeably the 
expectation of the reader. 

When there are several synonymous words or expressions, great care 
should be taken to select the most appropriate one. " An idle boy is un- 
willing to be employed " : say rather, " A lazy boy " &c. Idle means not 



460 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

doing, or not effecting much; lazy means unwilling to do. " The proud pile 
is of great magnitude, and soars grandly up with its numerous towers 
and splendid terraces." — Travels in Europe. I believe soars is applied 
only to what leaves its support ; therefore it can not be applied to an 
edifice: say, "rises." If our language had no word nearer to the mean- 
ing than soars, then soars would be proper. In order to discriminate 
words, it may be useful to the student to keep in mind the three follow- 
ing observations : 1. Learn the principles of language, or of synonymy, 
and endeavor to apply them judiciously. For example : Some words are 
more comprehensive or less specific than others. Every river is a stream, 
but not every stream is a river. Some words are active, and others are 
passive. Force affects, strength sustains; fickle men waver, prices fluctu- 
ate ; reasonable men exercise reason, rational men have reason. Some 
words are positive, and others are negative. A fault is something posi- 
tively bad; a defect is a mere want of something needed. Some words 
differ in degree ; as, damp, moist, wet, delicacy, dainty. Some words re- 
late more directly to nature; others, to art. Gentleness may be the gift 
of nature, but tameness is the result of art. Some words are rather 
spiritual or heavenly; others, wordly or material: soul, mind; spirit 
vigor; delightful, delicious. Some words rather have reference to some- 
thing inward; and others, to something outward: as, dignity, decorum; 
form, feature ; detract, disparage. 2. Consider what distinctions the dif- 
ferences in things require ; look through your knowledge, look into the 
world around you — into other men's knowledge and practice, and into 
the relations of things, and discriminate accordingly. For example: 
Genius is rather inward, creative, and angelic; talent, outward, practical, 
and worldly. Genius disdains and defies imitation ; talent is often the 
result of universal imitation in respect to every thing that may con- 
tribute to the desired excellence. Genius has quick and strong sympa- 
thies, and is sometimes given to revery and vision ; talent is cool and 
wise, and seldom loses sight of common sense. Genius is ^orn for a par- 
ticular pursuit, in which it surpasses; talent is versatile, and may make 
a respectable figure at almost any thing. To genius are due about all 
the achievements that distinguish enlightened from savage life ; talent 
has merely preserved, polished, and enjoyed the productions of genius^ 
but created nothing. Men of talents are but timeservers ; they usually 
carry on the world, and get the best of it while they are in it; but 
their glory generally ends at the grave, unless they have been so wise 
and fortunate as to entwine their memories with those of men of genius. 
Men of genius sometimes starve for want of bread, but generally receive 
a stone after they are dead ; and their minds rise gloriously and triumph- 
antly into the intellectual firmament as brilliant, unfading stars, to 
cheer and bless unparadised, benighted man. 3. Discriminate words as 
you find them used in sentences written by good authors. If I say, 
" When the disciples saw the Savior arisen on the morning of the Resur- 
rection, they gazed upon him with astonishment and rapture " ; "I have 
often seen impudent fellows station themselves at the doors of churches, 
and stare at the women " ; you can easily see the difference between 
gaze and stare. Every word has a peculiar set of associations belonging 
to it; and in the proper discrimination of words with reference to their 
secondary ideas, lie chiefly the precision and elegance of language. 
We should rather choose the words and expressions already in common 



RHETORICAL AND LOGICAL PRINCIPLES. 461 

use, and employ them in their ordinary signification, than coin new 
words or expressions, or use old ones in a peculiar sense ; for if we were 
at liberty in these respects, soon every man's writings would need a 
glossary. Ex. — " We may recognize this construction by the name of the ac- 
cusative and infinitive contracted objective accessory." — Mulligan. 

Another fault is ambiguity, which arises chiefly from the several differ- 
ent meanings which some words have, from the position of words, and 
from the omission of words. u He is mad" u The governor had several 
fast friends in the Territory." — Burners North-west Territory. What 
sort of friends does he mean ? "firm friends," I suppose. " And thus 
the son the fervent sire addressed." Which one addressed the other? 
" While the sun was gently sinking below the horizon in the west, with 
much beauty, the bright moon rose serenely above it in the east." 

Poetical words and poetic structure should be avoided in prose: — 

Ex. — " The morn was cloudy and darksome, but the eve was serenely 
beautiful." 

" The gallant warrior starts from soft repose, from golden visions 
and voluptuous ease ; where, in the dulcet piping time of peace, he sought 
sweet solace after all his toils. No more in beauty's siren lap reclined, 
he weaves fair garlands for his lady's brows; no more entwines with 
flowers his shining sword, nor through the livelong lazy summer's day 
chants forth his love-sick soul in madrigals. To manhood roused, he 
spurns the amorous flute ; doffs from his brawny back the robes of peace, 
and clothes his pampered limbs in panoply of steel. O'er his dark brow 
where late the myrtle waved, where wanton roses breathed enervate 
love, he rears the beaming casque and nodding plume ; grasps the bright 
shield and shakes the ponderous lance ; or mounts, with eager pride, his 
fiery steed, and burns for deeds of glorious chivalry. — Irving: Knicker- 
bocker. Possibly, the foregoing was meant in ridicule of the turgid or 
bombastic style. The golden-mouthed author, however, not unfrequently 
transgresses, by passing into poetic grounds. 

I have sometimes noticed, that expressions perfectly nonsensical 
in other respects, may have such a mimicking or caricaturing 
effect, as to please from this alone. Ex. — u And they shall flee to the 
mountain of the Hepzldam, where the rhinoceros weepeth, and the 
whangdoodle moaneth for its first-born." Some college stulents, when 
undertaking to duck a man that habitually whipped his wife, inscribed 
the following motto on their banner : " Rideat railiorum precipitandibus 
in swampo." 



Dr. Campbell gives the following excellent laws of language, which 
should be ever kept in mind :— 

1. When the usage is divided as to any particular words or phrases, 
and when one of the expressions is susceptible of different meanings, 
while the other admits of only one signification, the expression which is 
strictly univocal should be preferred. 

2. In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded. 

3. When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be pre- 
ferred which is most agreeable to the ear. 

4. When none of the preceding rules take place, regard should be had 
to simplicity. 



462 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

a. All words and phrases, particularly harsh and not absolutely ne- 
cessary, should be dismissed. 

b. When the etymology plainly points to a different signification from 
what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismission. 

c. When words become obsolete, or are never used but in particular 
phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style an air of vul- 
garity and cant, when this general disuse renders them obscure. 

d. All words and phrases which, analyzed grammatically, include a 
solecism, should be dismissed. 

e. All expressions which, according to the established rules of lan- 
guage, either have no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or, according 
to the fair construction of the words, convey a meaning different from 
the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed. 



In accordance with Dr. Blair's system of rhetoric, we may briefly sum 
up the most important qualities of style, in the six following terms : 
purity, propriety ', and precision, chiefly in regard to words and phrases ; 
and perspicuity, unity, and strength, in regard to sentences. He that 
writes with purity, avoids all phraseology that is foreign, uncouth, or 
ill-derived ; he that writes with propriety, selects the most appropriate, 
the very best expressions, and generally displays sound judgment and 
good taste; he that writes with precision, is careful to state exactly what 
he means, all that he means or that is necessary, and nothing more; 
he that writes with perspicuity, aims to present his meaning so clearly 
and obviously that no one can fail to understand him at once ; he that 
observes unity, follows carefully the most agreeable order of nature, 
and does not jumble together incongruous things, or throw out his 
thoughts in a confused or chaotic mass; and he that writes with 
strength, so disposes or marshals all the parts of each sentence, and all 
the parts of the discourse, as to make the strongest impression. A per- 
son's style, according as it is influenced by taste and imagination, 
may be dry, plain, neat, elegant, ornamental, florid, or turgid. A very 
common faulty style is that which may be described as being stiff, 
cramped, labored, heavy, and tiresome; its opposite is the easy, flowing, 
graceful, sprightly, and interesting style. One of the greatest beauties 
of style, is simplicity or naturalness, — that easy, unaffected, earnest, and 
highly impressive language — the pure promptings of Nature — which in- 
dicates a total ignorance or rather innocence of all the trickery of art. 

Mr. Brown gives the following epithets as being those most frequently 
used by critics and reviewers to characterize style : — 

" Concise, diffuse, — -neat, negligent, — terse, bungling, — nervous, weak, 
— forcible, feeble, — vehement, languid, — simple, affected, — easy, stiff, — 
pure, barbarous, — perspicuous, obscure, — elegant, uncouth, — florid, plain, 
— flowery, artless, — fluent, dry, — piquant, dull, — stately, flippant, — 
majestic, mean, — pompous, modest, — ancient, modern." 

For a good ridicule of the faults of speakers, see Foote's comedy 
styled "The Orators." In this piece he mentions the choleric style, the 
placid, the voluble, the frigid, the frothy, the turgid, the calm, and the 
clamorous ; he also recommends that speakers be particularly careful 
to remember their proper pauses, repetitions, hems, ha's, and inter- 
jections. 



FIGURES. 463 

Remark. — To improve himself in style, we recommend to the 
student Whately's, Graham's, and Crabbe's Synonyms ; Whately's and 
Campbell's Rhetoric ; Whately's Logic and Upham's large Intellectual 
Philosophy ; — Addison, Swift, Macaulay, Irving, and Prescott; Grattan, 
Brougham, and Webster; Shakspeare, Milton, Pope, Cowper, Campbell, 
and Bryant. 

13. FIGURES. 

1. Figures should be well-founded, becoming, striking, congruous 
throughout, not too numerous, and not overstrained or carried too far. 

2. Figurative language should be preferred to plain language, only 
when it will express the meaning better, or improve the discourse. 

IMPROPRIETIES; OR, EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The colonies were not yet ripe to bid adieu to British connection. — - 
Jefferson. (Incongruous; mixed metaphor.) The commercial liberties 
of rising states were shackled by paper chains [,i. e., by acts of Parlia- 
ment], — Bancroft. (Not well founded; for the phrase " paper chains " 
suggests nothing formidable.) A man, in this world, is a boy spelling 
in short syllables, but he will combine them in the next. — Rev. H. W. 
Beecher. (Rather puerile or not striking; a mere conceit.) Very 
often our joys are but the tender shadows which our sorrows cast. — Id. 
(Where is the resemblance?) God pardons like a mother, who kisses 
the offence into everlasting forgetfulness. — Id. (A mere soap-bubble, — 
mere namby-pamby for girls to admire.) A shower had just parenthe- 
sized the road before us. — Willis. (A mere conceit ; for there is no re- 
semblance either in appearance or by analogy.) His form had not yet 
lost all her original brightness. — Milton. (Not well founded, since the 
object has not sufficient dignity for personification.) War raised her 
bloody banner; and gentle Peace fled from his happy home. (Gen- 
der misapplied.) When the mustang is caught in a lasso, all his 
struggles only serve to rivet his chains, and deprive him of breath.— 
Travels through Texas. "There is not a single view of human nature, 
that is not sufficient to extinguish the seeds of pride." — Addison. (Lit- 
eral and plain language mixed. How can a view extinguish, — extinguish 
seeds !) He had as numerous an offspring as a Greek Verb. (Far- 
fetched. ) maid ! thou art so beauteous, that yon bright sun is rising 
all in haste, to gaze upon thee. (Overstrained.) Up to the stars the 
sprawling mastiffs fly, And add new monsters to the frighted sky. — 
Blacklock. (Terrible dog-barking, truly !) Night gathers up her shades, 
in sable shrouds, And whispering osiers tattle to the clouds. — Carey. 
Her golden trump shrill through the air she [Fame] sounds, Which rends 
the earth and then to heaven rebounds. — Fielding. The water bubbles, 
and the teacups skip, Through eager hope to kiss your royal lip. — Dodsly. 
(To temper this royal flattery, take the artless simplicity of the follow- 
ing American couplet : " I saw a crow sitting on a limb, and he winked 
at me, and I winked at him.") Let's grasp the forelock of this apt oc- 
casion, To greet the victor in his flow of glory. (Could the foregoing 
couplet be expressed by a congruous picture ? To conceive all the ima- 
gery as grouped into one visible or tangible picture, is often the best 
means of judging of its accuracy, propriety, and beauty.) 



464 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

No human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy. Hope, 
the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the thickest gloom. Let 
us be careful to keep our mouths as with a bridle ; and steer our vessel 
aright, that we may avoid the rocks and shoals which lie everywhere 
around us. At length Erasmus, that great injured name * * * Curbed 
the wild torrent of a barbarous age. — stemmed the wild — On the 
wide sea of letters 'twas thy boast, To crowd each sail, and touch at 
every coast ; From that rich mine, how often hast thou brought The pure 
and precious pearls of splendid thought. These are the first fruits of 
my unfledged eloquence, of which thou hast often complained that it 
was buried in the shade. " Since the time that reason began to bud, 
and put forth her shoots, thought, during our waking hours, has been ac- 
tive in every breast, without a moment's suspension or pause. The cur- 
rent of ideas has been always moving. The wheels of the spiritual 
ocean have been exerting themselves with perpetual motion.'' (Buds, 
currents, and wheels, are all jumbled together.) 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Most figures are a sort of emblems or pictures, — a universal language, 
graciously received, readily understood, and easily remembered. All 
literature, especially that which has lived longest and delighted the 
world most, abounds in figures. Figures, however, should be used spar- 
ingly and judiciously. An abuse of them is very apt to render the per- 
son so using them ridiculous, and thus to diminish at once the dignity 
and effect of his entire discourse. He that forsakes the common path to 
show his superior adroitness bj r walking on the wire, naturally raises 
our laughter if he falls. Figures are designed to adorn or to illustrate, 
and particular regard should therefore be had to the subject of the dis- 
course, and the person for whom it is meant. Some of our Indian 
agents have very properly addressed Indians in a figurative style that 
would be quite ridiculous if used in addressing their own countryman. 
Poetry, too, being founded in aesthetic principles, admits of much more 
ornament than prose. The figures used, should be such as would na- 
turally arise to a person whose mind and heart have fully grasped the 
subject in all its bearings. They should never indicate that he left the main 
subject to search for them. Not the cheek that is daubed over with 
glaring cosmetics is the one to please us, but that which glows with a 
native, healthy, roseate beauty of its own. The briefer a figure is, 
and the more it expresses that is to the point, the better it is. How 
excellent is that figure of Dean Swift's, in which he compares the hold- 
ing of high public offices to dancing on a wire ! It suggests at once 
the vanity of worldly glory, the hankering and folly of ambition, the 
tact and labor required to sustain oneself, the liability to a fall, the stare 
and huzza of the crowd, and their contempt and mockery after a fall. 
And how much covert irony and satire does Pope express in the follow- 
ing couplet : " Calm Temperance, whose blessings those partake, Who 
hunger and who thirst for scribbling's sake." 

As the same object may often be compared to several different things, 
care must be taken, in using metaphors, not to represent it partly by one 
comparison and partly by another. Thus, — 

u I bridle in my struggling muse in vain, 

That longs to launch into a bolder strain. — Addison. 



FIGURES. 465 

That is, his muse is a monster, partly horse and partly ship. 
When several consecutive metaphors are used, they must be congruous 
with one another, or make a perfect picture. Different perfect pictures 
may, however, be successively presented to the mind. Hence different 
similes or metaphors are sometimes used in succession, to illustrate the 
same subject ; as, — 

"But pleasures are like poppies spread, 

You seize the flower, its bloom is shed ; 

Or like the snow-flakes in the river, 

A moment white — then melt forever ; 

Or like the borealis race, 

That flit ere you can point their place ; 

Or like the rainbow's lovely form, 

Evanishing amid the storm." — Burns. 
Life. — "A flower that does with opening morning rise, 

And, flourishing the day, at evening dies; 

A winged eastern blast, just skimming o'er 

The ocean's brow, and sinking on the shore ; 

A fire whose flames through crackling stubble fly, 

A meteor shooting from the summer sky, 

A bowl adown the bending mountain rolled, 

A bubble breaking, and a fable told." — Prior. 
But the same picture must not be monstrous, — partly one thing and 
partly another. The same thought should not be expressed partly figu- 
rative and partly literal ; unless the figurative words are mere tropes, 
or unless a complete and proper figure at once suggests itself throughout 
the entire sentence or paragraph. Such a mixture of figurative and of 
plain language, or of concrete and of abstract objects, as is contained in 
the following sentences, is inelegant: " Her cheeks were blooming with 
roses and health ; " " The harvest early, but mature the praise." 

Figures should be new, if possible. "When they are already well 
known, they are not striking, and will generally appear stale and in- 
sipid. But figures should not be drawn from arts or sciences not well 
known, or from any knowledge remote from common observation; for 
when so derived, they generally indicate pedantry, and are seldom un- 
derstood or fully appreciated. 

Style should not be overloaded with figures ; especially if they do not 
form one natural and congruous picture throughout. Young, imagin- 
ative speakers and writers are sometimes ridiculously extravagant in 
the use of figurative language, and thus acquire a habit of fustianizing, 
spouting, or frothing, which they never entirely lose. The following is 
a specimen : — 

u The marble-hearted marauder might seize the throne of civil author- 
ity, and hurl into thraldom the votaries of rational liberty. Virtue, 
justice, and all the nobler principles of human nature, would wither 
away under the pestilential breath of political faction, and an unnerved 
constitution be left the sport of demagogues and parasites. Crash after 
crash would be heard in quick succession, as the strong pillars of the 
republic give way, and Despotism would shout in hellish triumph among 
the crumbling ruins. Anarchy would wave her bloody sceptre over the 
devoted land, and the bloodhounds of civil war would lap the gore of 



466 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

our most worthy citizens. The shrieks of women and the screams of 
children would be drowned amid the clash of swords and the cannon's 
peal: and Liberty, mantling her face from the horrid scene, would spread 
her golden-tinted pinions, and wing her flight to some far-distant land, 
never again to revisit our peaceful shores." — From a Four th-of -July Ora- 
tion. The foregoing paragraph is expressed in what is termed the rant- 
ing, bombastic, or Asiatic style. The proper and opposite quality of 
style is terseness. A terse style is a style that indicates much good com- 
mon sense. It is not too ornate or elaborate, nor extravagant in any 
respect; but correct, simple, neat, elegant, and expressive; in a word, it 
is just what it ought to be, for the meaning to be conveyed. 

A very common fault in the use of figures is, to lose sight of the sub- 
ject to be illustrated, by mounting the illustrative subject and running 
it through all its ramifications, without considering whether the resem- 
blance holds everywhere or not. It is to suppose that objects resemble 
throughout, when they are analogous perhaps only in some respects. 

14. POETRY AND VERSIFICATION. 

1. Poetry must be composed in accordance with the principles of cor- 
rectness, and the traits of excellence, required in good prose; that is, it 
must possess fundamentally all the good qualities of good prose, and all 
deviations must be such as make it poetry, and elevate it above prose, or 
such as impart to it some peculiar poetic excellence. 

2. Poetry should be composed in a lofty or ardent glow of spirit; and 
a deficiency allowed in any of its essential qualities, should generally 
be atoned for by superior excellence in the other qualities. 

3. Poetry, in its feet, csesural pauses, rhymes, words, modes of expres- 
sion, arrangement of words, and licenses, should be in accordance with 
the usage of the best poets, or in accordance with the principles in which 
the art itself is founded. 



4. Such a mode of versification should always be chosen, as will best 
correspond with the sentiments of the intended poem. 

5. When a certain stanza or a certain mode of versification has been 
adopted, there should not be, throughout the same poem, any departure 
from it, either in the kind of feet, in the number of feet to the respective 
lines, or in the mode of arranging the lines that rhyme. Regularity is 
one of the chief beauties of poetry. 

Rhyming lines should not be allowed to come occasionally into blank 
verse; nor should lines of blank verse be occasionally interspersed 
among rhyming lines. 

6. Rhymes should exactly correspond, or at least be allowable; that 
is, correspond sufficiently to be authorized by the usage of good poets. 

7. When the merit of poetry is to depend on its structure as to quan- 
tity and accent alone, there must be regularity and great melody, or 
great excellence of thought, sentiment, and expression, to atone for the 
qualities that are wanting. Therefore most of our " Sapphics," " hexam- 
eters," and other fantastic imitations of what is found in ancient, or in 
foreign languages, are not poetry according to the genius of our language. 
— See Southey, Tupper, Longfellow, and others. 



POETRY AND VERSIFICATION. 467 

8. In the composition of odes, the poet is often allowed to pursue 
whatever variety of versification he pleases, in order that he may- 
express a varying train of feelings in rhythm suiting the different parts, 
and thus produce a much finer and richer harmony than unvaried regu- 
larity could afford. — See Dryden's Ode on the Power of Music, and Ool- 
lins's Ode on the Passions. 

9. It seems to be a prevailing opinion among the people of western 
and of southern Asia, that poems — especially long ones — should be 
varied in versification, in order to produce the highest degree of pleasure. 
Scott, Byron, and Moore, have written many of their cantos thus, and 
successfully. The privilege, however, of using promiscuously different 
feet, or of varying the versification, can be allowed only to relieve mo- 
notony, or when such diversity will make the verse more expressive or 
decidedly more agreeable than regular structure would make it. 

Remark. — I incline to think that much of the poetry of this century, 
even of that which aspires to immortal fame, deserves to be condemned 
and expelled for its ill versification alone ; to say nothing of its great 
want of originality, thought, pathos, profoundness, strength, and 
energy. If we allow our poets to yield to their difficulties whenever 
the racking want of invention induces them to believe things allowable, 
our poetry will soon become so diversified in its measure — an essential 
ingredient — as to have none at all distinct from downright prose. It is 
very certain that the great masters of the English lyre rarely or never 
allowed to themselves, nor justified in others, such licenses as some now 
assume ; and their works are so deeply laid in all that is sensible or 
charming, — so exhaustive of the universal empire of thought and feel- 
ing, — and have, by a long train of associations, so well established what 
is considered good taste in Great Britain and in America, that they are 
not only now, but will probably be forever, good authority in this de- 
lightful art. An evil of the present age is, that our prose is running 
into poetry, and our poetry into prose — into gaudy and effeminate prose 
— the prose of silly novels, — too often mechanically ingenious but spirit- 
ually deficient. 

10. The student that wishes to become a poet, should study the best, 
the universally admired poets, and read the best, the most approved 
reviewers. But before he dedicates himself to this divinest of arts, let 
him remember that neither gods nor men can endure inferior poets, — let 
him not mistake ambition for genius. The poet is born. From his very 
infancy the beauties and melodies of earth impress themselves divinely 
on his soul. To him the earth and the heavens seem full of spirituality 
and beauty; and, as he looks upon them, his mind runs into delicious 
reveries, and revels in heavenly musings, perhaps long ere he lays his 
hand upon the enchanting lyre. His heart swells with inward melody; 
and the train of thought which every person is said to have when awake, 
trips with him in poetic measures — in iambics, trochees, anapests, and 
dactyls. His knowledge is accordingly all laid up poetically ; and when 
he calls upon it, it comes forth with the genuine poetic aroma, differing 
as much from mere machine poetry as- the flowers that have fragrance 
differ from those that have none. 

Above all, let him avoid the mere poetry of language. Genuine 
poetry lies in the thoughts or conceptions ; the words may be ever so 
common or simple. When Dr. Holmes says, "Thou melancholy Mug!" 



468 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

&c, we see at once that there are many finer words in the language ; 
but, on his subject, perhaps no other three words combined would ex- 
press so much poetry. When he says, of an old man tottering with age, 
that "The mossy marbles rest On the lips that he has pressed In their 
bloom ; And the names he loved to hear, Have been carved for many a 
year On the tomb", we see that the words are very plain and simple, 
but the stanza itself is highly poetical. By nature, almost all persons 
are more or less poetic between the age of puberty and the meridian of 
life; but the cares of life and the temptations of the world jostle out the 
poetry from most of them even before they reach this latter point. Some 
poets flourish early, and others late. Mankind seem to be rather more 
partial to those that sing and die early; but those that sing late, are 
generally more durable and can best bear criticism. He that knows 
himself to be born a poet, should not let his vanity hurry him forward, 
for the sake of popularity, too soon; nor be killed off by critics and fogies. 
He should rather make sure of his footing, take time to form his style 
deliberately in unassailable perfection, and to ground his poetry deep 
in nature or eternal truth. If necessary, he should be willing to wear 
the martyr crown, heroically follow the instincts of his nature, and 
never forsake the post evidently assigned him by his Maker. 

FAULTY EXAMPLES CRITICISED AND TO BE CRITICISED. 

" Whose span encompasses Creation round, 
And on whose finger hangs the dread profound." — Fredoniad. 
This description of God does not dignify him ; on the contrary, it 
almost renders him ridiculous. Besides, who can form in his mind a 
clear, sensible picture of the entire imagery used? 
11 Is it not sweet to think, hereafter, 
When the spirit leaves this sphere, 
Love, with deathless wing shall waft her 

To those she long hath mourned for here? 
Hearts from which 'twas death to sever, 

Eyes, this world can ne'er restore, 
There, as warm, as bright as ever, 

Shall meet us [,] and be lost no more." — T. Moore. 
I confess I can not see the strict propriety of the thought and imagery 
throughout these admired lines. Does the spirit take a ride on the back 
of love ? or is love a breeze or an ocean ? or does the poet really mean — 
the only sensible meaning — that love will urge the soul after death to fly 
away, and seek its former companions? Then his language is too far- 
fetched or hardly proper; and what sense is there in "deathless wing." 
In the next four lines, this ethereal spirit pluralizes into concrete hearts 
and eyes, that meet us just arrived from death, though we had all died 
together before at the severing. 

" ' Twas the last rose of summer left blooming alone * * * 
No flower of its kindred, no rosebud is nigh, 

To give back blush for blush, or exchange sigh for sigh." — T. Moore. 

Here the two roses are all at once metamorphosed into persons, — into 

a pair of blushing, sighing lovers ! (I prefer to criticise Moore, because 

he seems to have an innumerable dynasty of imitators in the United 

States. ) 



POETRY AND VERSIFICATION. 469 

" The smiles of joy, the tears of wo, 
Deceitful shine, deceitful flow, 

There's nothing true but heaven.' 7 — T. Moore. 
Smiles and tears may be deceitful; but smiles of joy, and tears of wo, 
are never so. 

" When in death I shall calm recline, 
bear my heart to my mistress dear ; 
Tell her it lived upon smiles and wine 

Of the brightest hue, while it lingered here." — T. Moore. 
When in jail I shall calm recline, 

bear my best coat to some pawn-broker near ; 
Show him how stylish the gilt buttons shine, 
And ask him a price that's not too dear. 
" Balmy zephyrs, lightly flitting, 
Shade me with your azure wing; 
On Parnassus' summit sitting, 

Aid me, Clio, while I sing. 
Clouds of amber, dreams of gladness, 

Dulcet joys and sports of youth, 
Soon must yield to haughty sadness, 
Mercy holds the veil of Truth." 
Laura Aurelta Angelina Seraphina Parnassus. 
At Laurel Grove, May 15 *A, A. D. 1835. 
u I've never seen thy peerless form, 
In wavy, graceful spring, 
Like white waves when they bound to kiss, 

And bathe the sea-bird's wing; — 
And yet with spirit eye I see 

A form whose beauty throws 
A glory halo o'er life's path, 
And say, 'tis thou, sweet Rose." — Louisville Journal. 

How very beautiful and sensible withal are the second, third, and 
fourth lines ! Some poetry reminds us of those white, beautiful, shape- 
less clouds that float over the scenes below, yet have nothing in them. 

" Why, beautiful nymph, do you close 

The curtain that fringes your eyes" That will do, Sir ! 

" Ah !*desolation hovers now [Newspaper. 

Above that moldering pile of towers" [on the Missouri river!] — 
In newspaper poems I have often been obliged to see the waves of the 
Pacific rolling about in the Mississippi Valley, rose-bushes blooming in 
January ; buds, violets, roses, juicy peaches, golden apples, and twink- 
ling stars, all flourishing promiscuously together. I have also heard 
nightingales sing on the Ohio river, and larks where I am sure they 
never were. — True poetry does not consist in jumbling together the 
images, words, and poetic expressions of other poets, but in exact 
copies and daguerreotypes of interesting parts of nature. 
" Red, angry meteors round creation glare, 
And at each other shake their fiery hair." 
Affected sublimity. The description is horrible enough ! 



470 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

"What stately vision mocks my waking sense; 
Hence, dear delusion, sweet enchantment, hence! " 
Affected sentimentalism. 

" One glossy curl of wavy hair 
Was hid in this burning letter fold/' 
A very loving affair, truly ! 

"Well, after many a sad reproach, 
They got into a hackney coach, 

And trotted down the street. 
I saw them go ; one horse was blind ; 
The tails of both hung down behind, 

Their shoes were on their feet" — H. Smith. 
Wordsworth's affected simplicity ridiculed. 
"All the congregation arose in the pews that were numbered. 
But with a cordial look to the right hand and the left hand, the old 

man 
Nodding all hail and peace, disappeared in the innermost chancel. 
Simply and solemnly now proceeded the Christian service, 
Singing and praying, and at last an ardent discourse from the old 

man.'" — Longfellow. 
This is downright prose, or something even worse. " The pews that 
were numbered " — what a poetical idea ! 
Sapphic Stanza : — 

"Cold was the night-wind, drifting fast the snow fell, 
Wide were the downs, and shelterless and naked, 
When a poor wanderer struggled on her journey, 

Weary and way-sore/' — Southey. 
Ridiculed thus: — 

"Needy knife-grinder! whither are you going? 
Rough is the road, your wheel is out of order — 
Bleak blows the blast ; — your hat has got a hole in it, 

So have your breeches." — Canning. 
When Sapphics are well composed, they may be passable; especially 
with those persons who have read the Latin and the Greek poets. 
a Immodest words admit of no defence ; 
For want of decency is want of sense." — Pope. 
What can be a better defence than a want of sense? Idiots and mad- 
men are never responsible in law. Hence, why not rather say, — 
Immodest words admit but this defense, 
That want of decency is want of sense ? 

Sound alone may do much to sustain poetry ; as, — 
"Legeia! Legeia! 

Thou beautiful one ! 
Whose harshest idea 
Would to melody run." — E. A. Poe. 
Here there is not much meaning conveyed ; especially in the last two 
lines; yet the soft melody of the verses still makes them beautiful. In 
fact, some poems seem to have been composed chiefly with reference to 
the sound. — See Poe's Bells. 



POETRY AND VERSIFICATION. 471 

" How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, 
In the icy air of night; 
And the stars that oversprinkle 
All the heavens, seem to twinkle 
With a crystalline delight." — Poe. 
The bells to which Mr. Poe here refers, are rather too large to " tin- 
kle; " and what he means by "crystalline delight,"' I can not well con- 
ceive. How far a poet may sacrifice sense to sound, I am not prepared 
to say ; but I imagine he should generally be as punctilious about his 
sense as about his honor. 

"Back from Miami, like a star he flies, 
Meigs to assist to hurry the supplies." — Fredoniad. 
Oh ! oh ! What a sad falling off, in the second line, from the epic 
grandeur assumed in the first! Butler has well described such 
poetry : — 

"For those that write in rhyme still make 
The one verse for the other's sake ; 
For one for sense, and one for rhyme 
I think' s sufficient at one time." 
"Dark-rolling, high in eddying wreaths uprising 
Curls the red flame, the fagot-fire surmounting 
Awfully grand, majestically awful 

Borne on the breezes." — Jones. 
This stanza is merely a bunch of epithets, smothering the little 
obscure meaning that is in it. A very common fault is, to load every 
noun with adjectives, or to crowd as many epithets into the poem as 
possible. 

" Nobler beaming, high and god-like, on the melting sky, 
Dazzling rolls the car-borne god in glowing majesty." — Jones. 
This is mere froth or a parcel of glittering soap-bubbles. 
"And Heaven peep through the blanket of the dark." — Shakspeare. 
Ridiculous and unbecoming imagery. — See Macbeth, Act 1, Scene 5. 
"The precious caskets still remain ; 

But, ah! the gems are flown." — Harper's Magazine. 
Gems do not fly. 

"These were the jewels lent to me, 
Which God has deigned to own; 
He giveth and he takes away, 
Blest be his holy name." — Harper s Magazine. 
"Giveth" and "takes" do not correspond. 

"The rising tomb a lofty column bore." 
Which bore the other? 

"In meditation deep I note 
The changes time has wrought." 
Here, not only is the rhyme imperfect, but the second line is a foot too 
short. 

" Low shall they lie, while ages after ages flee, 
But their tomb shall stand a proud Thermopylae." 
These two lines were meant for five-foot iambics: show in what they 
are faulty* 



472 BOOK THIRD— ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

"Lo, the sun, with gentle beams, 
Tempered heat, and softened light, 
O'er the spreading landscape gleams 
Of stretching vale, or mountain hight." 
These lines were all meant for trochaics: show which one is faulty. 
" And now where shade and fountain meet 
Herds of horses and cattle feed." 
These lines are not only faulty in measure; but meet and feed are not 
even allowable rhymes. 

" And thou meek sufferer, with grateful gladness, 
Hast reached the shores of earthly life again." 
The word "sufferer " makes the first line harsh in sound. 
"Along the west the clouds in beauty lay, 
But, with the approaching darkness, passed away." 
Here the position of the caesural pause in the second line, injures the 
rhythm. 

" What were knowledge and power, glory and gain, 
Unless thou couldst share them with me ; 
What were sorrow and sickness, misfortune and pain, 
When soothed by your fond sympathy." 
This was meant for anapestic verse: the first line is therefore faulty; 
and the poetic stress on the last syllable of "sympathy," at the end of 
the line, is harsh. So. — 

"To politicians, haughty, insolent, 

He yields himself with fawning blandishment." 
"Above the woody vales on high 
The eagle soars in majesty." 
Here "majesty" is pronounced so as to rhyme with "high": such 
rhymes are authorized by good poets, but I think pronunciation has so 
changed in modern times, that such rhymes are inelegant now, and 
should be avoided. 

" A mother, too, who well his faults preserved, 
And screened him oft from whippings much deserved." 
Here "-served" and "-served," having the accent, and beginning 
alike, are identical, and not rhymes. 

" Should every hopeful prospect fade, On life's uncertain way; 
Should every tie that love has made, Be rudely torn away." 
" Way " and "away" are not rhymes. 

" Another story all the town will tell ; — 

Phillis paints fair to look like an angel." 
" When sore affliction throws his dart 
We are prone to quail beneath the rod: 
With chastened pride and sincere heart, 
We seek the long-forgotten God." 
Here are many errors : point them out. 

"Thou impress of time, your unplacable sway 

Extends over all that I see : (What does he mean?) 

The great and the mighty must yield to decay, 
All nature is subject to thee." 



POETRY AND VERSIFICATION. 473 

"To reckless spirits journeying from afar, 
'Tis Texas yet presents a Polar Star; 
By misfortune, crime, and oppression driven, 
From every State and Kingdom under heaven." 
" And the mountain will echo Industry's glad song." 
"No hearts are more brave, more manly, and free." 
"He is Nature's own Nobleman, the true Western Son." 
The last three lines were meant for pure anapests. 

" Come, Rosalind, come : my brinded kine, 

My snowy sheep, my farm, and all is thine." — Phillips. 
" Uncertain if she viewed a foe or friend, 
Alternate hopes and fears her bosom rend." 
Here the tenses do not correspond. 

" While she, far distant from her native seat, 
Refused not thus her faithful knight to meet, 
With whom she hoped ere long her ancient realms to greet." 
Such triplets, occurring occasionally among five-foot iambics, have 
been censured as inelegant. Pope says, — 

"A needless Alexandrine ends the song 
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." 
"From harmony, from harmony, 
This universal frame began ; 
From harmony, to harmony, 
Through all the compass of its notes it ran, 
The diapason closing full in man." — Dryden. 
Here the imagery is rather obscure and overstrained. It is in the 
twilight style. 

"'Tis an excellent world that we live in, 
To lend, to SDend, or to give in; 

But to borrow, or beg, or to get a man's own, [Magazine. 
'Tis just the worst world that ever was known." — Harper's 
This stanza is not so regular as good poetry should be, but consid- 
ered as an imitation of doggerel verse, its versification is allowable ; 
and the sense, we all know, is superlative. 
" Sing, Song of Hiawatha, 
Of the happy days that followed 
In the land of the Ojibways, 
In the pleasant land and peaceful ! 
Sing the mysteries of Mondenim, 
Sing the blessing of the Cornfields." — Longfellow. 
In this measure, Prof. Longfellow has written his Hiawatha, a poem 
of about 6060 lines. The versification was probably not invented by 
him, for it existed in our literature before this poem made its appear- 
ance. It is easily written, easily imitated, and has, I think, but little 
merit. 

40 



474 BOOK THIKD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 



15. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 



A general collection of errors from all the various classes of persons that 
have most influence in making our language what it is. 



TALKEE-TALKEE. 

The low jargon of many nurses, and the silly gibberish assumed by 
some mothers to express greater fondness, can certainly not have a very 
refining influence on the language of the child. When such is the seed 
sown, it is no wonder that the crop should abound in weeds. The fol- 
lowing is a specimen : — 

Mrs. Slang. Fetch him to me, you good-for-nothing hussy, you. 
What's the matter with him ? (Reaching out her arms to receive him.) 

Rose. \_A negro nurse.'] I dun know, ma'am. 

Mrs. Slang. Nhei — nhun — nho — mha'm ! (Mocking and grinning at 
Rose.) 

Mrs. Slang. Da den ! come along e muddy. Did nassy Yosey pague 
muddy thweet chilluns ! (Pressing the child to her bosom, and rocking it 
backwards and forwards, tenderly.) Muddins will whip ole nassy Yosey. 
Ah! you ole uggy Yosey. (Knocking at Rose playfully.) Da den Muddy 
did whippy bad Yosey. ( Child continues crying. ) 

Mrs. Slang. Why, what upon earth ails the child? Rose, you've hurt 
this child some how or other! 

Rose. No Ma'am, cla' I didn't; I was jus sitt'n down dar in de 
rock'n-chair, long side a Miss Nancy's bureau, an' wa'n't doin' nuthin 
'tall to him; jis playin wid 'm; and he jist begin to cry heself, when 
nobody wa'n't doin' nuthin 'tall to him, and nobody wa'n't in dar 
nuther sept just me and him; and I was *- 

Mrs. Slang. Nhing — nhing — nhing — and I expect you hit his head 
against the bureau. 

Let muddy see where ole bad Yosey knocky heady 'gin de bureaus. 
Muddy will see. ( Taking off the child's cap, and finding nothing. Child 
cries on.) Muddy's baby was hongry. Dat was what ails muddy's 
darling, theety ones. Was child hongry, and nobody would give litty 
darling any sings 'tall foreaty? (Loosing her frock bosom.) Nobody 
would give theety ones fo' eat 'tall. (Offers the breast to the child, who 
rejects it, rolls over, kicks, and screams worse than ever.) Hush ! you little 
brat ! I believe it's nothing in the world but crossness. Hush ! ( shaking 
it,) hush, I tell you. ( Child cries to the ne plus ultra.) Why, surely a 
pin must stick the child. Yes was e bad pin did ticky chilluns. Let 
muddy see where de uggy pin did ticky de prettous cretur. Why, no it 
is'nt a pin. It must be the colic, surely. Rose, go bring me the pare- 
goric off the mantle-piece. Yes, muddy's baby did hab e tolic. Dat 
what did ail muddy's prettous darly baby. " Hush my baby (singing the 
Coquet), don't you cry, Your sweetheart will come by 'mby; Dade 
dum dum dum day, De dum diddle dum dum day." ( Child cries on.) 

Lord help my soul and body, what can be the matter with my baby ! 
( Tears coming in her own eyes.) Yes, dat was it ; did want to look out e 
windys. See the petty chickens. O-o-o-h ! look at the purty rooster ! 



BACKWOODS. 475 

Yonder's ole Aunt Betty ! See ole Aunt Betty, pickin up chips. Yes, 
ole Aunt Betty pickin up chip fo' bake bicky fo' good chilluns. Good 
Aunt Betty fo' makey bicky fo' sweet baby's supper. Hoo-o-o! see de 
windy. [Knocking at the window. Child screams.) You Rose, what 
have you done to this child ! If you don't tell me, you little hussy, I'll 
whip you as long as I can find you. 

Rose. Misses, I cla I never dun nuthin 't all to him. I was jist 
set'n down dar by Miss Nancy's bu 

Mrs. Slang. You lie, you nasty good-for-nothing slut. {Hitting her a 
passing slap.) If you say "Miss Nancy's bureau" again to me, I'll 
stuff Miss Nancy's bureau down your throat, you lying slut. 

[A feather was in the child's ear.~] 

The following names are from a Catalogue of a Female College: — 
" Teena Cordell, [Christina,] Minnie Christy, [Minerva? Wilhelmine?] 
Mollie Smith, Jinnie North, Jennie Jefferson, Seddie Miller, Pattie Jor- 
dan, Callie Hill, Gillie Miller, Callie Eckler, Nettie Chamberlin, Abbie 
Cotsworth, Mannie Bay, [Mansfield,] Jimmie Coffin, Tommy Price, 
Bobbie Parks, Bobbie Minor." (When such names are put into elaborate 
Catalogues, what shallow nambv-pamby must not the education itself 
be!} 

Some divine has endeavored to accommodate Scripture to the capacity 
of negroes, in this fashion: — 

Three days after back, them hold one marriage in Cana of Galilee, 
and mamma of Jesus been there. But them been call Jesus with him 
disciples to come to that marriage, and when wine end, mamma of Jesus 
talk to him. Them have no wine more. Jesus talk to him, me mamma, 
how work me have with you. Time of me no come yet. — Harrison's 
English Language. 

BACKWOODS. 

[When it is considered how extensively snch phraseology as the following yet prevails 
in almost every part of the United States, I trust I shall be pardoned for introducing 
the specimen. Let it be corrected, and the incorrigible faults pointed out.] 

Conversation of Mrs. A, Mrs. B, and Mrs. C, — Grandmothers. 

3trs. A. Well, I'm told if you'll wrap the inside skin of an egg 
round your little finger, and go three days reg'lar to a young persim- 
mon, and tie a string round it, and every day tie three knots in it, and 
then go again for three days, that the ager will leave you. 

Mrs. B. I've hearn o' that; it mout be so, but I don't know. Some 
folks don't blieve in it. 

3frs. C. What did they do for Lucy's cough? 

Mrs. B. They gin her a powerful chance of truck and doctor's 
means; but none of 'em holp her at all, and she kep gitten worse and 
worse, and nat'ly wasted away tell she died. Poor creater ! she died 
mighty happy, and I think, in my heart, she made the poottiest corpse, 
considerin, of almost any body I ever seed. 

Mrs. A. If they'd uv jist gin her a leetle cumfrey and alecampane, 
stewed in honey, or sugar, or lasses, with a leetle lump o' mutton 
suet or butter in it, it would a cured her in two days, sound and well. 

Mrs. B. I've always counted cumfrey and alecampane the lead of all 
yerbs for colds. 



476 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

Mrs. A. Horehound and sugar's mazin good. 

Mrs. C. Powerful good. I take mightily to a sweat of sage tea in 
desperate bad colds. 

Mrs. A. And so do I. Indeed, I've a great leanin to sweats of yerbs 
in all ailments sich as colds, rheumaty pains, pleurisies and sich ; they're 
wonderful good. Old Brother Smith came to my house from Bethany 
meeting in a mighty bad way with a cold and cough, and his throat and 
nose all stopped up; seemed like it would almost take his breath away; 
and it was dead o' winter, and I had nothin but dried yerbs, sich as 
camomile, sag^-^pennyryal, catmint, horehound, and sich; so I put a 
hot rock to his feet and made him a large bowl of catmint tea ; and I 
reckon he drank most two quarts of it through the night, and it put 
him in a mighty fine sweat, and loosened all the phleem, and opened all 
his head, and the next morning says he to me, says he, Sister Shad — you 
know he's a mighty kind spoken man, and alwa}-s was so 'fore he joined 
society; and the old man loves a joke yet right well, the old man does; 
but he's a mighty good man, and I think he prays with greater libity 
than most any one of his age I most ever seed; — don't you think he 
does, Mrs. C? 

Mrs. C. Powerful. That's so. 

Mrs. B. Who did he marry ? 

.Mrs. A. Why, he married — stop, I'll tell you directly. Why what 
makes my old head forget so. Well, it seems to me I don't remember 
like I used to. 

Mrs. C. He married old Daddy Johnny Hooer's darter, Mournin'. 

Mrs. A. Why law ! messy on me, so he did! to be sure! You knew 
Mournin, didn't you? 

Mrs. B. Oh mighty well; but I'd forgot that Brother Smith ever mar- 
ried her; I thought he married a Higginbottom. 

Mrs. C. Oh no, bless your soul, honey, he married Mournin. 

Mrs. B. Well the law me, I'm clean beat! And Brother Smith mar- 
ried Mournin Hooer ! Well, I'm clean put out. Seems to me I'm get- 
tin forgetful somehow. 

Mrs. A. Oh yes, that's so : he married Mournin, and I saw her when 
she joined society. 

Mrs. B. Why, you don't tell me so. 

Mrs. A. Oh, it's the truth. She didn't join till after she was mar- 
ried, and the church took on mightily about his marryin one out o' so- 
ciety. But after she joined, they all got satisfied. 

Mrs. C. Why, law me ! the seven stars is way over here ! 

Mrs. B. Well, let's light our pipes, and take a short smoke, and go 
to bed. How did you come on raisin chickens this year, Misses A ? 

Mrs. A. Law messy, honey! I have had such mighty bad luck; 
(P u ffi P u ff '>) I na( i the prettiest passel {puff) you most ever seed (puff, 
puff) till the varment took to killin 'em. (Buff puff, puff.) 

Mrs. C. and 3Irs. B. The varment! ? 

Mrs. A. Oh dear, yes. The hawk catched a powerful sight of 'em ; 
and then the varment took to 'em, and nat'ly took 'em fore and aft, 
bodily, till they left most none at all hardly. Sucky counted 'em up 
t'other day, and there warn't but thirty-nine, countin in the old speckled 
hen's chickens that jist come off her nest. 

Mrs. C. and Mrs. B. 'Mph-h-h! (solemnly). 



BACKWOODS, ETC. 477 

Mrs. C. Well, I've had bad luck too. Billy's hound-dogs broke up 
most all ray nests. 

Mrs. B. Well, so they did mine, Mis' C, (puff, puff, puff, puff). I 
always did dispise a hound-dog upon the face of yeath. 

Mrs. 0. They're the bawlinest, squallinest, thievishest things ever 
was about one; but Billy will have 'em, and I think in my soul his old 
Troup's the beat of all creters I ever seed in all my born days a-suckin 
o' hens' eggs. He's clean most broke me up intirely. 

Mrs. A. The lack ad ay ! 

Mrs. C. And them that was hatched out, — some took to takin the 
gaps, and some the pip, and one ailment or other, till they most all died. 

Mrs. A. Well, I reckon there must be sumthin in the season of this 
year, that an't good for fowls; (puff, puff, puff;) for Larkin Goodman's 
brother Jimmie's wife's aunt Penny told me she lost most of her fowls 
with different sorts of ailments, the like of which she never seed before. 
(Puff, puff.) They'd jist go 'long looking right well, and tilt right over 
backward (Mrs. B. The law!) and die right away (Mrs. C. Did you 
ever!) with a sort o' sumthin like the blind staggers. 

" I'm prehaps a leetle o' the best man at a horse-swap, that ever stole 
cracklins out o' mammy's fat gourd. Where's your hoss? — Jess look at 
him. He's the best piece of hoss-flesh in the thirteen united univarsal 
worlds. There's no mistake in little Bullet. He can pick up miles on 
his feet, and fling 'em behind him as fast as the next man's hoss, I don't 
care whar he comes from: an he can keep at it as long as the sun kin 
shine without restin." " I've done put up and fed all them horses I seen 
hitched at the rack." "All you that hasn't got no guns fall into the 
lower eend." " Ouch ! You scrouch me ! "^ 

Sometimes a word is ridiculously misapplied from its similarity to the 
proper word : — 

" ' Now, gentlemen,' says the captain, f 1 am going to carry you through 
the revolutions [evolutions] of the manual exercise.' " u Wheat is not 
adopted [adapted] to this soil." " The assembly will now please to par- 
take of a cold consolation [collation] prepared for them on yonder grass- 
plot." " Women," said an old Texan," "are getting so costly nowadays, 
that I must run a physician [partition] through my house, for my daugh- 
ters." A certain man said, he meant to run a revenue up to his house, 
build a pizarro in front, a portorico behind, a conservatory on top, and 
treat his friends in a hostile manner. 



NEWSPAPER- EDITORS, MAGAZtNISTS, POLITICIANS, NOVEL- 
ISTS, LETTER -WRITERS, TRAVELERS, AND EPHEMERAL 
WRITERS IN GENERAL. 

Not one has received a dollar of what was due them. The deadly in- 
cumbus of foreign influence, which is crushing this nation. The driver 
who was to have taken us, w r as drunk. This will be the most agreeable 
to him of any business you could give him. I received your letter near 
a month previous. Had we been at liberty to have acted, our most san- 
guine expectations would have been fulfilled. Again, there is, and has 



478 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

long been, many of our citizens, who view a further extension of terri- 
tory as dangerous to the integrity of the Union. They ascribe to him 
motives wholly unworthy an American Statesman, and a narrow-minded 
policy for slave holding states. (Correct also errors in the use of capital 
letters, and in punctuation.) The treatment was more like such as is 
towards little children, than people of mature age. A somewhat regular 
government in these half Monarchial half Republics was instituted. 
With respect to the obtaining an adequate knowledge of the circum- 
stances. Are there any in this learned assembly who are possessed of 
minds of such prejudices? After dilating awhile on this subject, the 
learned judge took his seat. — expatiating — I hope the honorable gen- 
tleman will not think hard of it, if we ignorant men can not see as clear 
as he can. He had no doubt but that Congress will direct payment to 
be made. This, Mr. President, is giving great power to we know not 
who. One state only complied therewith — New Hampshire. Men ele- 
vated so high in power, they would fall heavy when they came down. 
These powers are as great as ever was enjoyed by any people. If all 
was as clear as this section, there would be little opposition. Has not 
Rhode Island failed to pay their delegates? I think her parents ought 
to have let him had her. But did they ever dare abuse their powers? 
(I think this sentence would have been better expressed by inserting to 
before '-'abuse.') Mr. Dana asked Mr. Gore's leave to say a few words, 
which he did; after which he retired from the Convention. (Ambi- 
guous.) There will be no money for the discharging the debts. The 
printing the journals of each house. Each citizen should be secured, so 
far as human wisdom can secure thern, against the abuse of delegated 
power. These are rights that Congress can not infringe upon. (Omit 
"upon.") This can be made an objection against one government as 
well as another. (Reconstruct the entire sentence.) Let us avoid the 
making such amendments as will be needless. New York absolutely 
refused complying with the requisitions of Congress. I doubt not 
but the gentlemen who hold different opinions from me are actuated 
by the purest motives. Each state is now at liberty to abolish slavery as 
soon as they please. If the Constitution was as perfect as the sacred 
volume is, it would not secure the liberties of the people unless they 
watch them. I desire that my ears may be no longer perstringed, nor 
my heart pained, with the cries of the injured widow and orphans. 
These politicians slyly evading the spirit of our government, only seek to 
enrich and aggrandize themselves and their relations. It is in vain to say 
they can not exist, when they actually have done it. Such a law would 
involve the good and bad, the innocent and guilty in the same calamity. 
It is education which almost entirely forms the character, the freedom or 
slavery, the happiness or misery of the world. "Where once was the 
abodes of peace, health, and plenty, squalid poverty, sickness and w r ant, 
now stalk abroad in the land. Near the centre where stands an ancient 
and a venerable Cathedral, has more than once been stationed the mes- 
sengers of death ; and in the northeast corner the remains of the cele- 
brated fortress, the Alamo rears its head. He possesses sufficient hypo- 
cracy to conceal the most envious malignity. Such men are cowardly, 
dastardly, and ignoble, villains, without one redeeming quality. Here 
is the hunting-grounds of the Camanches, Kickapoos, and Shawnees. 
There is no state of society so insufferable bad as that of semi-barbari- 



NEWSPAPER-EDITORS, MAGAZINISTS, ETC. 479 

ans. The first was a tall, red whiskered, and most villainous, looking 
man, who carried the indellible mark of Cain on his forehead. A bar at 
the mouth of this river prevents vessels drawing more than five foot en- 
tering. An exagerated discription. He who has suffered from the light 
fingered pick pockets must find out the rogue as best he can. And now 
the hero of San Jacinto was followed by as many thirsty beings as ever 
congregated in this state ; and I guess there was not less than a thousand 
men half seas over at his expense. Enthusiasm prevails in the army ; 
* * * but many whom we had anticipated would be the first in the field, 
are not here. — Rusk and Houston 1 s Proclamation. Here was a Mexican 
woman whom I do think was the ugliest human being I ever saw. Dilli- 
gent search and enquiry. An expansion of ideas to which such- com- 
prehensive scenery is always in harmony. Such a man is unworthy the 
blessings inherited from his ancestors. The ship had discharged one 
cargo and took in another. Doubtless the best business now is the opening 
farms and rearing stock. The state was on the precipice of an anarchy. 
(Omit " an.") I had hoped to have found Texas in peace and tranquility. 
A three days visit. He was much the most active of the two. He had 
began to lapse into hopeless despair. What kind of an answer you re- 
turned, a reference to your letter will explain. I bad no doubt but 
what the horse was one that was entered for the day's running. He did 
not tell us what their names was. All the comforts and luxuries that 
huntsmen so keenly relish, was liberaly provided for. The public land 
was sold without prejudice of the claims of the people of any portion of 
the states. It is them and their posterity who are to be the sufferers. 
They will reclaim something like a dollar an acre for all the saleable 
lands. What is seventy-five cents or even a dollar an acre! From 
thence they scattered into the interior. In the spring they returned 
and disposed their furs to traders. Their situation can scarcely be con- 
ceived of at the present day. There is marked upon the west banks of 
the Cuyahoga these words " French house." Every person in the house 
was sick either with the bilious fever or the fever and ague. Yes, gen- 
tlemen, the fact can neither be disguised or denied. The states mutually 
prohibited each other from granting any title of Nobility. Suppose a 
war was suddenly declared against us by a foreign power, possessed of 
a formidable navy. It was impossible for the Convention to have gone 
minutely into it. I confess I have been surprised that this objection was 
ever made. — I am surprised — He said he done it in self-defence. 
There, said he, goes some stray horses. This is the most beautiful tree 
which I saw in California. To abolitionise Kansas. To Christianise the 
Indians. He sat gloomily in his garden. The most formidable of any 
people on earth. Them are good apples you sent us. Two days notice 
is sufficient. Let us consider, first, the soil ; secondly, the climate ; 
thirdly, the productions ; * * * and sixth, the expense of the journey.* 
And which would be the greatest gainers, — the landed or the trading in- 
terest? (Bad phraseology.) Our foreign trade for forty years last 
past has been managed by a stock not less than four, and not exceeding 
eight millions. But the setting these points in a clear light must be 
the subject of another paper. But to set &c. An habit of industry. 

* Whether such enumerations should be made adverbially or adjectively, depends on 
the supposed ellipsis. Short enumerations are, I believe, generally made adverbially ; 
and long ones, adjectively.— See the Revised Statutes of the different States. 



480 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

The total of all the receipts amount to $5,000. The several items of 
revenue amounts to $5,000. Two celebrations of the Fourth was held in 
one city. Lesser interests. The use of my name in connection with a 
musical festival, which was to have come off last night at the Pasha sa- 
loon, was wholly unauthorized. Behind them was half a dozen car- 
riages. It had like to have been my ruin. He pursued his rival to the 
death. The provision of our Territorial Organic Act secures us this 
right, and is founded in the true doctrines of republicanism. — which 
is founded — Levying of public taxes. Is I'm obliged to do it ? The 
president or either of the seven professors. [Either is often used thus, 
but it usurps the place of a better expression.) These are a noble set 
of resolutions, to which I will give my whole heart. ( Perhaps allow- 
able. This whole earth is Gods. Who did you get that letter from ? 
A picnic is being prepared. Ripe, luscious peaches are getting plenty 
in this vicinity. Should the weather become inclement, they added a 
vest of skins. — Irving — they add — Dare he question it? All offices 
of moment now rests in the suffrage of the people. The inhabitants 
live by husbandry and keeping of sheep. Christianity is part of the 
laws of England. There can be no question, I conceive, but a person 
may incur any number of penalties in a day. The keeping one day in 
seven holy, as a time of relaxation and refreshment, is of admirable ser- 
vice to the state considered merely as a civil institution. There can be 
no question but that they may be punished. Embassadors have former- 
ly been treated of at large. They are so imperfect as that no one would 
take them. If any person colors or alters a shilling or sixpence to make 
them resemble a guinea or half-guinea, he shall'' &c. Aristocracy is 
the parent of slavery, for the master and slave appeared on the same 
day. — Horace Mann. — and the slave — It seems as if the skill that can 
gain a battle was connected in very many minds with ever}' talent and 
virtue under heaven. Such was the early and speculative views of the 
greatest commentators on the Constitution. This railroad stock is the 
best of any in the State. I ought to have went, and I intended to a 
went to town. The theatre is the most spacious of any I ever saw. 
Some virtues are only seen in adversity, and some in prosperity. I wish 
I had went to school when young. A good education is very hard 
getting; but after one gets it, he can not lose it very easy. Last year 
we had no rain scarcely. After a while we will have good streets. The 
substance of gold is invincible by the powerfullest heat. Gold is — 
When the sum of $20,000 are secured &c. The principal obstruction 
are the rapids. The valley of the Amazon is perhaps as large as the Mis- 
sissippi ; but more of it is overflown. To rule, dictate, and tyrannize over 
others. The South had no right, nor never did complain. No nation can 
or have any right to look for respect abroad as being just, that is not 
first honest at home. The show wai not what it was cracked up to be. 
Gambling used him up. This was unbeknown to us. The counter- 
currents, eddies, and political whirlpools, forces its own vent. After 
degrading and crowing over her fallen Territorial condition &c. Can 
any one suppose that Mr. Webster would have felt authorized under his 
pledges to have said at Buffalo that &c. This is the way that immense 
millionaire fortunes were rolled up in those days in New England. 
Mr. Gamble is a strong man for Congress, but not so strong perhaps as 
Mr. Kennett, whom we had hoped would be the nominee. — Mo. Republi- 



NEWSPAPER-EDITORS, MAGAZINISTS, ETC. 481 

can. Like the Saxon's of Old England, they can neither plan or work 
without a master. Our country is filling up fast with copiests of Roman 
oratory. Shall I address the letter to Mrs. Catharine or Thomas John- 
son ? — direct the letter — 

(Query. — Should we give to a married lady or to a ividow her own Chris- 
tian name, or that of her husband? I think the lady's name should be 
preferred, unless there is some special reason for using the husband's. 
The husband's Christian name may sometimes be more definite better 
known, or better suited to the end in view. When there are two or 
more Catharine Johnsons, they may be best distinguished by usin«- their 
husbands' Christian names. Our merchants, I believe, nearly always 
use the husband's Christian name, in directing parcels to married ladies* 
not merely, I suppose, because the husband is better known but be- 
cause they " look to him for the pay. 11 In England, it is more common 
I am told, than in the United States, to use the husband's Christian 
name: our ladies, it is well known, are punctilious about their rights.) 

Does not all these known facts officially prove, that their pretended 
compromise measures was nothing but a base counterfeit? Is not all 
the Southern soil free for anybody to come buy land and cultivate it 
with any sort of labor they please, provided they do not disturb the 
peace or religion of their neighbors? That was a mean and henious 
act he done. Once the press and public mind can be kept hoodwinked 
the way to public crime is made easy. Bottom lands were much being 
sought for before the present flood. We have only their say so for it. 
— say-so — I disremember his name. — have forgotten — I have got 
to do it. I must do it. I fear I will never get perfectly rid of the small- 
pox. — shall never recover from the effects — Sir Walter speaks to every 
man as if they were his blood relations. — Irving. Whatever's took in at 
your ear, should never run out at your mouth. He intended to have 
gone to Egypt. Byron himself, in a memoranda, said, " I awoke one 
morning, and found myself famous." To the antiquary and artist these 
columns are a source of inexhaustible observations and designs. — Byron. 
— and the artist — The water courses, as they pass along, emit a gug- 
gling sound. Boats of a lesser draught can ascend the river much far- 
ther. Apples and peaches may and have been raised near Charleston 
but they grow best in the middle and western parts of the State. All 
the vessels except one were drove ashore. The south-west corner of the 
baptist new church. Where did you see him at? When do you take 
up and let out your school ? — begin and end, or — open and close — James 
was there among the rest. — with the rest. The epidemic prevails 
throughout the whole country. It rains; and I want an umbrella the 
worst kind. There will be no extras or vacations. — no extras, nor 
vacations. " I am going to wear that bonnet to church," said a young 
lady, — " that I am; I am going to wear nothing else." He left a large 
circle of mourners embracing his amiable wife and children. com- 
prising — I trust there are many gentlemen here that bring with them 
dispositions to examine whatever is offered. Here it is rare for three 
fair days to follow each other. It was not in our power to lie long still. 
The disease had different names, and was occasionally called camp, hos- 
pital, gaol, putrid, and malignant fevers. That South Carolina is un- 
healthy, is neither correctly true nor wholly false. (Bad phraseology. 
Say, " neither wholly true nor wholly falseP) Hurricanes are always 
41 



482 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

preceded by extreme hot weather. It would have been as easy to have 
the streets one hundred feet wide as any inferior number. — as of any 
inferior width. No sectarianism or partizanism will be admitted to its 
pages. La Salle, with a party of his company, on a raft, were hurried 
down the stream, until they were considered as lost. I was met by a 
little dog that had been my fathers, aud who expressed great joy at my 
return. On rather a narrow strip of laud. — E. Everett. — a rather — 
Either for convenience or beauty. — Id. — or for beauty — From the 
wardrobe of his sister or mother. — Id. — or that of his mother. Then 
we shall never see him more. — Id. — see him again. We had fortu- 
nately engaged rooms in advance at the only decent inn at Melrose, 
and, after supper, went out at nine o'clock to see the Abbey. — Id. — in 

the only we went — By four deep gaps are entrance given. — Sir 

Walter Scott. Bruce spoke of himself and his compeers as being neither 
Scottish or English, but Norman barons. — Id. His foes was far behind. 
— Id. England and us have been long at feud. — Id. The best bowmen 
whom the world had ever produced. — Id. The thieves was numbered a 
hundred men. — Id. A reward was offered to whomsoever would point 
out a practicable road. — Id. They rushed upon the soldiers that were 
designed to have supported them — Id. The condition of the two king- 
doms resembled each other like that of the sovereigns. — Id. The High- 
landers laying at Perth were unanimously resolved to follow their 
prince. — Id. Neither of the plans of the Earl of Mar seem to have been 
distinctly settled. — Id. Another measure of very dubious utility was 
now had recourse to. — Id. King James probably expected that his 
enemies would have been conciliated by the lenity which they had expe- 
rienced. — Id. Our friends don't feel like writing evidently. She at 
last brought Macbeth to think of murdering his king and his friend. — 
Id. — his king and friend. 

HARPERS MAGAZINE. 

[Criticised because it is said to be most generally read.] 
There was the house and outbuildings all of an unfashionable kind. 
It is a little child of two years old. She had been indulged in that per- 
nicious habit of the mind — the making claims. She wished to ascertain 
if it were her lost child or no. Bernabas and his brother became, as 
companions in crime usually do, suspicious of one another. And happy 
was it for the purchaser if it were something better than a piece of iron. 
He felt as if he was mounting guard the last time. He knew not which 
to most admire. For the earliest and the most innocent wish to please is 
that of the child to please its mother. I doubt if the world is sufficiently 
indulgent to this faculty where it exists in a lesser degree. I iiever knew 
this fail. They excluded him their society. The last of the horses had 
scarcely crossed the bridge, than the head of the third battalion appeared 
on the other side. — when the head — About £2,000 has been contributed 
towards the erection of a monument to Lord Jeffrey. We have other 
two remarks to offer before we close. Efforts are at present being made 
to procure for Mr. De Quincey &c. A farmer's life is the very happiest 
of any. I was also shown several valuable jeweled ornaments. In 
England every one is free as soon as they touch the land. My utter 
helplessness prevented me addressing any one of the hundreds that 
passed by. From the highest noble of the once court to the humblest 



HARPERS MAGAZINE. 



483 



peasant of La Vendee. His eyes shone not with that worldly lustre 
thine do. The king declared an usurpation. I noticed them as I was 
being conveyed to prison. The evaporation dish of the philosopher was 
being used as a bath by an irreverent sparrow. The bill was opposed 
expressly on the ground of its democratic tendencies by Lord Bernard. 
— opposed by Lord Bernard — Does this fellow know who he is after? 
Who wert thou watching so eagerly? There dwelt for years an old 
woman whom some people thought was a stranger. If nature has given 
thee a good head and a quick eye, thou might even do better. She 
wondered what sort of a palace house was that owned by the beautiful 
lady. The Tree of Knowledge has shot up its golden branches into 
heaven, over which has radiated the smiles of beneficent Providence to 
cheer man onward in the career of virtue and intelligence. She was a 
peevish uncomfortable sort of an old woman. It is a full two hours to 
dinner. I was very sorry to quit the dotingest of mothers, the happiest 
of homes, and the pleasantest of fathers. Two of the wickedest black 
eyes that ever glistened and glittered in a human head. At one ma- 
chine a cylinder is being planed, and at another the rims of a wheel are 
being cut. Now, then, what should you think water was composed of? 
My suspicions were being more and more confirmed every minute. Of 
the other two there exists only the first book of the first, and the plan of 
the third. Neither Mr. Lang nor Mr. Kay have any doubt whatever on 
this point. As if one should say they did not love the breeze that fans 
their cheek. The chief executioner with a file of officers have just 
dropped in to say a word on business. They dealt my old friend three 
blows any of which were sufficient of itself to have extinguished life. 
I scarce dared breathe, lest my breath should betray me. There were 
many children of from four to five years old. If I balked my desire, I 
should consider that I was flying in the face of Providence. There were 
two or three hundred turtle in the vaulted apartments — all alive. I 
would rather you filled some situation further oif where you Avere not 
so well known. This was the person of whom he had just spoken, pre- 
vious to his death. It is useless trying. We do not want the sound of 
these charmers [organ-grinders], charm they never so sweetly. I 
did not employ myself on the question of whether or no the person 
before me were indeed the person I took him for. I remember a person 
whom I frequently heard to give evidence quite out of harmony with 
facts. But he as well as the other made their escape. You are only 
being favored with an opportunity to enjoy the pleasures of illness. On 
a more extensive scale to that now being undertaken between England 
and France. Who has not seen, at some time, an empty house which 
has struck them as the picture of desolation. I find here that the nation 
is devotedly attached to its traditions and its literature, and feels no 
insult deeper than the insult in substitution of a foreign tongue for 
their own noble language. The two electric fluids neutralize each 
others' powers. Two rays will be twice as bright as either ray singly 
would produce. One can hardly wander through that place without 
having his fancy swarm with forms of evil. We kneeled for the last 
time by that wonderful old furnace [a volcano] where the hand of God 
works the bellows. — Rev. Cheever. ( A figure that represents God as a 
bellows-blower, is, I think, rather undignified and unbecoming.) It was 
I who destroyed Ehrenberg's theory that the volvox globator was an ani- 



484 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

mal. — Atlantic Monthly. Which phrase, if it mean any thing, means 
paper money. — lb. Palfrey's and Pardon's Histories — lb. (I. e., a 
History by each. Can the phrase be improved as being a heading ?) 

ESSAYISTS, HISTORIANS, AND STATESMEN. 

I think not, replied Ali dryly. — Irv. They were attacked by a shower 
of darts, stones and arrows which lay two or three of Mahomet's follow- 
ers dead at his feet. — Id. But Gen. Mifflin with about five hundred of 
the Pennsylvania troops were at the King's Bridge. — Id. They are the 
best disciplined of any troops I have yet seen in the army. — Id. We 
were to remain there as if nothing was taking place. — Id. Col. Smith 
was voted a sword by Congress. — Id. I look upon the keeping it as 
a means of prevention. — Id. Burgoyne was stated as being arrived at 
Quebec to command the forces in an invasion from Canada. — Id. The 
right wing was composed of Glover 1 s, Nixon's, and Patterson's brigades. — 
Id. It is a standing order that the troops shall always have two days 
provision by them, that they might be ready at any sudden call. — Wash- 
ington, as edited by Sparks. No opportunity has yet oft'ered of taking 
advantage of the enemy. — Id. I understand it was resolved, that if they 
did not make the attack soon to have fought them at all events. — Id. 

To keep the field entirely is impossible, and so would you think if you 
saw the fix we were in. — Id. Here Captain Lee with a few of his 
troops were stationed. — Id. In advance of his left wing was McLane's 
company and about fifty Indians. — Id. In this observation, the expe- 
rience of the ten last years support me. — P. Henry. There is no doubt, 
Sir, but under this Constitution treaties will become the supreme law of 
the land. — Id. The sick and wounded had been left with no other pro- 
vision for their safety. Their fears had been already greatly excited, 
for it was the very day when they were to have been assaulted. A few 
dozen biscuit were given to the hungry applicants. In the ancient gov- 
ernments this has been the principal defects. — Elliot's Debates on the 
Constitution. New York absolutely refused complying with the requisi- 
tions of Congress. — lb. No business could have been more embarrassing 
than the constructing the Senate. — lb. Our Constitution has been com- 
pared both by its defenders to the British government. — lb. One gen- 
eral remark Avas, that, in the reigns of weak princes, the power and im- 
portance of parliament increased; in the reigns of strong and arbitrary 
kings, they declined. — lb. Unless a Moses or a Joshua are raised up 
in our behalf, we must perish before we reach the promised land. — lb. 
In England from whence we derive many of our ideas on this subject 
&c. — lb. He breathed his own spirit of patience and perseverance in 
his yeoman soldiery. — Life of Marion. He was well versed in the Eng- 
lish as well as the French languages. — lb. The general combated the 
idea that the liberties of the people depended on the duration of parlia- 
ments. The colonies, nevertheless, had no political connection with 
each other. — Federalist. The British troops possessed themselves of near 
all the forts. — lb. Six years after the laying the foundation of James- 
town. — lb. A fleet of a hundred and forty transports were ready to sail. 
Timber is scarce, water is impure, and consequently unwholesome, chills 
and fevers are common; the annoyance from mosquitoes, flies and other 
nauseous insects is intolerable to man and beast, and the climate in this 
low country enervating in the extreme, creating in the hot summer 



ESSAYISTS, HISTORIANS, AND STATESMEN. 485 

months a degree of lassitude truly insupportable; besides, for many 
months in the year, the roads which are much better defined on some 
maps extant, than they are on the country, are impassable, and such is 
the nature of the soil, that durable thoroughfares will never be con- 
structed unless at enormous expense. — History of Texas. (What did he 
begin with? What an abominable conglomeration of heterogeneous 
scraps and ends in one sentence ! ) The surrounding country of the 
Trinity supplies the greatest quantity of magnolia. The supplying an 
army by contractors Gen. Jackson had objected to, as highly exception- 
able and dangerous. (Change the entire sentence.) Thus the invading 
army was offered a much easier and less hazardous opportunity of suc- 
ceeding in the assault, and securing the victory. Beyond was the Eil- 
don hills, the Cowdon Knowes, the Tweed, the Galla Water, and all the 
storied vicinity. Soon after his reaching manhood, he was appointed 
governor of the province. They had drove all the cattle from the woods 
into the town. The colonists turned their attention to the rearing cat- 
tle — to rearing cattle. Martinico was infested with run away negroes. 
This war did not finish till the death of king Philip. In that time the 
chiefs of the Regulators were run away. The Indians concocted the 
plan of a sudden and simultaneous attack of every settlement in the col- 
ony. They murdered the sucking infant that clang to the bleeding 
bosom of its mother. The Indians had chiefly collected their strength 
into one body. The Indians prevented the planting or raising any corn. 
The people had not the wherewith to pay their debts. Iron works had 
been set up in different parts of the province. The sum of one thousand 
pounds was appropriated to the raising, subsisting, and paying such 
troops as the president might see proper to send. The mob permitted 
him to return, on his giving bond for his future better behavior. They 
declared, that the people of the province would break off all intercourse 
with any colony, city, town, or individual, who would refuse or neglect 
to carry such plans into execution. (The reference is to the overt act; 
say, therefore, " that should refuse" &c.) There is no carrying a meta- 
phor too far when a lady's charms are spoke of. It is Pontius Pilate's 
wife's chambermaid's sister's hat. Nor do not saw the air too much 
neither with your hand. He seems to have no other ambition but to be 
an animal above horses and dogs. Is thy only purpose in speaking, to 
show your fine teeth? There are abundance of fine things said on the 
subject. For here are two rivals for the same thing, and propose to 
obtain it by presents. Those who have been convinced of the turpitude 
of vice, may be safely shown its absurdity. He was expelled the house 
a few days after he took his seat. Never man threw up his pen under 
stronger temptations to have employed it longer. His wit was so licen- 
tious that no subject however sacred, and no character however amiable, 
were safe. Hence it is that all these beauties seem to spring from natural 
dictates of the heart. The rules have had no other effect but to make 
all the members quarrel. Another lover has just now writ three lines 
to Clarissa, then taken a turn in the garden, then came back again, 
then tore his fragment, then called for some chocolate, then went away 
without it. — British Essayists. If any gentleman or lady sends to Isaac 
Bickerstaff the joy or grief of their soul. She says the colonel rides the 
best of any man in England; the colonel says she talks the best of any 
woman in England. The court was mightily alarmed at the news which 



486 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

they received. The continental army moved down to Charleston in the 
latter end of the year. (Omit "latter.") No punishment was inflicted 
either on the soldiery or tories. He with his followers were received 
with great politeness by the commander. — Col. Yoakum. Captain Don 
Ramon seems to have been the active laborer in the building up of these 
missions. — Id. This victory seemed to be like a resurrection from the 
dead to the southern states. Neither party had any other means of de- 
fense but musketry. Gen. Marion repassed black river. Invincible for- 
titude was displayed by both officers and men in these campaigns. This 
was a mean of supplying their necessities. This is preparatory to the 
granting letters of administration. This fellow is worse than me. The 
residents on Sullivan's Island enjoy a wholesome air inferior to none in 
the world. — no other — Beyond these swamps are extensive settle- 
ments in which the blessings of health are generally enjoyed, with the 
exception of the margins of rivers and milldams. (Bad phraseology. 
Enjoy the margins of milldams!) Here are ten feet alleys and streets 
thirty-three feet wide. The plat of the town was so constituted, as to 
have preserved all the trees between the town and the river. Enriched 
with the medical discoveries both of the old and new world. There are 
considerable men appear in all ages. Such women are the Chloe's, 
Clarissa's, and Priscilla's of poets. There was a gentleman gave us sev- 
eral instances of it. He shows the most universal knowledge of any 
writer who has appeared in this century. They all acknowledged that 
there was a God — that there was a future state of rewards and punish- 
ments — and that God was to be publicly worshiped. To new model the 
constitution of the state. Property has fallen greatly in price within 
this two years last past. The only practical resource were emissions of 
paper money. It would have been impossible to have carried on the 
american war without this paper expedient. Among all the variety of 
grains, none is more productive, nutritious, or wholesome, than rice. 
Cotton has been known to the world as an useful commodity ever since 
the days of Herodotus. The olive tree has been brought from abroad 
and naturalized and their fruit preserved equal to imported olives. — 
Ramsay. Sir John Yeamans was governor of South Carolina in the 
second, third and fourth year after its settlement. — Id. This precipice 
is called the lovers leap. — Id. John Rutledge and John Jay were nearly 
of an age. — of the same age. While the war with the Indians contin- 
ued of course but little progress was made in the settlement in the west. 
The sharp crack of the rifles and the yells of the Indians frightened the 
horses who took the track towards home in full speed. Large quanti- 
ties of goods were promised to each tribe, who became a party to the 
treaty. A dissolution of the Convention seemed unavoidable, unless 
some conciliatory measure was adopted. The close of an eulogy on 
Adams and Jefferson. The rest were so disordered as they could not 
conveniently fight or fly. Were Aristotle or Plato to come among us, 
they would find no contrast more complete, than between the work- 
shops of their Athens and those of New York. — Bancroft. Upon those 
whom virtue, elegance, or vanity, have made delicate or tender. — Dr. 
Johnson. Some firmness and resolution is necessary to the discharge of 
duty. The mountains they arrived at were not extraordinary high or 
steep. — History of Virginia. It is little to the credit of France or of 
Louisiana that neither of them have shown the smallest mark of 



ESSAYISTS, HISTORIANS, AND STATESMEN. 487 

respect to his memory. — Hist, of Louisiana. u Statesmen, and war- 
riors, and poets, and orators, and artists, start up under one and the 
same excitement. They are all branches of the same stock. They 
form, and cheer, and stimulate, and what is worth all the rest, under- 
stand each other." — E. Everett. The hurry and confusion that pre- 
vailed in the state, especially in Charleston, exceeds all belief. The 
little army were kept in a constant state of alarm. — in constant alarm. 
The young* gentleman received no less than seventeen wounds. From 
the impossibility of their being provided with proper accommodations, 
great numbers died and were left unburied in the woods. — of provi- 
ding them with — Prisoners were denied all benefit of that court. The 
high spirited citizens of Carolina. They were taken to the Exchange 
from whence they were removed on board the Sandwich guard-ship. 
The rugged cares and disturbance that public affairs bring with it, 
which does so vexatiously affect the heads of other great men, does 
scarce unruffle your unclouded brow so much as with a frown. The 
younger, envious of even the good fortune of her sister, who had been 
present at most of their interviews, and had an equal taste for the 
charms of a fop, discovered to Sir Taffety, that a coquet air, much 
tongue, and three suits, was all the portion of his mistress. There is a 
fantastical generosity in the sex to approve creatures of the least merit 
imaginable, when they see the imperfections of their admirers are 
become marks of derision for their sakes. The effects of the spleen are 
prevented by no other remedy, but the charms of music. He gave us 
rather the sentiments of such who behold tragical scenes, than of such 
who bear a part in them themselves. But to him everybody made 
their compliments. The awful distance which we bear towards her in 
all our thoughts of her, and that cheerful familiarity with which we 
approach her, are certain instances of her being the truest object of love 
of any of her sex. (Too many hers; there are also other faults.) I 
have traveled Italy, France, and Spain. Like the Indian fowl, called 
the mock-bird, who has no note of his own. All acts of hostility were 
to have ceased between the citadel and the beseigers. I have heard 
talk of a country, where the old men are gallant, polite, and civil. You 
will there find an impertinent young woman, who will talk sillily upon 
the strength of looking beautifully. The major knew from ancient 
story, that securing the rear, and making a glorious retreat was the 
most celebrated piece of conduct. I have ever thought it the greatest 
diminution to the Roman glory imaginable, that in their institution of 
public triumphs, they led their enemies in chains when they were pris- 
oners. These things had great and politic ends in their being estab- 
lished. It is not the shepherd, but the sheep with the bell on, which 
the flock follows. A gentleman's life is the hardest of all others to 
pass through with propriety of behavior. There are another pack of 
dogs. Every one is apt enough to send in their accounts of ill deservers. 
That fellow lives for no other end but to serve himself. There is 
a great scarcity of men who can neither read or speak. This inge- 
nious gentleman has placed his whole study in the new modelling of 
the organs of the voice. Nothing is so tender as a lady's reputation; 
for a stain once in it is hardly ever washed out. I have heard it said 
that a young woman, though never so beautiful, was not worth her 
board, when she was past her blushing. I had no sooner dressed myself, 



488 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

but I heard a knock at the door. We adjourned to some public house 
where everybody might call for what they pleased. Every great man 
so situated, let his merits be never so great, is sure to undergo a bombard- 
ment. There is my cousin Harry has a son, who is the dullest mortal 
that was ever born into our house. Sumptuous tables, clouds of per- 
fume, and consorts of music. He had lately like to have been taken by 
a stratagem. We have not seen each other since last. November was 
twelve month. He pays everybody their own. Thursday has been set 
aside for the hearing both parties. The slackening and unbending our 
minds on some occasions makes them exert themselves with greater vigor 
and alacrity, when they return to their proper and natural states. A 
youth about fifteen alighted out of the coach, who I perceived to be the 
son of my bosom friend. We were now got pretty tar into Westmin- 
ster and arrived at my friend's house. A moping lover would become 
a pleasant fellow by the time he had rid thrice around the island. There 
is no company so agreeable as that of women who have good sense 
without affectation. Lydia is a finished coquet which is a sect among 
women of all others the most mischievous. 1 stole looks at each lady 
as if I was comparing their perfections. The Prude and Coquet are in 
reality the same kind of woman. If there was occasion for it, I would 
not question (o make a proud man a lunatic in three weeks' time. 
There were also a great number of those who were lockt up from their 
estates. He is a very insignificant fellow, but very gracious. I 
thought he loved me more than life; — I am sure I did him. — sure I 
loved him so. Several squadrons of British and Dutch ships are now 
battering a French man of war, in order to make her deliver up a long 
boat with Spanish colors. I will not fail giving you an account of a 
pot of medals that has been lately dug up here, and are now under the 
examination of our ministers of state. For this they neither knew a 
name or cure. His young nephew is a youth of eighteen years old. 
Our club meets precisely at six a clock in the evening. Methought 
this short interval of silence has had more music in it, than any the 
same space of time before or after it. They who will be in your 
company whether you will or no, are as great offenders as they who 
hearken to what passes without being of your company at all. He has 
been very much esteemed of in our family. He is much improved in 
his writings. From a false sense of the state they are going into pro- 
ceeds the immediate coldness and indifference, or hatred and aversion, 
which attend ordinary marriages. She does not spend her time in 
making herself look more advantageously what she really is. 
(Allowable; parse "what.") There is nothing touches our imag- 
ination so much as a beautiful woman in plain dress. The memory 
of an old visiting lady is so filled with gloves, silks, and ribands, 
that I can look upon it as nothing else but a toy-shop. The 
Base-viol is an instrument of a quite different nature to the Trum- 
pet. The second class consists of such who were convicted of injustice 
between man and man. 1 thought there was no reason to doubt of it. 
He did not believe in all points as his forefathers had done. Such men 
will allow a passage to have no beauty in it at the same time that 
they would be considered the greatest men of the age for having inter- 
preted it. I have, ordered my maid to tie up the knocker of my door, 
in such a manner as she would do if I was really sick. Till I had gained 



ESSAYISTS, HISTORIANS, AND STATESMEN. 489 

the top of these white mountains, which seemed but another Alps of 
snow. This letter being too long for the present paper, I intend to print 
it by itself very suddenly. (Print which?) Leave the world to itself, 
and come see us. It has happened to be for some clays the deliberation 
of the learnedest board in this house, whence honor and title had its first 
original. He happened in his discourse to say it was four miles to Ham- 
mersmith. Such men can neither be said to live or be defunct. With 
all this I am the miserablest man. This is clapping together persons 
which have no manner of alliance, and can have no other effect than 
making both parties justly ridiculous. It happened a little unluckily 
bringing these lunatics together. In the middle of the roof there runs 
a cieling thirty foot broad. The middle sash is wider than any of the 
other. As if the terrors lay wholly in the sense which others, and not 
we ourselves, shall have of our actions. I am too wise not to let children 
have their own wills in a business like marriage. I believe I may ven- 
ture to say, there is not in any other part of Shakspeare's w^orks more 
strong and lively pictures of nature than in this. I have that that will 
keep you. When one gives oneself the liberty to range and run over in 
one's thoughts the different geniuses of men which one meets in the 
world, one can not but observe, that most of the indirection and artifice, 
which is used among men, does not proceed so much from a degeneracy 
in nature, as an affectation of appearing men of consequence by such 
practices. These fellows believe their thoughts and ideas very much 
superior to their neighbors. They were ready to have died in each 
others' arms. There is still a great many themes you have left untouched. 
The scheme upon which I design to act, I have communicated to none 
but a beauteous young lady, who has for some time left the town, in the 
following letter. Our life and time is more valuable than our goods and 
movables. The poor gentleman has formerly had great friends. If he 
leaves home with any one, it must be me. A vain-glorious fox-hunter 
shall entertain half a county for the ostentation of his beef and beer. If 
we measured by the quality and not the quantity of things, the particu- 
lars which accompany an action is what should denominate it mean or 
great. It is expedient to turn our thoughts to the forming just senti- 
ments on the subject of fortune. There is not a harder part in human 
life than becoming wealth and greatness. His shoemaker fitting him,- 
told him that if his Lordship would please to tread hard, or that if his 
Lordship would stamp a little, his Lordship would find his Lordship's 
shoe will sit as easy as any piece of work his Lordship should see in 
England. All wherein he excelled others had departed from him. Do 
not the pleasures of the epicure expire while they satisfy, and, after a 
few minutes' refreshment, determine in loathing and unquietness? The 
other sort of man who courts esteem, having a quite different view, has 
a different behavior. I am confident you had rather I had any other 
way to have manifested the faith I have in you, than a case which so 
nearly concerns me. When once it is so, it had as good be professed. 
It is impossible that such a lady and gentleman should do otherwise 
than think well of one another. This was designed for the separating 
light into all those dies of which if is composed. The affliction surpassed 
all other I ever knew. I would have the eldest as w T ell the rest have his 
provision out of this. The great art in writing advertisements is the 
finding out a proper method to catch the readers eye. The making 



490 BOOK THTRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

matrimony cheap and easy, would be the greatest discouragement to 
vice. To make &c. For the benefit of such ladies that are troubled with 
virulent tongues, he has prepared a cold-bath. It would therefore be a 
great benefit to the world if it could be brought to pass that no story 
should be a taking one, but what was to the advantage of the person of 
whom it is related. I am tired of this unactive life. That learned and 
useful paper of your's on advertisements. It is but a certain vehemence 
in uttering yourself, let the thing you say be never so flat, and you 
shall be thought a very sensible man if you were not too hot. At the 
same time that humility lessens our value of ourselves, it enlarges our 
value of others. The having a grammar of our mother-tongue first 
taught, would facilitate our youths learning their Latin and Greek 
grammars. Parents are of all other people the very worst judges of 
their children's merits, for what they reckon such is seldom anything 
else but a repetition of their own faults and infirmities. They are both 
modester men than myself. He was physiced. I never knew a physi- 
cian recommend himself to the public who had not a sister art to embel- 
lish his knowledge in medicine. This put me upon considering what 
true railery and satire were in themselves. In conversation the medium 
is neither to affect silence or eloquence. But when we let our imagina- 
tions take this unbridled swing, it is not he that acts best is most lovely, 
but he that is most lovely acts best. Such a charming bloom is much 
preferable to the real or affected feebleness or softness, which appear in 
the faces of our modern beauties. You are a man that are not inclined 
to launch out into the world. The roads were excessive bad. The vice 
of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other. One 
may have an air which proceeds from a just sufficiency and knowledge 
of the matter before him, which may naturally produce some motion of 
his head and body, which might become the bench better than the bar. 
But in the effects of that single temptation are his future life. A Chris- 
tian and a gentleman are made inconsistent appellations of the same 
person. There are many richer in town than her whom I recommend. 
I designed to have troubled the reader with no further discourses on 
pastorals. There are another kind of grinners. A gentleman in Lincoln- 
shire had four daughters, three of which were early married very hap- 
pily; but the fourth one discovered from her infancy that imperious 
temper usually called a High Spirit &c. At the same time that they 
extol her beauty, they take care to lessen her portion. I am going to 
have my carriage new painted. This gave the whigs such a blow as 
they were not able to recover that whole reign. But I must not omit 
that my old friend angles for a trout the best of any man in England. 
The ladies among us have a superior genius to the men, which for seve- 
ral years have shot out in several extravagant inventions of dress. A 
lady by the new modeling her tucker will at one view present you with 
a fine turned hand and a rising bosom. — Gay. As much propriety must 
be observed in the dress of the old as the youns:. — Addison. I was once 
thinking to have written a whole canto in the spirit of Spenser. — Id. 
Bees have each of them a hole in their hives. — Id. (Perhaps allowable; 
though it may be better to recast the sentence.) T wish statesmen had 
the good of their country at heart, and endeavored to advance it by the 
same spirit of frugality, justice, and mutual benevolence, as are visibly 
exercised by the members of those little communities. — Id. The hypo- 



POETS, INCLUDING DRAMATISTS. 491 

crite would not put on the appearance of virtue, if it was not the most 
proper means of gaining love. — Id. I had made a firm resolution to 
have changed my mind.— Id. But a man can never have taken in his 
full measure of knowledge, has not time to subdue his passions, establish 
his soul in virtue, and come up to the perfection of his nature, before he 
is hurried off the stage. — Id. — nor has he time to subdue his passions — 
Old party creeds adapted for quiet times. — R. Choate. And if sove- 
reignty do not reside in the people of the several States, where can it 
be? — Calhoun. We might refer to the cabinet in Berlin as perhaps the 
best arranged of any in the world. — Geo. Bancroft. But, if he were 
avaricious, it could have been only that he might have the more to give 
away. — Prescott. It mattered little what the nature of the task was, 
whether it were organizing an opposition to a political faction, or a 
troop of cavalry to resist invasion. — Id. 

POETS, INCLUDING DRAMATISTS. 

u Let them the State defend, and he adorn." — Cowley. 

u In Mauchline there dwells six proper young bells." — Burns. 

u Experience points where larking dangers lay, 

And, as I run, throws caution in my way." — Crabbe. 
"They gape at rich revenues which you hold, 

And fain would nibble at your grandame's gold." — Id. 
11 Here lies Tim Craft our late Lord Mayor ; 

He's left this world here and gone to that there." — Magazine. 
u Fondly they hope his labor may avail 
To ease his conflict, and assist his toil ; 
Sure to retain his known inferior tract, 

And proves the more illustrious by defect." — Id. (Where 
is the sense?) 

" Let thou and I the battle try." 
" Thenceforth 'twas done — fortune and him were friends 
And he resolved to live — for wrongs to make amends." 
" But that brief life of love — through whole ages may roll 
Over my heart in despondence — 'tis fresh in my soul." — Newspaper . 
u A steed comes at morning; no rider is there 
But its bridle is red with the sign of despair." — Campbell. 
u Though my heart was as frozen as ice 

At his flames 'twould have melted away." 
" I sipt each flower 
I changed every hour 
But here every flower is united." 
M And she seemed like a wreath of mist, 
As she moved through the summer bowers." — Geo. Prentice. (Bad 
imagery.) 

" No ice so hard, so cold as I, 
Till warmed and softened by your eye." (A mere conceit.) 
" Oh ! the charming month of May, 
When the breezes fan the treeses 
Full of blossoms fresh and gay." 
u The long remembered beggar was his guest." — Goldsmith. 
u Thou found'st me poor at first, and keep'st me so." — Id. 



492 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

" His curse be on him. He, who knoweth where 
The lightnings hide." — Mrs. Sigourney. 
" There thou too, Vathekl England's wealthiest son, 
Once formed thy Paradise.'' — Byron. (Allowable.) 
" That fortune, fame, power, life, hath named themselves a star." — Byron. 
11 Such is the tale his Nubians tell 

Who did not mind their charge too well." — Id. 
" And turned, without perceiving his condition, 

Like Coleridge, into a metaphysician." — Id. 
" And goodly sons grew by his side, 
But none so lovely and so brave 
As him who withered in the grave." — Id. 
u He knew not what it was to die." — Id. 
" Their sport, the dashing breakers and the chase, 
Their strangest sight, an European face." — Id. 
" You was not last year at the fair of Lugo, 
But next when I'm engaged to sing there — do go." — Id. 

If it wasn't for a few freckles, I should look mighty well. And pray, 
Mrs. Betty, who did you live with last? You did fully as well as me. 
Let such as him sneer if they will. I hope you will neither dispute my 
friendship nor my qualifications. You never was more mistaken in your 
life. I told him, that as I and ray father and his father before me, had 
wore their hair as heaven had sent it; I thought myself rather too old, 
at my time of life, to set up for a monkey, and wear a pig-tail. I have 
eaten nothing to signify since dinner. But who have we here? I 
should not have known you if you had not spoke first. Whoever she is 
with, she is always easy and familiar. You have a smattering of an 
odd kind of a humor. She is such a prodigious favorite that she wants 
for nothing. Everything is the matter with me; my spirits are uncom- 
posed, and everything about in a perfect dilemma. Her ladyship who 
was combing a fat lap-dog, muttered " There was no end of supporting 
poor relations." I shall be happy always to see my friends. Between 
you and I, Betty, our house-keeper is grown a little purse-proud. Why, 
'tis easy said. Has any morning passed without some grievance or an- 
other? The [courting] old man frisks, and prances, and runs about as 
if he had a new pair of legs. Every thing and every body are in mas- 
querade. I don't care what he'll have, nor don't care what, nor who 
my niece marries. I intend calling on him this morning. But if you'll 
forgive me this time, I'll never do so no more. Oh, leave the reconcil- 
ing that to me. That there snath will not fit this here sythe. Stand 
yourself at the gate, and be careful who you let in. But use reconciles 
all them kind of things. If nobody can't get in at that door, they can't 
get in no where else. " Teamster. My cattle, poor beasts, are not more 
dearer to me than my mug." The greatest misfortune that poverty 
brings in its train is the subjecting us to the insults of wretches like 
this, who have no other merits but what their riches bestow on them. 
And' you may take my word for it, I would rather give her to thee than 
another. Why, Miss, you know I am of one of the most ancientest fam- 
ilies all the country round. No, I won't be bound to no time. "And now 
then, with respect and regard to this tree, gentlemen, I intend and pro- 
pose to say, that it was a beautiful tree, an ornamental tree. And how 



LAWYERS, PHYSICIANS, CLERGYMEN, ETC. 493 

can it be thought any man would come for to go in the middle of the 
night, nobody seeing, nobody did see, nobody could see, and cut down a 
tree, which tree was an ornamental tree, if said tree was his tree." — 
Foote, ridiculing the verbosity of lawyers. If so be then, that this be so, 
and so it most certainly is, I apprehend no doubt will remain with the 
court, but my client a verdict will have, with full costs of suit, in such 
a manner, and so forth, as may nevertheless appear notwithstanding. — 
Id. 

LAWYERS, PHYSICIANS, CLERGYMEN, TRANSLATORS OF THE 
SCRIPTURES. 

Signed and sealed in the presence of; who at his request, Signed the 
Same in the presence of each of us, and in presence of each other sign 
names as Witnesses. (Sent to me as " the attesting clause," written by a 
famous Judge of Cincinnati, to a will relating to more than $100,000 
worth of property. Would it not be better thus? Signed and sealed by 
us as witnesses, in our mutual presence, and in the presence of him who signed 
the same, at his own request^ in the presence of each of us.) 

The miller was bound to have returned the flour. — Kent. It would lay 
with the other party to remove the presumption. — Id. If the buyer refuses 
to accept of the article, &c. — Id. The true rule was stated to be that the 
seller was liable to an action of deceit, if he fraudulently misrepresent 
the quality of the thing sold. — Id. Such have no other law but the will 
of their prince. — Id. The courts considered that if the law was other- 
wise, it would sap the foundations of the constitution. — Id. If A wil- 
fully intermix his corn or hay with that of B, or casts his gold into an- 
other's crucible, &c. — Kent. It is sometimes difficult to decide whether 
one machine operates on the same principle as another, and whether it 
really be new and useful. — Id. The chancellor held that private letters 
were within the protecting literary property. — Id. On this ground rests 
the rights of public necessity. — Id. What are the witness' character and 
habits in this respect? — Id. The indenture, or deed alone, convey the 
interest, and are the very essence of the lease. But very early money 
was invented as the representative of all property. The acceptance must 
also be absolute, and not in any respect differing from the bill. I did 
not expect these papers would have been brought forth. If this power 
was left solely to the states, there might have been as many times of 
choosing as there was states. Would it not be the hight of impolicy that 
they should go out of office, just as they began to know something of 
their duty? The power extends to the laying taxes on imports, lands, 
buildings, and even on persons. These facts are worthy the considera- 
tion of every gentleman. Do we not thereby disunite from several other 
states? When we trusted the great object of revising, * * * we thought 
their deliberations would have been confined only to that revision. — P. 
Henry. Those illumined genii who may see that this will not endanger 
the rights of the people. — Id. I hope he will present nothing but what 
is reasonable in the shape of arguments. What a difference 66 years 
has made in our weight in European politics ! They are disgorged of 
their federalism. If such be their disposition, I am happy to know it in 
time. But even after the failure, it was in the power of a great man to 
have taken it. I did suppose an honorable gentleman had placed this in 



494 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

so clear a light that every man would have been satisfied with it. — 
Randolph. I shall never aspire at high offices. — Id. If union be neces- 
sary, direct taxes are also necessary for its support. His arguments on 
this subject are equally as defective as those which I have just had under 
consideration. The transactions were carried on in the same manner 
with others of the same nature. " Is this power enumerated in the 
Constitution ? If it be, it is legal and just.'"' They appear in a very dif- 
ferent aspect in one man, to what they do in another. The detachment 
or garnishment will be at once dismissed, upon the defendant appearing 
and entering into stipulation. Chancery will treat it as a personal mat- 
ter so far as respects the rights of creditors. It can not be severed until 
all the partnership concerns have been settled, and a division made, 
either by mutual consent, or the intervention of a court. It does not 
say whether it was for the boat or who. If the power exist, congress 
has a right to exercise it. He may deny either of the three propositions 
alleged. Since the facts, upon which the complaint or defence is founded, 
is supposed to be unknown to the judges, &c. Such a defence impliedly 
waves all objections. Express trusts are usually declared in the same 
instrument which creates the legal estate. The sale will not be bind- 
ing, unless the buyer actually receives some part of the goods, or pay 
some part of the price. The owner of a trunk as well as his wife are 
competent, witnesses against a common carrier. The term coparceners 
is not applied to any other joint owners, but only to those who have 
become entitled as coheirs. — Williams. If after a charter-party assigns, 
and then become bankrupt, he should sue. — C kitty. An estate in fee 
simple is the greatest estate or interest which the law of England allows 
any person to possess. — Id, If execution have been levied upon the 
property of the debtor &c. — Id. I don't know as III see you again to- 
day. A majority is necessary to a choice both of president and vice- 
president. Firmness and independence can only be secured by an inde- 
pendent tenure of office. No kind of knowledge can stand higher than 
law. One can become a profound lawyer without a general acquaint- 
ance either with French or Latin. No class of the community has per- 
formed so much of the public service as the lawyers. The most remarkable 
part of the ordinance is the six articles of compact. ( Proper.) The protec- 
tion and regulation of this right forms a leading object of municipal law. 
Because Roman nor Common law possess any extrinsic authority in this 
country. The enjoying and defending life and liberty. The law does 
not undertake to compel him so to do, or punish him for not so doing. 
This is no reason for the extending the powers further. How different is 
the conduct of the prosecutors from that of yours ! I have known a 
woman that never was out of the parish of St. James's. It must be a 
happy circumstance when the majority of the bishops draws one way. 
For Christ his sake. Every person is answerable for their conduct. 
The queen having changed her ministry suitable to her own wisdom. 
There is no vice which mankind carries to such wild extremes as that 
of avarice. Men are strongly carried out to, and hardly took off from 
the practice of vice. — South. He that the world, or flesh, or devil, can 
carry away from an obedience to Christ, is no son of the faithful 
Abraham. — Hammond. This method was first practised by Sir Francis 
Moore, at the request of Lord Morris, it is said, in order that some of 
his relations might not know what conveyance or settlement he should 



LAWYERS, PHYSICIANS, CLERGYMEN, ETC. 495 

make of his property. Future estates were thus allowed to be created 
by will, and were invested with the same attributes of indestructibility, 
which belongs to all executory interests. Every deed to which there 
was more than one party. For the last fifteen years, I have entertained 
the opinion that a Reformation in the Pleadings * * * was essential to 
the proper administration of justice. But the bill was not published, 
till the Assembly met, and its length precluded the copying it, and 
sending it to them. Extrinsic evidence may be resorted to only to 
prove what it was that the testator intended to have expressed. It is 
not simply removing a difficulty, arising from a defective or mistaken 
description; it is making the will speak on a subject on which it is 
altogether silent, and is the same in effect as the filling-up a blank, 
which the testator might have left in his will. But neither of these 
cases afford any authority in favor of the plaintiffs. This law provides 
an uniform method of proceeding both for legal and equitable causes. 
The civil actions embraced within this article, can only be commenced 
within the periods prescribed in the sections which follow. The mother 
shall have the same power to give such consent as if the father was 

dead. — Mo. Statutes. First, when &c. Second, Third, 

Fourth, . — lb. (Allowable, only when the enumeration is a very 

long one.) If every verdict was final in the first instance, it would 
tend to destroy this valuable mode of trial. — Blackstone. If the regular 
judgment of the court be not suspended, superseded, or reversed by one 
or other of the methods mentioned. — Id. — by any of — Each court of 
appeal, in their respective stages, may reverse or affirm the judgment 
of the inferior courts. — Td. The sheriff might have indulged the defend- 
ant as he pleased, so as he produced him in court to answer the plain- 
tiff at the return of the writ. — Id. To inquire whether or no the party be 
an idiot or lunatic. — Id. Grotius undertook to show that justice was of 
perpetual obligation. — Id. The Indians would never have permitted 
provisions to be raised by the process of farming. — Id. Cicero held 
that nothing was useful that was unjust. The tribunals to whom &c. 
Constantia retired with the abbess into her own department. (Whose 
department?) Particular attention will be paid to the collecting and 
securing debts. Upon the filing the interrogatories aforesaid. — Revised 
Statutes of Missouri. When the father has no legal capacity to give 
consent, or when he shall have abandoned his family for six months, 
• * * or nas become an habitual drunkard, the mother shall have &c. — 
lb. Such boatmen may recover against such master or commander the 
wages justly due him, according to the service rendered, notwithstand- 
ing such contract may be entire, in any court having jurisdiction. — lb. 
If any plaintiff has a just cause of action against several persons, resi- 
ding in different parts of the township, and desire to bring a joint 
action against them, &c. — lb. The constable shall execute such jury 
summons fairly and impartially, and shall not summon any person 
whom he has reason to believe is biased or prejudiced for or against 
either of the parties. — lb. Any freeman accessary to a felony com- 
mitted by a slave, may be proceeded against in the same manner as 
though the principal was a freeman. Any person may be made a party 
by his voluntarily appearing at such action. — lb. — by voluntarily 
appearing, or — by his voluntary appearing or appearance — We need not 



498 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

doubt but truth however oppressed, will have some followers, and at 
length prevail. But every human being must do something with their 
existence. And thou shall enter into the ark. Of fowls according to 
their kind, and of beasts in their kind. Spirituous liquors like drugs 
were intended to cure the diseases. To perish with cold or for hunger. 
The slaver ran from his mouth like a madman. Thou hast done what 
thou oughtest not to do. Why standeth thou without? That I may 
prove whether thou be my son Esau or no. But Joseph being departed 
from Bersabee, went to Haran. — having departed — And his brethren 
seeing that he was loved by his father more than all his children, hated 
him. His brethren could not answer, being struck with exceeding great 
fear. And the people was scattered throughout the land of Egypt. 
Thou shalt stand by the river's brink against he come. And Moses and 
Aaron did so as the Lord commanded. I have raised thee up for to show 
thee my power. Upon every man and beast which shall be in the field, 
the hail shall come down upon them, and they shall die. The hail was 
such as there was none like it in all the land of Egypt since it became 
a nation. There shall not be an hoof left behind. I will see thy face again 
no more. And he pursued after the children of Israel. I have hard- 
ened his heart, that I might show my signs before him. All the people 
that was in the camp trembled. The locusts shall cover the face of the 
earth so that one can not be able to see the earth. It had been better 
for us to serve the Egyptians, than that we should die in the wilder- 
ness. — than to die in the wilderness. 

CRITICS AND SCHOOL-BOOK WRITERS. 

Regular motion is preferred before what is irregular. — Kames. — be- 
fore that which — The four faculties in question seems to me all of their 
class. — Foe. This work ;s decidedly the best "property 7 ' of any work 
of its kind. — Id. Mr. Hawthorne is a poor man, but he is not an ubi- 
quitous quack. — Id. An improper diphthong is one in which all the 
vowels are not sounded. — Butler. The snake swallowed itself. — Id. 
(How this feat was performed I can not conceive.) Grammar treats of 
the union and right order of words in the formation of a sentence. — 
Murray. The garden with the different objects it contains are addressed 
•as having life. — Id. Those nice shades by which virtues and vices ap- 
proach each one another. — Id. What kind of a noun is River? — 
Smith. Prepositions connect words as Avell as conjunctions, how then, 
can you tell one from the other? — Id. It increases or lessens the posi- 
tive to the highest or lowest degree. — Id. Pronouns are used to pre- 
vent a too frequent and tiresome repetition of nouns. It may be as- 
serted either in the affirmative or negative. No grammar in the 
language probably contains so great a quantity of condensed and use- 
ful matter with so little superfluity. "Reprisal is a retaking. When 
an enemy takes a ship, and the injured party retakes a ship or ships by 
way of satisfaction. And this is reprisal." — N. Webster. (Avery awk- 
ward explanation.) A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. — Id. 
A tin peddler will sell tin vessels as he travels. — Id. Transitive verbs 
have an active and passive participle. — Greene. Do denotes merely in- 
quiry in interrogative sentences. — Id. Two classes of errors are given : 
the first intended to illustrate violations of the principles under consid- 



CRITICS AND SCHOOL-BOOK WRITERS. 497 

eration ; the second, prevailing improprieties of speech. — Id. An only, 
child is one who has neither brother nor sister ; a child alone is one who 
is left by itself. — Blair. The occasions where this word is misapplied. 
Study is of the singular number, because its nominative / is with 
which it agrees &c. — Smith. After this point we sometimes make the 
same pause as we make after a comma. — Tower. A proper fraction is 
less than 1, because it expresses less parts than it takes to equal a unit. 
— D. P. Colburn. If this was the only sentence he ever expected to 
read, the correction might answer a good purpose. — Mandeville. Anal- 
ogy as well as usage favor this mode of expression. — Campbell. Quin- 
tilian only says use is the most perfect rule. — Day. The common peo- 
ple call it a woodchuck or ground hog ; its right name is the marmot. 
— Tower. Whether or no. — Whately. A prosyllogism is when two 
or more syllogisms are so connected that the conclusion of the for- 
mer is the major or minor of the following. — Id. Sometimes perhaps 
almost through the palpable obscure will we be compelled to find out our 
uncouth way. — Mahan. Every truth, every principle, and precept of 
Christianity, supposes some one or more faculties or susceptibilities to 
which they are addressed. — Id. The first qualification required is a ge- 
nius. — Pope. The human mind is often in a state neither of pain nor 
pleasure. — Burke. If the judgment is sudden, the mistakes are the 
most irretrievable of all others. — Id. The cry even of those animals 
with whom we have not been acquainted. u Teacher. The passive verb 
is expressive of the nature of receiving an action ; as, ' Peter is 
beaten.' Now what did Peter do ? Pupil. Well, I don't know, with- 
out he hollered." The relative should be placed as nearly as possible to 
its antecedent. Nothing is so likely to tend to long-windedness — to the 
lengthening out that which should be compressed — than the dash. Your 
work in some respects excels all others, which I have examined. No- 
thing that belongs to human nature is more universal than the relish 
of beauty. — Blair's Rhetoric. It might be requisite for them to be ex- 
ceeding full. — lb. What we conceive clearly, and feel strongly, we will 
naturally express with clearness and strength. — lb. Neither the one nor 
the other find a proper place in history. — lb. The parenthesis had bet- 
ter have been omitted. — lb. — might better have been omitted. Two men 
ignorant of one another's language. — lb. Here are several different 
objects, and each of them are addressed and spoken to. — lb. When our 
sentence consists of two members, the longest should be the concluding 
one. — lb. Not one in a hundred either read or speak with propriety. 
His system is the most scientific, complete, and practical of any I have 
ever seen. All right angles are equal to each other. Apples are more 
plenty than peaches. — N. Webster. Eighteen ounces of silver is mixed 
with one ounce of copper. Why my conversation is neither deficient in 
order, precision, or dignity. The more that any nation is improved by 
science, and the more perfect their language becomes, we may naturally 
expect that it will abound more with connective particles. — Blair. It 
was necessary to study languages which were of a more complex and 
artificial form with greater care. — Id. And all the rest were dropt. — Id. 
For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole classes of 
objects. — Id. Ranging all that possessed them under one class, they 
called that class a tree. — Id. The Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the 

42 



498 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

Coreans, who speak different languages from one another &c. — Id. Next 
to speech, writing is beyond doubt the most useful art which men pos- 
sess. — Id. Our modern pronunciation must have appeared to them 
[the Greeks and Romans] a lifeless monotony. — Id. (Absurd. Say, 
"would have appeared") The use of which accents we have now en- 
tirely lost. — Id. (Absurd. Say, "is now entirely lost") To speak or 
write perspicuously or agreeably, are attainments of the utmost con- 
sequence. — Id. I shall next consider how far taste is an improveable 
faculty. — Id. He has reduced these pleasures under three heads, — beau- 
ty, grandeur, and novelty. — Id. The human mind never can view close- 
ly and attentively above one object at a time. — Id. It is an acknowl- 
edged fact by some of our most experienced speculators &c. — Id. — a 
fact acknowledged — Were we to alter the collocation of any of these 
words, we should be sensible presently of the melody suffering. — Id. 
12 times 12 is 144. We venture to call it The Conclusive Compound 
Proposition with Alternative Accessory. — Mulligan. Between gram- 
mar, logic, and rhetoric, there exists a close and happy connexion ; 
which reigns through all science, and extends to all the powers of elo- 
quence. (Since "which" does not denote the identical "connexion," it 
will be better to say, " a close and happy connexion ; and such a connexion 
reigns, indeed" &c.) When children have parents worthy the imitation. 
An industrious man is generally doing something or another. If a boy 
be stubborn, and never pays any attention &c. I have heard persons 
argue the question that school teaching was no trouble. We find per- 
sons that can neither read nor write sometimes. It takes well educated 
men to make laws. If you want to make a great man, you must study. 
If a lawyer or a merchant were to throw all their papers together pro- 
miscuously, they could not calculate on much readiness in finding what 
they might at any time want. — Upham. Let us examine in what man- 
ner this principle has operated on Wordsworth's poetry, and whether it 
have there produced originality of a good or a bad kind. — Prof. Wilson. 
Give every word and member their due weight and force. To have but 
one time and measure is better than having none at all. — than to have — 
If he should say, "Herbert is writing," would you think that he was 
speaking to Herbert or to some one else? — Greene. As a word is a 
physical representative of an idea, so a Sentence is a mechanical struc- 
ture embodying a Proposition. — Clark. " How " limits " dear," Hence 
an Adjunct Word. — Id. A true system of Analysis requires that the 
Functions of Words be discussed previous to the consideration of their 
Elements. — Id. A Common Noun is a name by which the individuality 
of a being or thing is designated; but, in addition to this Office, some 
Nouns are the names of qualities. — Id. A Collective Noun is a Noun 
appropriated to many individuals in one term. — Id. Nouns and Pro- 
nouns in the Nominative and the Objective Cases are used Substantive- 
ly. — Id. Has lost .... is a Verb — Irregular [lose, lost, losing, lost] — 
Transitive — Active Voice — Indicative Mode — Past Tense Indefinite — 
Third Person — Singular Number, to agree with its Subject " who." — Id. 
(A well-written model, truly !) Chewing tobacco and smoking cigars 
disqualify a young man from mental improvement. — Id. " When the 
object of the Phrase is Singular, or the name of an aggregate number 
taken collectively, the Verb should be Singular. Ex. ' Two-thirds of 



CRITICS AND SCHOOL-BOOK WRITERS. 499 

my hair has fallen off.' " — Id. u A Noun or a Pronoun used in the Pre- 
dicate, may have the form of the Nominative or the Objective Case. Ex- 
amples. ' I thought it to be him ; but it was not him.'' ' It was not me 
that you saw.' " — Id. (Does it not grieve a benevolent heart to know 
that such instructions are now forced upon the pure minds of thousands of 
children?) "A Noun or a Pronoun used to explain a preceding Noun 
or Pronoun is in the Independent Case. Example. ' Paul the Apostle, 
wrote to Timothy.' " — Id. For an act can not be properly predicated 
of a passive agent. — Id. (Will Mr. Clark define "passive agent?") 
" When the second term is a Substantive word, Than is a preposition. 
Example. ' She suffers hourly more than me. 1 " — Clark. The Past Tense 
of these Verbs are very indefinite with respect to time. — Bullions. The 
Syntax and etymology of the language is thus spread before the learn- 
er. — Id. How is the Gender and Number of the Relative known? — 
Id. If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish oppression. — Cardell. 
It was observed in Chapter III, that the disjunctive or had a double 
use. — Churchill. A stranger to the poem would not easily discover 
that this was verse. — Murray. Two or more sentences united to- 
gether is called a compound sentence. — Day. I found him better 
than I expected to have found him. — Priestley. There are several faults 
which I intended to have enumerated. — Webster. A great majority 
of our authors is defective in manner. — J. Broivn. Had I commanded 
you to have done this, &c. — Id. The Christian religion gives a more 
lovely character of God, than any religion ever did. — Murray. The passive 
and neuter verbs I shall reserve for some future consideration. — Ingersoll. 
Many things are not that which they appear to be. — Sanborn. In some 
cases we use either the nominative or accusative promiscuously. — Adams. 
The leading object of the work is to present the well established princi- 
ples of our language. — Dr. Pinneo. The names of something invisible. 
— Id. (Say, " the names of things invisible" or, " the name of something 
invisible-") Thou, however, is still used by the religions denomination 
of Friends, and in the Scriptures, and in solemn, poetic, and burlesque 
style. — Id. An adjective qualifies a noun, as < he is a good man 1 ; while 
an adverb qualifies a verb, as 'he acts well' ; or sometimes an adjective 
or other adverb. — Id. All mankind, philosophers, poets, and statesmen, 
have a natural love of beauty. ("We are now at peace with all the 
world, and the rest of mankind." — Gen. Taylor.) The different parts of 
a sentence should correspond with each other. An adjective sometimes 
modifies another adjective; as, Red hot iron. This can easily be done 
by taking those given as a model, and it will be found, it is believed, 
very interesting both to the teacher and pupil. A man gave to some 
poor persons three dollars, which was 2-fifths of all the money he had: 
how much had he? — Ray s Arithmetic. There is a pole of which five 
feet is in the ground" &c. — lb. There is a pole 4-fifths of which is 
under water, &c. — lb. The age of Joseph is twenty-five years, which is 
5-eighths of the age of his father &c. — lb. The following work was 
first published about twelve years since. — lb. Its very extensive sale 
is gratifying evidence to the author of the approval, by the educational 
public, both of the plan and execution of the work. — lb. The subject of 
Fractions * * * has received that attention which its use and import- 
ance demands. — lb. In a series of words, all of the same part of speech, 



500 BOOK THIRD — ERRORS AND CRITICISMS. 

a comma is inserted between each particular. — Wilson's Punctuation. 
Channing has set forth great and universal truths, that can not perish. 
— lb. But when used, either in the singular or plural number, to con- 
vey &c. — lb. He feels justified in affirming, that not only in its present 
form, but in its past, this book is the most complete of any on the sub- 
ject that he has seen. — lb. The second edition of the present work * * * 
contains at least double the number of the pages which he devotes to 
the setting-forth of his system. — lb. (How can one book contain the 
pages of another! Omit "the" before "pages.") By and by are obvi- 
ously three words, though sometimes written as a compound. — lb. 



APPENDIX. 



1. AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 



Note. — Until he is familiar with it, let the following section be always read through 
by the student, before he undertakes to write a composition. 



On the art of composing, as well as on almost every thing else, many 
books have been written ; though very few of them, I believe, have ever 
taken a wide and strong hold on the world. Authors, especially great 
ones, have generally preferred to study nature and the most excellent 
pieces of composition. 

It is obvious that no rules alone can furnish the ability to speak or 
write. There is no machinery, however ingenious, that can draw water 
out of an empty well. There is no magic that can at once convert a 
puny shrub into a magnificent tree filled with delicious fruit of its own 
bearing. Before something can be drawn out of the mind, there must be 
something in it. 

Before a person can speak or write, two acquirements are essential, — 
knowledge and language. There is still a third requisite. The store of 
facts and words, in the mind, may be ever so great, and yet if no light 
of genius shines upon them, the whole mass may lie there dead, chaotic, 
and useless; just as the earth might be composed of its almost infinite 
multitude and diversity of objects, and still be a dead and desolate mass, 
did not the sun rise upon it to call forth its productiveness, and robe it 
with light and beauty. 

Knowledge is of two kinds, — general and special. Special knowledge 
is that which relates directly to the subject under consideration, and 
hence the attention is to be drawn to it after the subject has been 
selected. The seeking of it is implied when we speak of studying the 
subject on which we are to write or speak. This knowledge, since it is 
immediately needed, authors generally seek with all the zeal and indus- 
try that could be desired. Indeed, any negligence here must prove fatal ; 
for the peculiar excellence or efficiency of every discourse depends 
mainly on this knowledge. 

The general knowledge to which I refer, is what people commonly call 
education; and to this may be referred most of the defects and faults of 
authors. Education is best when the person early forms definite, cor- 
rect, and comprehensive views of all the knowledge he shall ever need ; 
and then seeks it with a strong, enthusiastic, never-failing impulse from 
within. Perhaps no education wholly passive, that is, implanted wholly 
from without, or by the authority and compulsion of others, has ever 
made any person great. 

Education should be thorough and comprehensive. If possible, the 
author should carry in his head the whole world, thoroughly and accu- 
rately analyzed, and all the parts so well arranged as the goods of a 



502 APPENDIX. 

tidy store, or so well as to be completely at command. Another vital 
requisite is, to give our ideas prominence according to their relative im- 
portance, and be governed by them accordingly. Some things, in the 
world of human knowledge and interest, make a much greater figure 
than others; and a Shakspeare or a Bacon would be apt to attach that 
importance to each, which the collected vote of all the people in the 
world, could it be taken, would be most likely to give it. This last is, 
indeed, one of the most important things that every person should no- 
tice in his education, and in his habits of thinking. Perhaps ninety- 
nine minds out of every hundred are warped by prejudices, and undue 
preponderance given to certain favorite ideas; so that all their studying, 
their sayings and writings, and their actions, are correspondingly dis- 
torted or one-sided. 

The command over knowledge, or the facility of invention, depends 
directly on the proper association of ideas. 

If it can be done, a person should also, I think, lay in his knowledge 
and write his compositions in the most genial and tranquil state of feel- 
ings. Such compositions are at least apt to be what critics call healthy 
or genial. They are without that morbid, Byronian spirit, which will 
make those who read them discontented and unhappy, and cause them 
to be ever pining for something — they hardly know what. Besides, 
how can a man produce a masterly work, while he is weighed down 
with a load of worldly cares and vexations, even more galling and op- 
pressive than that enormous pack of sins which John Bunyan saw on the 
back of poor Christian ! To write in the midst of that scenery in which a 
persons knowledge has been laid up, is also, I think, of some advantage; 
for it seems to stimulate invention. 

The greatest want felt more or less by all authors, is the want of in- 
vention. Against this want, the only effectual remedy is, Think, be 
ever thinking : and were I to repeat the word over a hundred pages, I 
could not emphasize it too much. 

Invention relates to two things; the finding of a subject, and the find- 
ing of something to say upon it. Lawyers, and most men engaged in 
state affairs, generally have their subjects furnished them. Many school- 
books relating to language, give long lists of subjects; but I have ever 
noticed that students make but little use of them : and the reason is ob- 
vious; for he that has something to say, generally knows what it is 
about. The selection of his subject must ever be left to the author's 
genius: nothing calls more directly upon it, or better displays it. He 
should be as wary in the choice of his subject as in the choice of his wife. 
The greatest authors owe not less to the nature of their subjects, than to 
what they have said upon them. Shakspeare has, in this respect, I 
think, surpassed all other writers; and next to him stands perhaps Sir 
Walter Scott. 

The great or essential quality of a subject is, that it shall be inter- 
esting, — not temporarily, but permanently or eternally, — and furnish a 
rich flow of interesting, instructive, or valuable thoughts. Hence, com- 
mon-place subjects, or subjects on which little or nothing can be said 
that will be of interest to any body, should be avoided. Subjects that 
are very abstruse or recondite, should also be avoided; because many 
can not easily understand what is said on such subjects, and still more 
care but little for what is said. It is not difficult to find interesting sub- 



AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 503 

jects, by taking the most prominent and interesting topics of the day ; 
and these engage about nine tenths of the writers of every nation: but 
the great objection here is, that the things are ephemeral, — that the ink 
is scarcely dry or the body cold, when all is uncared-for and forgotten. 
The great sources from which topics and thoughts must ever be drawn, 
are the physical world and the human race. He who builds well in these, 
has the best prospect of making his life useful and glorious. Great pas- 
sions, principles, and events, have an abiding interest. Jealousy, as 
delineated in Othello; ambition, as bodied forth in Macbeth; and wit, 
humor, and fat, as displayed in the character of Falstaff, — will be ever 
interesting to mankind. The landing of the Pilgrims, the conquests of 
Mexico and Peru, or the American revolution, will never become insig- 
nificant. Hackneyed subjects, though interesting, should be avoided, 
unless they can be presented in a new light or in an original manner. 
We want to hear no more descriptions of Angelina's eyes, ringlets, and 
coral lips, however dear they may be to the poet. As specimens of well- 
selected subjects, I would instance The Burial of Sir John Moore, The 
Lone Indian, Paradise Lost, Robinson Crusoe, Diary of a Physician, 
Lord Ullin's Daughter, Lochinvar, The Rainbow. 

An author will generally succeed best, by treating of what belongs to 
his own particular experience, of what was laid up in his memory under 
the greatest excitement of his feelings, and is still most interesting to 
him. Pie should beware, however, of giving his discourse too much the 
air of personal experience, of egotism and self-glorification, which are 
seldom relished. 

When an author has his subject, the next consideration is its develop- 
ment. The chief things to be here considered, are the matter, the method, 
and the language. A person's general knowledge will at once suggest to 
him the special knowledge which he needs, or at least teach him where 
and how he may find what he needs; and certainly, next to having the 
knowledge itself, the best thing is to know where and how to find it. 
His general knowledge will also suggest to him the best mode of pre- 
senting his subject. In regard to the finding of matter, the best and 
most comprehensive rule seems to be this : — 

Find out and consider all the various relations which your subject bears to 
every thing to which it is related, and then make a judicious selection with 
reference to the end in view. 

Look into your subject in all its bearings; and, so far as possible, go 
to the original sources of information. Be sure that you take in the 
entire compass of your subject, exclude all useless matter, and ponder 
long and deeply on those points which are to constitute the vital part3 
of the discourse. In searching for matter, ever remember that the first, 
the greatest, the most attractive quality, the very life of all compositions, 
is truth, in the most comprehensive sense of the term; therefore never 
rest satisfied before you have it, the whole of it. The next quality to 
this is beauty. While the work of invention is going on, taste must be 
constantly exercised to exclude two kinds of annoying matter: first, 
such as is not worthy ; secondly, such as is not suitable, though it should 
seem ever so beautiful or excellent. The best rule here is, to imagine 
yourself the reader or hearer, and consider what you would think of 
such thoughts, if they came from another. In regard to their matter, 
authors may be divided into two classes, — the superficial and the pro- 



504 APPENDIX. 

found. Superficial authors do little or no hard thinking, and of course 
require none of their readers. Their style is usually entertaining; but 
what they say, gives little or no valuable information. An author 
should, if possible, be reasonably profound; and, at the same time, not 
neglect any of the graces and beauties of style, which alone sustain 
most of the light literature. Of this class of writers, Macaulay is per- 
haps the best specimen. 

The matter and the method are sometimes very intimately united. 
Method is perhaps the most difficult of all things for the author to ac- 
quire; and some of the greatest authors, such as Byron and Thomson, 
never became masters in it. Indeed, to say the most excellent things 
on a subject, and in such a way that the transition from one part to 
another shall always be easy and natural, is a rare accomplishment. 
Throughout every composition there should be a skeleton of plan ; that 
is, it should have what people mean when they speak of a thing as hav- 
ing a beginning, a middle, and an end. 

The best rule in regard to Method seems to be this : — 

Observe carefully the order of nature ; — follow the order of time and 
place ; consider carefully the relations of causes and effects, with their na- 
tural concatenation of circumstances, and robe the principal parts according- 
ly ; and, lastly, consider also the ordinary association of ideas, as it exists 
in the mass of mankind. 

An eminent logician gives the following directions concerning 
Method : — 

1. Let nothing be wanting or redundant. 2. Let all the parts be consist- 
ent with one another. 3. Let nothing be treated of which is not homogeneous 
to the subject, or the end in vieiv. 4. Let the parts be connected by easy 
transitions. 5. Let that precede without which the things that follow can 
not be understood, but which itself can be understood without them. 6. Exer- 
cise prudence and common sense. 

Of language, perhaps enough has been already said. Let the student 
avail himself of all the principles laid down in this volume. The great 
rule is, — 

Let the language be becoming. 

Above all, do not make your composition merely out of words, or out 
of imitated expressions and remembered scraps of what you have read. 
Do not begin, as Mr. Parker absurdly teaches, with a few nouns, and 
daub them as full of adjectives as you can. Healthy composition be- 
gins, or should begin, in the opposite manner : it comes from within ; 
and the thoughts may shift about or waver a little, when they come 
forth, as to the dress they shall wear, but are generally well enough 
equipped so soon as they fully appear, llather begin by inquiring what 
are the facts — all the facts of the case, and find them ; and then turn to 
the causes, consequences, and circumstances, and you will very probably 
have about all you want : at least, in these lies the nucleus or main 
substance of every discourse. 

Before you begin to write or speak, study, thoroughly study your sub- 
ject. It is absurd to suppose that any man, except on an insignificant 
subject, can begin empty-headed, and create worthy matter as fast as he 
needs it. Many of the best productions in our literature were almost 
wholly elaborated and perfected before they were written down by the 
author. It was thus that Dr. Johnson wrote a book — his Rasselas — in 



AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 505 

three days! to defray the expenses of burying his mother; a melan- 
choly but characteristic incident, truly, in the history of those men who 
sacrifice their own comforts and peace for the good and glory of their 
country. 

The following specimens from Aristotle and Hobbes may show, to 
some extent, how a subject should be studied. 

1. Love and Friendship. — To love is to wish well to another, and 
that for the other's, not our own, sake. A friend is he that loves, 
and he that is beloved. A friend, therefore, is he that rejoices at 
another's good. That grieves at his hurt. That wishes the same 
with us to a third, whether good or hurt. That is the enemy or the 
friend to the same man. — We love them that have done good to us or 
ours ; especially if much, readily, or in season. That are our friends' 
friends. That are our enemies' enemies. That are liberal, or valiant, 
or just, or neat. That we would have love us. Good companions. 
Such as can make jests, and such as can abide jests. Such as praise us, 
especially for something that we were in doubt of ourselves. Such as 
upbraid us not with our own vices or with their own benefits. Such 
as quickly forget injuries. Such as least observe our errors. Such as 
are not of ill tongue. Such as are ignorant of our vices. Such as cross 
us not when we are busy or angry. Such as are officious towards us. 
Such as are like us. Such as follow the same course of life, where 
they do not come in conflict with us. Such as labor for the same 
thing, when both may be satisfied. Such as are not ashamed to tell us 
their faults. Such as we would have honor us, and not envy, but imi- 
tate us. Such as we would do good to, except with greater hurt 
to ourselves. Such as continue their friendship to the dead. Such as 
speak their mind. Such as we may rely on. 

2. Anger. — They are easily angry that think they are neglected. 
That think they excel others ; as the rich with the poor, the noble with 
the obscure. Such as think they deserve well. Such as grieve to be 
hindered, opposed, or not assisted ; and therefore sick men, poor men, 
lovers, and generally all that desire, and attain not, are angry with 
those that standing by, are not moved by their wants. And such as 
having expected good, find evil. — We are angry with such as mock, de- 
ride, or jest at us. Such as despise those things upon which we spend 
most labor and study : the more, by how much the less we seem ad- 
vanced in them; and with our friends rather than with those that are 
not our friends. With such as have honored us, if they continue 
not. Such as requite not our courtesy. Such as follow contrary cour- 
ses, if they are our inferiors. Our friends, if they have said or done us 
evil, or not good. Such as give not ear to our entreaty. Such as are 
joyful or calm in our distress. Such as troubling us, are not troubled 
themselves. Such as willingly see or hear our disgraces. Such as neg- 
lect us in the presence of our competitors, and of those we admire and 
would have admire us. Such as should help us, and neglect it. Such 
as are in jest when we are in earnest. Such as forget us or our names. 

3. Characteristics of the Young and the Old. — Young men are vio- 
lent in their desires, and prompt to execute them. Inconstant. Long- 
ing mightily, and soon satisfied. Apt to anscer. and in their anger vio- 
lent ; and ready to execute their anger with their hands. Lovers of 
honor and victory more than of money, because they have not yet been in 

43 



506 APPENDIX. 

want. Well-natured, as having not yet been acquainted "with malice. 
Full of hope, because they have not yet been frustrated, and because 
hope is of the time to come, of which youth has much. Credulous, be- 
cause not yet often deceived. Easily deceived, because full of 
hope. Bashful, because they estimate the honor of action by the 
precepts of the land. Magnanimous, because not yet dejected by the 
misfortunes of human life. Lovers of their friends and companions. 
Apt to err in the excess rather than in the defect ; for they overdo 
every thing. Thinking themselves wise, they are obstinate in the opin- 
ion they have once formed. Doers of injury rather for mischief than 
for damage. Merciful, because measuring others' innocence by their 
own. Lovers of mirth, and by consequence, such as jest at others. 

Old men do every thing less vehemently than is fit : they never say 
they know, but to every thing they say, Perhaps, peradventure ; because, 
having lived long, they have often been mistaken and deceived. They 
are peevish, because they interpret every thing to be the worst. Suspi- 
cious through incredulity, and incredulous by reason of their experi- 
ence. Of poor spirit, as having been humbled by the chances of life. Covet- 
ous as knowing how easy it is to lose, and how hard to get. Timor- 
ous as having been cooled by years. Greedy of life, for good things 
seem greater by the want of them. Slaves to gain. Of little hope, 
from their experience, and because they have but little of life, in which to 
realize their hopes. They live by memory, rather than by hope, for 
memory is of the time past. Full of talk, because they delight in 
memory. Of weak desires, and hence they seem temperate. Doers of 
injury "for damage rather than for mischief. Merciful by compassion, 
or by imagination of the same evils in themselves. And full of com- 
plaint, as thinking themselves not far from evil, because of their in- 
firmity. 

Robing this knowledge with causes, consequences, illustrations, de- 
scriptions, similes, anecdotes, and historical facts, we might, perhaps, 
make several quite readable compositions. The knowledge certainly 
would be of great benefit to us in suggesting other ideas, and in our 
intercourse with other people, especially in conversation and in epistolary 
correspondence. 

Mr. Brewer has published a book of themes developed in this 
manner : — 

None are completely Happy. — Introduction. — No one on earth 
is so entirely exempt from the common lot of sorrow, as to enjoy unin- 
terrupted and unalloyed felicity. Reasons. — 1. Our own infirmities 
of flesh, spirit, and temper, are so numerous that they constantly inter- 
fere with our peace of mind. 2. Sickness and death are always too busy 
with ourselves, or with others in whom we feel an interest, to allow us 
to enjoy complete happiness. 3. So many things are beyond our control, 
and repugnant to our wishes, that none are entirely free from crosses, 
vexations, and disappointments. 4. Our affections, feelings, and sensibili- 
ties, are not in our own keeping, but dependent on others; so that every 
servant or stranger who crosses our path, as well as every relation or 
friend must combine to humor and please us, before we can feel com- 
pletelv happy. 5. Our interests and affections are so involved by the ties 
of consanguinity, alliance, friendship, and neighborhood, that all whom 
we love and know must be completely happy, before we ourselves can 



AIDS tO COMPOSITION. 507 

experience unmixed felicity. 6. Our sympathies would prevent us 
from enjoying complete happiness, so long as one single instance of 
misery, want, unkindness, sickness, treachery, or disappointment, in' the 
whole world, came to our knowledge. 7. Our desires are always in ad- 
vance of our possessions; so that, if the whole world were laid at our 
feet, we should want new pleasures, and new possessions, and new pow- 
ers of enjoyment, and new fields of action, before we could feel satis- 
fied with our lot. 8. If man were completely happy, there could be no 
development of his moral character : for example, if there were no 
temptations to dishonesty, there would be no trial of integrity; if no 
disappointment, there would be no exercise for patience, fortitude, 
and resignation. 9. If man were completely happy here, he would 
never look for " those rivers of joy and pleasures for evermore " reserv- 
ed for the hereafter: so God has mixed sorrow in the cup of life, in order 
to wean the affections from the world, and win them to himself. 10. To 
eat bread in sorrow, is the entail of our first parents' 1 disobedience ; and 
so long as the curse remains, the entail of sorrow will never be cut off. 
Similes. — 1. Even the sun is not without its spots. 2. The most vigor- 
ous tree has some dead branches or withered leaves. 3. Every light 
must have its shadow. 4. Even a guinea has its portion of alloy. 
5. No rose without its thorn. 6. Every luminary is sometimes eclipsed. 
Historical Illustrations. — 1. Xerxes, replenished with all the good 
things of the body and of fortune, proposed a reward to that man who 
could contrive a new pleasure. 2. Croesus, the most wealthy and glori- 
ous king of Lydia, was once visited by Solon the philosopher. When 
the monarch asked whether Solon did not account him a happy man, 
the philosopher replied, "No man should be called a happy man, before 
he has finished his life." Not long after this, Croesus was taken cap- 
tive by Cyrus the Persian, and being condemned to be burnt alive, call- 
ed to mind the words of Solon, so significant of the mutability of hu- 
man happiness. 2. Alexander the Great was not contented after he 
had conquered the whole world, but actually wept because he could not 
find another world to conquer. 3. Dionysius assured Damocles by a 
most painful experiment, that, although a king possessed every thing 
the heart can covet, yet a sword of sorrow is always suspended by a 
single hair directly over his head. 4. Solomon says, " Whatsoever 
mine eyes desired, I kept not from them : I withheld not my heart 
from any joy ; but," he adds, " all is vanity and vexation of spirit." 

Quotations. 1. " Life is a mingled yarn." — Proverb. 2. Every black 
must have its white, And every sweet its sour. — Percy. 3. There is a 
poison-drop in man's purest cup. — Proverb. 4. Every path has its pud- 
dle. — Proverb. 5. Man is made to mourn. — Burns. 6. Man never is 
but always to be blessed. — Pope. 7. Caduca et mobilia Fortunae niu- 
nera. — Horace. 8. Man that is born of woman, is of few days, and full 
of trouble. — Bible. 

Consider carefully both sides of the subject or question, that you may 
not only present your own side fully, but provide against objections and 
attacks. 

Ex. — Should Foreign Emigration be Encouraged ? — Affirmative. — 
Needed to increase our population. To occupy waste land. To add to 
the power of the army. To our manufacturing establishments. To in- 



508 APPENDIX. ' 

crease our institutions of learning. To promote and improve the lite- 
rature of the country. The exile the strongest supporter of liberty. 
Only the young, energetic, and spirited emigrate. Negative. — Paupers. 
Criminals. Botany Bay. Land monopoly. Armies, a curse. Tools of 
tyrants. Encourage the vices of Europe. Engraft monarchical princi- 
ples. Corrupt ballot-boxes. We should respect ourselves and our own 
country. 

Analyze and study the best pieces of composition. For example, let 
us take a glance at Paradise Lost. The chief event is the fall of man, 
which naturally leads us to the consideration of Adam and Eve as 
blessed and happy in Paradise; this leads us to inquire why earth, 
Paradise, and man, were created ; and this leads us to the rebellion of 
Satan and his hosts in heaven, and gives the poet an inexhaustible field 
for portraying all the great passions of spiritual nature, and for de- 
scribing all things most wondrous and mysterious to the human mind. 
He then turns to the consequences ; but as the length of time proper for 
the story was not long enough to allow the pair to experience them, the 
poet has very artfully made the angel Michael foreshow them to Adam. 
So that the nucleus, the causes, and the effects, interspersed with appro- 
priate description, make the entire poem. The melancholy pair pass, 
hand in hand, out of Eden into the world, and there the poet leaves 
them. The moral of the poem, is the greatest moral in the world : 
namely, that obedience to God's laws is life and happiness; and dis- 
obedience, misery and death. 

In Campbell's Battle of llohenlinden, we see how admirably the uni- 
ties of time, place, and action, are observed. The poet begins with the 
scenery on which the battle was to be fought, and ends with the 
sepulchre. 

Throughout the poem, he selects only the most important points, and 
presents them in the most expressive language that hurries us along 
with the impetuosity of the battle itself. 

The Burial of Sir John Moore, the best of all the minor poems, pre- 
sents us a scene of death, which is always a matter of concern, — a young 
man of high rank and the noblest qualities, cut off in the bloom of life, 
in a distant land, while bravely fighting the battles of his country; and 
buried, in the meanest manner, through necessity, by those that Joved 
him de irly. How artfully throughout has the poet selected his circum- 
stances ! — buried darkly at dead of night — the lantern dimly burning — the 
moonbeam s misty light — the great stillness and hasty despatch — the mar- 
tial gory cloak in which they wound him — and how they left him to sleep in 
his glory. (Certainly, the poet left him so.) And then, the funereal, 
the mournful march of the verse, — what can surpass it! 

A writer can generally find materials, by considering what is, what 
takes place, what causes, what follows; but this last piece also shows 
that he may sometimes take advantage of his subject, by telling what is 
not, especially when it is something that is naturally expected. 

The teacher may do well, occasionally, to aid the invention of his stu- 
dents somewhat in this manner. Let the subject, for instance, be 
"Daniel Webster" written on the blackboard, and the class be drilled 
by such questioning as this: — 

What can you say about him? Nothing? Well, then, where was he 
born? for a mans birthplace has often something to do with his great- 



AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 509 

ness. When was he born? What were his parents? From what 
country did they come or originate? In what condition were they? 
How was he educated? How did he spend his youth? What indica- 
tions did he give of future greatness? What facilities did he enjoy on 
reaching manhood? or what hai*dships did he have to struggle against? 
What profession did he choose? With whom did he study, and what 
testimonials has he given of the good done to him by his guide? How 
did his profession aid in bringing out his reasoning and speaking 
powers? What great questions or occasions arose that called on his 
services, and gave him an opportunity to display his talents? How did 
he acquit himself? To whom was he married ? To what high stations 
was he elected ? With what men did these bring him in competition, 
and how did he rank among them? How was he esteemed by his 
cotemporaries ? What were the great achievements of his life? When 
did he die? What tokens of national sorrow? What was his private 
character, or his character as a husband and a friend? What works or 
writings did he leave behind him? What good has he done to the 
world ? 

Indian Summer. — In what season does it occur, when does it begin, 
and how long does it usually last ? Is it peculiar to our country ? What 
is the temperature of the air? What is its appearance ? What can you 
say of the foliage? the winds? the fruits? the wild-geese? the birds 
and other inhabitants of the forest? the employments of people? the 
general appearance of the country? the influence on the mind? What 
probably causes the haziness? What cause is assigned by the Indians? 
(The Indians say, that the Great Spirit is then in a good humor, and so be- 
takes himself to smoking, by which he fills the world with smoke; nor 
does he care to trouble the earth with winds, rains, or any other violent 
agencies.) Does not Indian Summer seem to be the Sabbath of the 
year? Did not Washington Irving probably write, under the influence 
of this season, his dreamy Legend of Sleepy Hollow ? 

Perhaps the greatest portion of all, the writings in the world consists 
of description and narration. The former relates chiefly to place, and the 
latter to time ; but the two are generally blended. The following speci- 
men will show, to some extent, how such themes may be developed : — 

Massacre of Wyoming. — 1. Geographical situation and general de- 
scription ; as, "Among the mountains which lift up their heads, in 
countless numbers in all shapes, between the Blue Ridge and the Alle- 
ghanies, on the banks of the winding Susquehanna, in the eastern part 
of Pennsylvania, lies the classic vale of Wyoming. It is not so much 
distinguished for its magnitude as for its beauty, its mineral wealth, and 
its historical incidents," &c. 2. Its aboriginal inhabitants, with a 
brief account of their character, and any striking events in their history ; 
such as the terrible fight between the Shawnees and the Delawares, 
growing out of a quarrel among the children for the possession of a 
grasshopper, which resulted in the triumph of the Delawares and the 
expulsion of the Shawnees. 3. Incidents connected with the early set 
tlement of the valley by the whites: such as the incident of a huge 
rattlesnake crawling over the feet of the missionary, Count Zinzendorf, 
without interrupting his composure; which, having been witnessed by 
the savages, induced them to spare his life. 4. The rival claims to the 



510 



APPENDIX. 



possession of this luxuriant valley, by emigrants from Connecticut and 
from Philadelphia, growing out of grants from the kings of England to 
Win. Penn and the Plymouth Company. 5. The disingenuous artifices 
resorted to by the whites, to induce the Indian chiefs to enter into a con- 
tract for the sale of the valley. 6. Some account of the settlement pre- 
ceding the massacre, as well as of the Indian and Tory forces. 7. De- 
tails of the battle. 8. The diabolical spirit of the Tories and the Indians 
exhibited during and after the battle. 9. The conditions upon which 
the surrender of Fort Forty was stipulated, and the bad faith of both 
Tories and Indians in disregarding these stipulations; and the fearful 
illustration which the whole transaction furnishes of the dreadful 
ravage made by the spirit of war upon all the better feelings of human- 
ity and all the ties of kindred. 10. The present condition of Wyoming 
valley, contrasted with what it was seventy years ago, in civilization, 
modes of travel, mining, manufacturing, and prosperity generally. 
11. General reflections. — For specimens of unsurpassed description, see 
Wirt's Blennerhassett, Campbell's Rainbow, and Croly's Conflagration 
of an Amphitheatre. 

He that wishes to become a good writer or speaker, should early and 
constantly cultivate the best mental habits. Let him observe things 
closely and thoroughly, mingle as much as possible in society, read much 
and carefully, and meditate still more. It is said that Sir Walter Scott 
was so close an observer in the places he visited, that not a blossom, not 
a blade of grass, not a sprig of moss, escaped his notice. Knowledge is 
as abundant as light: we have but to be awake and let it in. But 
many people wear their minds very slovenly : they never try to be 
thoughtful, but let their waking " mentality" run to silliness or empti- 
ness. It is no wonder, then, that when they undertake to write or 
speak, they should bring forth with anguish what is not worth com- 
municating. 

In regard to reading, avoid all trashy books; read none but the best 
books, and read them with the design of improving yourself. Compose 
also frequently, and always with the determination to improve yourself 
^in style and invention : these efforts will show you in what you are weak 
or deficient, and spur you to diligent observation. Indeed, judicious and 
frequent exercises in composition are indispensable; for, without them, 
all other exercises and improvements are fruitless. And could teachers 
but awaken, in all cases, a lively interest and laudable emulation in 
regard to composition exercises, I am sure the drudgery would seem 
much less, "and the advancement be much greater. 

In your reading, notice how authors avoid or manage such difficulties 
as you have yourself experienced; and always endeavor to learn all the 
little arts of thinking and expression which no treatises can ever fully 
teach. Especially notice in what excellencies consist. Thus: — 

We are pleased with grandeur of thought. Dr. Johnson says of Shak- 
speare, " Existence saw him spurn her bounded reign, And panting 
Time toiled after him in vain." Milton, in speaking of God's power 
over Chaos, says, " Confusion heard his voice, and wild uproar Stood 
ruled, stood vast infinitude confined." Some one has said, " The earth- 
clod of the world is divinely breathed upon." 

We are pleased with depth of thought, or thought that has the nature 
of proverbs. 



AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 511 

Ex. — u The lion's mouth is well defended.' 7 — Arab Proverb. " The 
generations of men come, and pass away, like the leaves of the forest." — 
Homer. "Be ye wise as serpents, yet harmless as doves." — Bible. 
" The child is father of the man." — Wordsworth. " What is new is not 
true, and what is true is not hew." — Leggett, criticising a new book. 

We are pleased with delicacy of thought. 

Ex. — "She was a phantom of delight." — Wordsworth. "A thing of 
beauty is a joy forever." — Keats. "Thus is Nature's vesture wrought, 
To instruct our wandering thought; Thus she dresses green and gay, 
To disperse our cares away." — Dyer. 

What an exquisitely beautiful conception is the following, which rep- 
resents the highest. Alpine flowers as having climbed up the Alps, in 
order to get so much nearer to heaven : " Numberless flowers, such as 
disdain to live in lower regions, and delighted drink the clouds before 
they fall " &c. — Rogers. 

We are pleased with tenderness, — a sort of delicacy of thought, which 
seems to throw open and reveal to us the innermost and most exquisite 
flowering of the heart, — which turns the mind into sweet and melan- 
choly musing or revery, elevates it above the sordidness of earth, and 
seems to give it a hasty, but far-reaching, dreamy glimpse into the eter- 
nal joys of heaven. — See Tennyson's In Memoriam, Collins's How Sleep 
the Brave, Burns's Highland Mary and To Mary in Heaven, Poe's Ra- 
ven and Annabel Lee, Bryant's Death of the Flowers, and Irving's 
Grave. 

We are pleased with genuine wit in all its forms. 

Ex. — " You need not come here, Sir, to fish for compliments. — Madam 
I perceive I am getting into shallow water." 

We are pleased with grasp of thought, or masterly accumulation. 
What a picture of a dying sinner is the following paragraph ! — 

" The infinite importance of what he has to do ; the goading convic- 
tion that it must be done; the utter inability of doing it; the dreadful 
combination, in his mind, of both the necessity and the incapacity; the 
despair of crowding the concerns of an age into a moment; the impossi- 
bility of beginning a repentance which should have been completed, of 
setting about a peace which should have been concluded, of suing for a 
pardon which should have been obtained, — all these complicated con- 
cerns — without strength, without time, without hope — with a clouded 
memory, a disjointed reason, a wounded spirit, undefined terrors, re- 
membered sins, anticipated punishment, an angry God, an accusing 
conscience, — all together intolerably augment the sufferings of a body 
which stands in little need of the insupportable burthen of a distracted 
mind to aggravate its torments." This kind of beauty, in various forms, 
is often found in the best of authors ; and when judiciously introduced 
it always elevates the discourse, and is relished by the reader. 

We are pleased with brilliance of thought, — a peculiar and striking 
vividness, — a racy, effervescing, sparkling vivacity, that stirs up, like 
excellent champagne, all the "nimble, fiery, and delectable shapes" in 
the reader's mind. — See the best portions of Macaulay and Holmes. 

We are often pleased with minute and exact description. 

Ex. — "Look you, here ran Cassius' dagger through; See what a rent 



512 APPENDIX. 

the envious Casca made, And how the blood of Caesar followed it." — 
Shakspeare. " For who but He that arched the skies, Could rear the 
daisy's purple bud, Mould its green cup, its wiry stem, Its fringed bor- 
der nicely spin, And cut the gold-embossed gem, That, set in silver, 
gleams within?" This paragraph blends also delicacy of conception 
with minute description. — See above. 

We are naturally pleased with truth and simplicity, especially when 
so excellent that we almost wish we had discovered the thought our- 
selves. 

Ex. — " There dwells a kind old aunt, and there you see 
Some kind young nieces in her company; 
Poor village nieces, whom the tender dame 
Invites to town, and gives their beauty fame" — Crabbe. 
We are naturally pleased with any description that is graphic, vigor- 
ous, and striking, — or that is what people commonly call "strong" 

Ex. — "There goes a man would crawl in hell, Might he but strut on 
earth." — Boker. "'Twould scald iny tongue To spit out your hated 
name." — Id. 

Sonnet on Judas. — From the Italian. 
" Spent with the struggles of his mad despair, 
Judas hung gasping from the fatal tree; 
Then swift the tempter fiend sprang on him there, 

Flapping his flame-red wings exultingly. 
AVith griping claws he clutched the noose that bound 
The traitors throat, and hurled him down below, 
Where hell's hot depths, incessant bubbling, throw 
His burning flesh and crackling bones around. 
There, 'mid the glowing shades, asunder riven 
By storm and lurid flame, was Satan seen: 
Relaxing his stern brows with hideous grin, 
Within his dusky arms the wretch he caught, 
And with smutched lips, fuliginous and hot, 
Repaid the kiss which he to Christ had given." 
We are pleased with ingenious and becoming applications of the Fig- 
ures, or of the principles from p. 201 to p. 255. 

An author frequently first makes a general statement, and then pro- 
ceeds to particulars. Irving says, "The sorrow for the dead is the only 
sorrow from which we refuse to be divorced. [General proposition.] 
Where is the mother who would willingly forget the infant that perished 
like a flower from her arms, though every recollection is a pang? 
Where is the child that would willingly forget the most tender of pa- 
rents, though to remember be but to lament? Who, even in the hour of 
agony, would forget the friend over whom he mourns? Who, even when 
the tomb is closing upon her he most loved — when he feels his heart, as 
it were, crushed in the closing of its portals — would accept of consola- 
tion that must be bought by forgetfulness? " [Particulars.] Mirabeau 
begins one of the finest, of eulogiums thus: " Franklin is dead. Restored 
to the bosom of the Divinity is that genius who gave freedom to Amer- 
ica, and rayed forth torrents of light upon Europe." &e. 

What can not be well described in itself, may sometimes be admirably 
represented and with great condensation or brevity, by turning to the 



AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 513 

effects. With what dexterity does Shakspeare show how deeply the Ro- 
man people were roused at the assassination of Caesar ! — 

"Brutus and Cassius have rid like madmen through the gates of 
Rome!" 

In stead of making a broad assertion of what is trite or perhaps disa- 
greeable, ingenious writers and speakers sometimes present an artful 
array of striking particulars, and leave the reader or hearer to form the 
conclusion for himself. This manner is peculiarly efficient against 
prejudices. 

Speakers and writers frequently find a very effectual means of accom- 
plishing their end, by turning to analogy. (See the Figures.) But the 
analogous case, whether real or fictitious, must be truly a good one — 
strictly and fully applicable. 

Duelling. — "If two boys, who disagreed about a game of marbles or 
a penny tart, should therefore walk out by the river-side, quietly take 
off their clothes, and, when they had got into the w r ater, each tiy to keep 
the other's head down until one of them was [is] drowned, we would 
doubtless think that these two boys were mad. If, when the survivor 
returned to his school-fellows, they patted him on the shoulder, told him 
that he was a spirited fellow, and that if he had not tried the feat in the 
water, they would never have played at marbles or any other game with 
him again, we should doubtless think that these boys were [are] infected 
with a most revolting and disgusting depravity and ferociousness. 7 ' 

Speakers and writers frequently introduce, before the main descrip- 
tion or principal proposition, such a description as will prepare the 
minds of the hearers or readers. How elegant is the following descrip- 
tion by S. S. Prentiss, when about proposing to send relief to famishing 
Ireland! — 

"There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beautiful island, 
famous in story and in song. Its area is not so great as that of the 
State of Louisiana, while its population is almost half that of the Union. 
It has given to the world more than its share of genius and of greatness. 
It has been prolific in statesmen, warriors, and poets. Its brave and 
generous sons have fought successfully all battles but their own. In 
wit and humor, it has no equal; while its harp, like its history, moves 
to tears by its sweet and melancholy pathos." — See and study the entire 
speech: it is one of the greatest masterpieces ever produced. 

How elegantly does Burns introduce a tender love-story : — 
" How sweetly bloomed the gay green birch ! 
How rich the hawthorn's blossom ! 
As underneath their fragrant shade 
I clasped her to my bosom ! " 

He who has stood in solitude on the bank of some troubled, rushing win- 
ter stream, and compared it to our troubled, fleeting life, can form some 
idea what an elegant prelude to a battle the two following lines are: — 
" And dark as winter was the flow 
Of Iser rolling rapidly." 

It is always well to seize the most striking circumstances or incidents 
which belong to the occasion. Observe how well Webster, in his Bun- 
ker Hill Address, seems to have anticipated the thoughts and feelings of 
his audience: — 



514 APPENDIX. 

"The uncounted multitude before me, and around me, proves the feel- 
ing which the occasion has excited. These thousands of happy faces, 
glowing with sympathy and joy, and, from the impulses of a common 
gratitude, turned reverently to Heaven, in this spacious temple of the 
firmament, proclaim that the day, the place, and the purpose of our 
assembling here, have made a deep impression on our hearts." 

Indeed, this sort of dramatic skill — this power of so penetrating the 
minds and hearts of his readers or hearers as to be able to see and 
throw open those embryonic thoughts which must necessarily win them 
to his purpose, constitutes the great, the overmastering power of the 
speaker or writer. 

Good writers are careful to select the most striking particulars only, 
or those which have a direct and the strongest tendency to produce the 
desired effect. 

Ex. — "There was now only one man left; a short-legged, long-bodied, 
plethoric fellow, with a very large sandy head. He sat by himself with 
a glass of port-wine negus, and a spoon; sipping and stirring, and med- 
itating and sipping, until nothing was left but the spoon. He gradually 
fell asleep, bolt upright in his chair, with the empty glass before him ; 
and the candle seemed to fall asleep too, for the wick grew long and 
black, and cabbaged at the end, and dimmed the little light that was in 
the chamber/' — Irving. 

11 They braced my aunt against a board, 
To make her straight and tall; 
They laced her up, they starved her down, 

To make her light and small; 
They pinched her feet, they singed her hair, 

They screwed it up with pins; — 
0, never mortal suffered more 

In penance for her sins." — Holmes. 
"The priesthood, ordaining its own successors, ruled human destiny 
at birth, on entering active life, at marriage, in the hour when faith 
aspired to communicate with God, and at death." — Bancroft. 
" The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 
And all that wealth or beauty ever gave, 
Await alike the inevitable hour: 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave." — Gray's Elegy. 
See and study the poem itself: it is throughout a remarkable illus- 
tration of the principle I wish to impress upon your mind. 

Sometimes authors combine, with the foregoing principle, minute cir- 
cumstantial description. 

Thus, to say, " The age of Pericles, Plato, Phidias, Apelles, Demosthe- 
nes, and Sophocles, will never return again," is trite and uninteresting; 
but to say, "The age will never again return when a Pericles, after 
walking with Plato in a portico built by Phidias, and painted by Apelles, 
might repair to hear a pleading of Demosthenes, or a tragedy of Sopho- 
cles" ( — 3facaulay), is spirited and striking. 

"You may woo and win a maiden at any time." 
Or:— 
Woo the fair one, when around | Early birds are singing; 
When o'er all the fragrant ground, | Early herbs are springing: 



AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 515 

When the brook-side, bank, and grove, j All with blossoms laden, 

Shine with beauty, breathe of love, — | Woo the timid maiden. 

Woo her when with rosy blush, | Summer eve is sinking; 

When on rills that softly gush, | Stars are softly winking ; [stealing, 

When, through boughs that knit the bowers, | Moonlight gleams are 

Woo her till the gentle hour | Wake a gentler feeling. 

Woo her, when autumnal dyes | Tinge the woody mountain; 

When the dropping foliage lies | In the weedy fountain ; 

Let the scene that tells how fast | Youth is passing over, 

Warn her, ere her bloom is past | To secure her lover. 

Woo her when the north winds call | At the lattice nightly; 

When, within the cheerful hall, | Blaze the fagots brightly ; 

While the wintry tempest round | Sweeps the landscape hoary, 

Sweeter in her ear shall sound | Love's delightful story. — Bryant. 

This last illustration also shows that an author may sometimes express 
his thoughts either in a brief, pithy form, or in a lengthy, full, and cir- 
cumstantial form. 

In reading, also notice carefully all the instructions and criticisms of 
authors, and of critics and reviewers. A pithy remark made by a mas- 
ter on his own art, is generally valuable. The following lines are, I 
believe, the principal ones on the art of writing, in a choice edition of 
the British poets in twenty-three octavo volumes : — 
" Of all the arts in which the wise excel, 

Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well." — Buckingham. 

The very masterpiece is writing-well. — G. Brown's correction. 
" But every desperate blockhead dares to write." 
" I'd rather be a kitten and cry mew, 

Than one of those same metre ballad-mongers." — Shakspeare. 
" Some annalist, — some tedious, heavy fool, 

Correctly dry and regularly dull." 
" A youth who hopes the Olympic prize to gain, 

All arts must try, and every toil sustain." 
" True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 

As those move easiest who have learned to dance." — Pope. 
M Examine well, ye writers ; choose with care 

What suits your genius, what your strength can bear: 

To him who shall his theme with judgment choose, 

Nor words nor method shall their aid refuse." 
" Defer the mighty task, and weigh your power; 

And every part in every view explore." 
" Your theme let oft in different prospects roll 

Deep in your thoughts, and grow into your soul." 
"At last the subject from the friendly shroud 

Bursts out, and shines the brighter from the cloud." 
" Deep in the breast the heavenly tumult plays, 

And sets the mounting spirits on .a blaze." 
"Rouse every power, and call forth all the soul." 



516 APPENDIX. 

"First, follow nature." 

"Be sure from nature never to depart; 

To copy nature, is the task of art." — Pope, 
"To one just scope with fixed design go on; 

Let sovereign Reason dictate from her throne, 

By what determined method to advance; 

But never trust to arbitrary chance." 
"First, to invent, and then dispose with art; 

Each a laborious task." 

"In this consists the grace 

And force of method, to assign a place 

For what with present judgment we should say, 

And for some happier time the rest delay." 
"Take time for thinking, never work in haste; 

And value not yourself for writing fast." — Dry den. 
"Gently make haste, of labor not afraid; 

A thousand times consider what you've said." — Dryden. 
" To copy beauties, forfeits all pretense 

To fame; — to copy faults, is want of sense." — Pope. 
"Aiming at greatness, some to fustian soar, 

Some in cold safety creep along the shore." 
" True wit is nature to advantage dressed, — 

What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed ; 

Something whose truth convinced at sight we find, 

That gives us back the image of our mind." 
" Grave age approves the solid and the wise, 

Gay youth from too severe a drama flies." 
" If in dull length your moral is expressed, 

The tedious wisdom overflows the breast." 
" Speak things but once, if order be your care; 

For more the cloyed attention will not bear." 
" Beauties they are, but beauties out of place." 
"'Tis not enough, ye writers, that ye chirm 

With ease and elegance: a piece should warm 

With soft concernment ; should possess the soul, 

And, as it wills, the listening crowd control." 
"If you would have me weep, begin the strain ; 

Then I shall feel your sorrows, feel your pain." 
" Before with sails unfurled you fly away, 

And cleave the bosom of the boundless sea, 

A fund of words and images prepare, 

And lay the bright materials up with care." 
" And if the mind in clear conception glow, 

The willing words in just expression flow." 
" Words are like leaves; and where they most abound, 

Much fruit of sense beneath is rarely found." — Pope. 
"And expletives their feeble aid do join, 

And ten low words oft creep in one dull line." — Pope. 



AIDS TO COMPOSITION. 517 

" But true expression, like the unchanging sun, 

Clears and improves whate'er it shines upon; 

It gilds all objects, but its alters none." 
" Expression is the dress of thought, and still 

Appears more decent as more suitable: 

A vile conceit in pompous words expressed, 

Is like a clown in regal purple dressed." — Pope. 
" You may perform the lion's part; for it is nothing but roaring." — 
"While an old age of words maturely dies, \_Shakspeare. 

Others new-born in youth and vigor rise ; * * * 

Many shall rise, that now forgotten lie, 

Others, in present credit, soon shall die, 

If custom will, whose arbitrary sway 

Words and the forms of language must obey." 
"In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; 

Alike fantastic, if too new or old: 

Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 

Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." — Pope. 
" The sound should seem an echo to the sense." — Pope, 
"Spur not your wearied, jaded, loathing mind, 

But for your task, some genial hours find." 
"Holloa, ye jades of Asia!" — Shakspeare. 
"Warm from his brain, the lines his love engross." 

"But now his labors he begins to blame, 

And blustering reads them with disdain and shame. 

He loaths the piece ; condemns it; nor can find 

The genuine stamp or image of his mind. 

This thought and that, indulgent, he rejects; 

When most secure, some danger he suspects, 

With kind severities and timely art, 

Lops the luxuriant growth of every part; 

Prunes the superfluous boughs that widely stray, 

And cuts the rank redundancies away." 
"Some pieces please us for a single view ; 

But some, ten times repeated, still are new." 
" Each part is fair, and beautiful the whole, 

And every line is nectar to the soul." 
" A thousand graces which no methods teach, 

And which a master-hand alone can reach." 
" Those given to books are by three foes beset, — 

By Indolence, and Fear, and Self-conceit." 
"You may correct what in your closet lies; 

If published, it irrevocably flies." 

Finally, I would recommend to you as one of the most fruitful 
exercises, to translate the best pieces of some foreign language into your 
own. By such translations from the classics, most of the great British 
authors essentially acquired their ability. Such exercises indirectly 
teach invention, method, and taste ; and they teach the use of language 



518 APPENDIX. 

perhaps better than it can be taught by any othey means. The next 
best mode of exercising is, to read pieces, adapted to your taste and 
ability, in the best authors of your own language, lay aside the book, 
and endeavor to rival the author by a composition of your own on the 
same subject. Afterwards compare your performance with his, and you 
will see in what you fail, and find what you need. Dr. Franklin thus 
taught himself. To read and study the best poets and occasionally to write 
verses yourself, is also a good exercise. A more complicated and labo- 
rious exercise always gives greater ease and skill in those which are 
less difficult. The feats of war done by the Spartan, were light when 
compared with the athletic exercises by which he prepared himself. 
Besides, great poets are great masters of language; and nearly all our 
best prose writers have ever been those who had a tincture of poetry. 
The maxim, "No excellence without great labor," is particularly appli- 
cable to those who aim to be effective speakers or writers. Be not afraid 
that such exercises as I have recommended, will make your style too 
artificial. After much thinking on the subject, I feel convinced that the 
much-admired natural style is but the perfection of art. But there is 
a lazy, mean, servile kind of imitation, which of course should be 
spurned. Your own heart will tell you soon enough when you are 
guilty of it. Be assured that genuine human nature is always interest- 
ing; at least, more so than any serious deception. Your own manner 
is the best for you. Work fully your own individuality into your style, 
and you will thus make your style most interesting and effective. When 
the fair shepherd and lyrist of Judea went forth to meet the Philistine, 
he preferred his accustomed sling and pebbles even to the armor of 
a king. 

2. DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

Words are either primitive, derivative, or compound. The elements of 
words in regard to meaning, are roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Roots are 
either native or foreign, and sometimes much disguised. The same root 
may frequently be combined with several different prefixes or suffixes, 
or have more than one at the same time, or be combined with some other 
root. 

Prefixes usually modify the sense without changing the part of 
speech; and suffixes usually change the part of speech, without materi- 
ally varying the sense in other respects. There are different prefixes 
capable of expressing the same sense, and there are also different suf- 
fixes capable of expressing the same sense; because the choice is to be 
determined not merely by the meaning of the appendage, but also by 
euphony, analogy, and the character of the root. The meaning of a 
prefix is not always obvious, but sometimes obscure or even lost. The 
same word, or combination of letters, often has by accident several differ- 
ent meanings; the same word, or combination of letters, often has by 
design several different but allied meanings. (For the principles by 
which words properly branch out into various different meanings, see 
the Figures.) In making a combined form, some of the parts frequently 
undergo a change for the sake of euphony or analogy. This consists in 
the change, insertion, or omission of some letter or letters. The initial 
consonant of the root often requires the final letter of the prefix to be 
like it. 



WORDS. PREFIXES. 519 

PREFIXES. 

Note. — The prefixes in Roman capitals are Latin, those beginning with Italic cap- 
itals are Greek, and those in black letters are Saxon. 

A ; on, in, at, to. 

Form, spell, and define: — 
Bed,* ground, shore, loft, cross, piece, part, sleep, pace, loud, slant, 
wake, far, field, drift, head, side, float. 
A, ab, abs ; from, separation. 

Base, vert (turn ); solve, normal, jure, rupt, ject, horrent, sorb, di- 
cate; tract, truse. 

An, A, AC, AG, AF, AL, AN, AP, AR, AS, AT ; to, at. 

Join, judge, jacent, diet; mount, scend, spire, scribe; cord, cuse, 
quire, claim: gress, grieve, gravate; fix. firm, feet, fusion; lot, 
lege, luvial; nex, nul, nihilate; peal, portion, preciate; rogate, 
rect ; sure, sign, sort, sail; tract (draw), tend, test, tribute. 
Ante ; fore, be/ore. 

Chamber, date, room, nuptial, meridian, cedent, penult, past (taste). 
A, an; without, privation. 

Theist, cephalous, chromatic, morphous, pathy, byss, torn (cut) ; archy. 
^4mphi; two, double. Theatre, bious (living). 

^4na ; up, throughout, back, again. 

Tomy (cutting), lysis (loosening, separation), logy, gram, baptist. 

Anti, ant ; against, opposition. 

Slavery, Christ, febrile, bilious, pathy (feeling), dote (given); arctic, 
agonist. 
Avo, ap ; from, off. 

Gee (earth), strophe (turning), dosis, logy, theosis, thecary ; 
helion (sun). 
Be ; action directed to an object ; by, near. 

Daub, dew, witch, fit, moan, lie, set, siege, cloud, sprinkle, spatter, 
speak, think, take, stir, wilder; (by) side, hind, fore, cause. 
Bene; good, well. Fit (deed), volent, ficial, factor, diction. 

Bis, bi; twice, two. 

Cuit (baked); quadrate, angular, fold, valve, gamy (marriage), sect, 
ped, fid, ennial. 

Cata, cat; down, throughout. (The opposite of ana). 
Ract (flowing), logue, strophe, plasm; optrics, hedral (seat), holic 
(the whole). 
Circum, circu ; round, about. 

Navigate, ambient, jacent, fuse, scribe, spect, stance, ference, volve, 
vent, locution, flex, polar; late (borne), it (goes), itous. 
Cis ; on this side. Alpine, Atlantic. 

Con, co, cog, com, col, cor; together, with, against. 

Join, tract, fuse, dense, vene, verge, tact, ceive (take), geal, flict, flu- 
ence ; equal, extend, heir, operate, tangent; nate (born); press, 

*Thus: Abed; a — b-e-d-bed — abed: on or in bed. 



520 APPENDIX. 

mingle, pose, passion ; lect, league, location, lateral; respond, ru- 
gate, relative. 
Contra, contro, counter; against, in opposition to, answering to. 
Diet, distinguish, vene, dance; vert; part, pressure, feit (make), 
march, sign, act, plead, work. 
De ; from, down, destruction. 

Tract, press, throne, scend, tect, pose, pict, tach, face, spise (look), 
volve, populate, moralize. 
Dix, di ; through, across. 

Meter, logue, Ject, gonal ; graph, chromatic. 
Dis, di, dif ; away, apart, undoing, negation. 

Join, organize, appoint, appear, ease, cord, suade, sect, tract, cover, 
gorge, perse, please, agree, inter, order; verge, stance, vulge, 
gress; fer. 
E, ex, EC, ef ; out, out of,' from. 

Ject, lect, A r ade, mit, vaporate, loquent; pectorant, press, pand, pire, 
haust, tort; centric, stasy; fuse, face, feet, fulgence. 
Extra; beyond. Ordinary, vagant (going), mural. 

JEs (Greek or French), em; in, into, upon. 

Tangle, shrine, slave, rage, gulf, large, feeble, dure, grave, tomb, act; 
broider, boss, hellish, balm, blazon, bark, bitter, brace. 

Epj, ep ; upon, after. 

Taph, gram, dermis (skin), demic (people), logue ; ode. 
For, fore ; from, against, the contrary. German, ver ; Latin, versus. 

Bid, get, sake (seek), swear, give, bear; go. 

Fore, for ; before. 

Tell, run, see, know, warn, taste, man, father, noon, arm; ward. 
Hyper; over. Critical, borean, bola, meter. 

7/ypo; under. Thesis, sulphuric, crite, critical, chondriac. 

In, im, il, ir ; in, into, upon. 

Flame, close, elude, form, struct, lay, here, ject, wrought, wall ; bank, 
plant, pearl, print, press, merge; luminate, lustrate, laqueate; radiate. 

I , ig, IM, il, ir; not, privation, the contrary. 

Human, discreet, elastic, consistent, accurate; noble; modest, mortal, 
patient, personal; legal, liberal; reverent, regular, rational, resolute. 
Intro ; inwards, within. Duce, version, mission. 

Inter; between. 

Weave, line, cede, mix, lock, regnum, sperse, link, marriage, view. 
Mis; wrong, ill. 

Apply, call, deed, use, spell, quote, take, trust, inform, fortune. 

J£eta, meth; over, beyond, ivith, change. 

Thesis, phrastic, morphose, plasm, physics, phor (transfer); od (way.) 

Non ; negation. 

Conductor, conformity, entity, essential, sense, descript, residence, 
payment. 
Over ; above, beyond, excess. 



WORDS. — PREFIXES. 521 

Balance, hang-, top, leap, step, spread, do, grow, flow, look, wise, 
whelm, shadow, reach, look, load, shoot, value. 
Out ; beyond, not within. 

Bid, grow, live, last, let, cast, cry, law, skirt, side, wit, talk, work. 
Ob, oc, of, op ; to, against. 

Trude, ject, tain (hold) ; cur, casion ; fer (bear) ; pose, press. 

Para, par ; beside, against, from. 

Box (opinion), graph, phrase, site, lyze, digm ; helion, ody. 
Peri; around, about, near. 

Patetic, helion, od, phery, gee, carp, cranium, style. 
Per, pel ; through, by. 

Use, form, ennial, spicuous, spire, ceive, sist, manent, forate, tain, feet 
(done), chance, cent; lucid. 
Post; after. 

Script, fix, humous, pone, mortem (death), meridian. 
Pre; before. 

Judge, mature, engage, dispose, sentiment, caution, eminent, medi- 
tate, face, elude, fer, possess, sume (take), text, side (sit), tend, vent. 
Pro, prof; for, forth, forwards, before. 

Noun, consul, ceed, duce, gress, ject, mote, tect, vide, trude, pel, spect, 
scribe, logue, fuse, voke, minent; fer. 
Preter ; past, beyond. Natural, imperfect, mission. 

Re ; again, back. 

Build, call, animate, enter, embark, new, view, volve, sonant, spond, 
collect, conquer, vise, revise, sign, pel, strain, cede, bound, search. 
Retro ; backwards. Cede, vert, spect, grade. 

Se ; aside, apart. Cede, elude, cant, cern, duce, lect. 

Sex\ii, demt, hemi; half. 

Annual, circle, colon, diameter, vowel, tone, quaver ; god, cannon ; 
sphere, stich. 
Sine; without. Cure (care). 

Sub, sue, suf, sug, sup, sur, sus, — subter ; under, underneath, inferior. 
Join, acid, soil, contract, divide, marine, merge ; cor (curro, run), 
cumb ; fer, fix, fuse; gest; plant, press, pose; rogate ; tain; fuge, 
fluent. 
#yn, syl, sym; with, together. 

Thesis, tax, opsis, seresis, agogue, chronism ; lable, logism, lepsis; 
phony, pathy, me try. 
Trans, tran, tra; through, across, over, on the further side of . 

Act, plant, migrate, lucent, parent, pose, gress, Atlantic, fuse, form, 
figure, it, ient; spire, scend, scribe, substantiation, sude ; ject, duce, 
dition. 
Tri ; three. Colored, angular, meter, foliate, form, sect, ennial. 

Un ; 'not, negation, privation, undoing. 

Able, affected, aided, apt, bar, aware, chain, clean, generous, con- 
scious, furl, healthy, happy, truth, ship, do, twist, wept, wise, wor- 
thy, horse. 

44 



52Z APPENDIX. 

Under ; beneath, inferior. 

Agent, brush, current, plot, ground, shot, rate, writer, value, sell, 
score, mine, let, hand, go, lie, sign. 
Up ; motion upwards, above, subversion. 

Turn, raise, rise, rouse, hold, hill, land, right, start, set, root. 
Uni; one. Corn, form, florous, vocal, parous (producing), valve. 

With; against, from, back. Hold, draw, stand. 

SUFFIXES, OR AFFIXES. 

The derivatives of this class consist almost entirely of noims, adjec- 
tives, verbs, and adverbs. 

1. Adverbs. 

WARD OR WARDS, WISE OR WAYS, LY. 

Form, spell, and define: — 

Ward, wards; direction. — Back, in, out, up, down, hither, home, 
heaven, east, on, lee, wind. 

Wtse, Ways ; manner, way. — Length, cross, other, side, edge, contrary, 
corner; straight. 

Ly ; like, manner, quality. — Bitter, strange, bright, plain, faint, fierce, 
swift, playful, studious, mere, scarce, in, one, (only,) spiral, fearless. 

2. Verbs. 

ATE, EN, FY, ISH, IZE, ISE. 

Derivative verbs generally signify — 

To make or become; to impart the thing or quality to, or to exercise 
it; to make the ordinary use of; an act or state consisting of some 
common or permanent relation between the subject of the verb and the 
thing. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes; and define : — 

Ate. — Alien, ulcer, germ, populous, habitual, origin, devious, violent, 
gravity, reciprocal, vicious, luxury, liquid, fabric, calumny, facility, 
debility, arbiter, spoil, sjjoli-, grain, granu-, stimulous, office, crime, 
vacant, circular. 

En. — Black, white, sharp, red, soft, deep, wide, rough, moist, fast, 
less, weak, sweet, bright, length, strength, Christ, smooth, haste, glad, 
sad, thick, quick, ripe, loose, like, fright. 

Fy. — Beauty, pure, mode, just, simple, glory, class, verse, rare, 
diverse, notice, certain, quality, intense, dignity, nullity, terror, sign, 
scar, clear, clari-, person, right, red-, peace, pad-, special, sped-, fruit, 
fructi-, example, exempli-, prophet, -esy. 

Ish. — Public, bland, languid, famine, vain, (empty, naught), blame, 
blem-. 

Ize, Ise. (These generally signify to make, to apply, to act the part 
of.) — Theory, legal, tyrant, author, moral, system, modern, human, 
organ, botany, dastaid, melody, apology, memorial, mineral, sycophant, 
character, familiar; critic. 

Sharp ending to flat or rough. — Cloth, breath, wreath, bath, 
lath, price, advice, grass, excuse, abuse, refuse, relief, grief, life, half, 
wife, thief, rent, bent, gift. 



WORDS. — SUFFIXES. 523 

Accent changed. — Abstract, conflict, absent, frequent, concert, prog- 
ress, rebel. 

Unchanged. (To make that use of, which mankind generally make; 
some customary or habitual act or state; some active relation. to.) — Hoe, 
shoe, shovel, plane, chisel, hammer, smoke, bud, garden, farm, fiddle, 
(instrumental things generally,) lance, water, fire, crib, girdle, weed, 
plant, hinge, coop, switch, soap, shear, gem, blister. Said a little boy 
at a boarding-house, "Mother, shall I bell?" 

3, Adjectives. 

AL, AN, AR, ATE, BLE, EN, ERN, FUL, IC, (JFIC, ) ILE, INE, IVE, ISH, NT, OUS, 
Y, (LY, ARY, ORY,) SOME, WARD. 

Derivative adjectives generally signify — 

Having of or having the nature of, more or less; or that the object 
described, in some way belongs or is related to that from whose name 
the adjective is formed. 

The same word may frequently be used either as an adjective or as a 
noun. 

Form and spell, making the requisite euphonic changes; and define : — 

Al. — Nature, nation, fraction, fate, origin, centre, idea, parent, 
triumph, person, ornament, accident, critic, music, focus, autumn, 
matrimony, senator, -ial, manor, matter, participle, adverb, proverb, 
part, province, prejudice, commerce, spirit, -ual, sense, event, habit, intel- 
lect, consequence, -tial, influence, essence, equinox, benefit -rial, nose, 
nds-, pope, feast, fesl-, pasture, pastor-. 

An. — Africa, America, Italy, suburbs. 

Ar. — Column, pole, consul, globe, -ular, circle, muscle, title, particle. 

Ate. — Globe, affection, proportion, consider, compassion, rose. 

Ble. (Passive, if from a transitive verb.) — Detest, -able, cure, eat, 
drink, debate, change, profit, service, honor, consider, tolerate, utter, 
imagine, till, peace, pass, reason, move, navigate, value, perish,' fashion, 
deduce, -ible, horror, corrupt, resist, sense, exhaust, destroy, destruct-, 
accede, access-, perceive, percep-, divide, divis-. 

En. (Of what substance made.) — Beech, hemp, silk, gold, wood, 
lead, earth, leather -em, flax, brass, braz-. 

Ern. — North, south, east, west. 

Ful. (Opposed to less.) — Mind, peace, hope, wish, brim, care, waste, 
cheer, joy, bliss, youth, fret, skill, play, sin, grace, wake, law, mourn, 
awe, truth. 

Less. (Want, privation.) — Heed, care, sun, hope, cheer, joy, sin, 
grace, law, breath, end, tear, father, mother, guilt, eye, tooth, sense, 
match, doubt, sleep, life, death. 

Some; Isii. — Toil, tire, dark, loathe, win, glad, quarrel, trouble, frolic, 
weary; salt, black, yellow, gray, sot, boy, girl, fop, knave, mule, wolf, 
heathen, clown, snap, scare, skit-, man, Spain, Ireland, England. 

Ic. — Angel, hero, despot, poet, organ, pedant, satire, bombast, sphere, 
metaphor, geography, geology, astronomy, ornithology, Italy, lyre, 
-ical, vertex, vortex, dropsy, sympathy, -etic, pathos, theory, hypothesis, 
synthesis, barometer, -elric, diameter, thermometer, emblem, -atic, 



524 APPENDIX. 

epigram, problem, diploma, system, schism, enigma, dogma, drama, 
color, -ific, science, dolor, beatitude ; romance, rhapsody, pharisee, 
tragedy, comedy, Pluto, Piato. 

Ile. — Infant, serve, merchant, mercant-. 

Ine. — Serpent, adamant, crystal, alkali. 

Ive. (Generally active.) — Conduce, diffuse, prospect, create, effect, 
abuse, object, progress, express, retain, -teniive, attend, perceive, pre- 
sume, produce, interrogate, disjoin, disjunct-, adhere, -hesive, corrode, 
intrude, decide, assuage, include, comprehend, submit, expel, -pulsive, 
repel, impel. 

Nt. (Generally active.) — Tolerate, -ant, militate, litigate, buoy, vigil, 
attend, please, luxury, triumph, abound, solve, -ent, confide, consist, 
abhor, emerge, correspond, convalesce, compose, compon-. 

Ous. — Bulb, pore, zeal, pomp; fame, joy, ruin, danger, odor, humor, 
peril, villain, murder, slander, rancor, mountain, contumely, -ious, bile, 
perfidy, malice, office, avarice, pity, -eous, beauty, duty, tempest, -uous, 
contempt; enormity, -mous, merit, -orious, mucilage, -inous. 

Y. — Grass, hill, shade, swamp, meal, wire, flower, mud, cloud, trick, 
wealth, sleep, silk, grease, air, pearl, knot, friend, -ly, beast, brother, 
prince, heaven, man, time, residue, -ary, imagine, element, tribute, sub- 
side, -iary, contradict, -ory, conciliate, declare, console, satisfy. 

Upward, inward, outward, hulbiferous, txrmigerous, globose, spheroiV/, 
Arabesque, statuesque, grotesque. 

4. Nouns. 

Person or Instrument: ard, ary, ee, ess, ine, ix, ist, ite, ive, n, 
nt, r, &c. 

Thing, Act, or State: al, age, ade, dom, hood, ics, ism, ice, ion, 
ment, ness, 1sce, ncy, ry, ship, ude, ure, t, th, y, &c. 

A derived noun may denote either a person, a thing, an act, or a state ; 
or it may denote the abstract of any of these. The "person who" must 
be either a doer of an act, a recipient of an act, or simply one in some 
way related to or concerned with that from which the name is formed. 
From the thing, the mind naturally passes to whatever is obviously 
related to it; and the meaning of the word is also extended accordingly. 
From the act, the mind (and of course the denotive power of the word) 
readily passes to what caused it, — often a concrete object, or an abstract, 
or some faculty, skill, or principles, — or else to the result of the act, 
or to its manner. From the state, the passage is as easj' to what causes 
it, to what follows from it, to what sustains it, or to what necessarily 
accompanies it. The same ending is not usually confined to one mean- 
ing, in every instance; but it ranges with the principles given under the 
head of Figures. 

Form and spell, making the requisite evphonic changes; and define : — 

Ard. — Drunk, dote, slug, dull, cow (verb), Spain, Savoy. 

Ary. — Adverse, statute, note, mission. 

Ee. (Generally passive ; the person to whom.) — Indorse, pay, bail, 
devote, patent, refuge, assign, consign, trust, commit, legate, refer, absent, 
mortgage, lease, less-. 



WORDS. — SUFFIXES. 525 

Ess, tne, ix; jemale. — Lion, heir; hero, Joseph; administrator, exec- 
utor. — See p. 89. 

1st. — Copy, tour, journal, natural, novel, drama -tist, psalm, Federal, 
geology, fatal, algebra, chemistry, drug, duel, botany, royal, art, piano, 
violin, enthusiasm, -ast, encomium. 

Ite. — Favor, Israel, Campbell, Miller, Benton. 

Ive. — Capture, operate. 

N. — America, Africa, Virginia, theology, college, music, politics, 
arithmetic, Rome, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Texas, comedy, tragedy, 
city, -izen, art, -isan, civil, party, company. 

Nt. — Account, -ant, inhabit, combat, dispute, confide, protest, assist, 
assail, appeal, study, -ent, preside, oppose, -portent, act, -gent, receive, 
-cipient. 

It. — Oversee, lie, -ar, beg, school, farm, -er, hunt, make, drive, speak, 
hear, sell, buy, build, labor, plaster, paint, carve, engrave, cottage, 
settle, biography, geography, give, pipe, live, widow, reap, sing, foreign, 
hat, play, write, indorse, treasury, visit, -or, edit, credit, debt, jail, pros- 
ecute, profess, survive, vend, aggress, create, speculate, conspire, -ator, 
compete, -Hot, auction, -eer, mountain, gazette, pamphlet, chariot, 
musket, cash, -ier, cannon, finance, graze, glaze, bombard, cloth, court, 
save, -ior, law, -yer, saw, team, -ster, poke, -er, (thing,) scrape, revolve, 
shut, trench, sleep, boil, cleave. 

Diminutives. (These often denote endearment or contempt.) — Lamb, 
-kin, ring, -let, cross, stream, cover, leaf, circle, -et, lock, mall, close, 
trump, lord, -ling, hire, fond, change, seed, suckle. Globe, globule; 
grain, granule ; flute, flagelet; ball, bullet; cat, kitten; island, isle; isle, 
islet. 

Al. — Peruse, remove, recite, requite, deny, propose, espy, refuse, dismiss. 

Age. — Use, plume, line, pass, mile, post, ferry, pupil, dote, equip, cot, 
hermit, marry, pilgrim, folum (leaf), anchor, bond, parson. 

Ade. — Gascon, stock, lemon, baluster, stamp, -ede. 

Dom. — Free, wise, martyr, king, duke, Christ, prince, Yankee. 

Hood. — Child, brother, man, woman, boy, sister, knight, hardy, live. 

Ship. — Partner, fellow, scholar, town, workman, hard, ward, court, 
clerk, friend, lord, apprentice, dictator. 

Ics. — Poet, harmony, stat, statist, eth, phys, acous, mechanic, opt, phon, 

T, til— Constrain, join, restrain, complain; warm, wide, long, strong. 

Udb.— Apt, ample, disquiet, serve, solitary, right, recti-, 

Ure.— Please, expose, moist, architect, depart, raze, seize, fail, inclose, 
fix, legislate, forfeit, temperate, context, sign, -ature, nourish, nurture. 

Ism. — Fanatic, despotic, critic, Catholic, baptize, parallel, hero, material, 
pedagogue, heathen, Presbyterian. 

Ment. — Move, pave, attain, content, case, state, install, inthrall, enjoy, 
amass, amaze, excite, banish, punish, blandish, merry, agree, imprison, 
arm, battle, acquire, refresh, command, complete, parly, firm. 

Ness. — Good, bad, white, smooth, pale, near, rash, same, bold, happy, 



526 APPENDIX. 

farsighted, little, apt, busy, close, careless, loathsome, bald, rich, per- 
verse, comprehensive, conscientious. 

Nce, ncy. — Acquaint, -ancc, concord, resist, assist, observe, convey, 
annoy, deliver, brilliant, instant, innocent, -ence, resident, provide, 
differ, infer, adhere, depend, precede, pliant, -cy, constant, discrepant, 
insolvent, delinquent, despond, ascend, emergent. 

Y. — Honest, modest, discover, beggar, grocer, butcher, part, villain, 
injure, lunatic, -acy, private, apostate, pirate, secret, -cy, hypocrite, -sy, 
pedant, -ry, gallant, ancestor, revel, scene, bigot, herald, master, cutler, 
brew, -ery, witch, mock, cook, fish, crock, fop, null, -ity, vain, dense, 
pure, adverse, native, opportune, secure, sensual, durable, fallible, rascal, 
sagacious, rustic, elastic, simple, eccentric. 

Words ending in y or ry arc often collective in sense, referring to groups 
of objects or acts; as, Orangery, shrubbery, soldiery, sorcery, trigonom- 
etry. So is the ending ing not unfrequently collective in sense; as, 
Bedding, shopping, matting, bagging, hedging, carpeting, gunning 
(elements of science, or science as drawn from a multitude of acts 
or experiments). 

People sometimes commit errors in deriving words; as, Naintainance, 
preventative, proposial, for maintenance, preventive, proposal, from maintain, 
prevent, propose. 

ROOTS. 

The Principal Disguised Roots of the English Language. 
Let the student learn the following roots, and form from them all the 
derivative words he can, and also define them. Such guessing will per- 
haps be as valuable to him as that prepared by professed etymologists. 
The teacher may make such suggestions or give such aid in the recita- 
tion, as he deems best. — The unmarked roots are Latin, those in Italics 
are Greek, and the others — French, Italian, Spanish, Hebrew, &c. — are 
marked accordingly. 

A. 

Acidus; sour, sharp. Acuo, acutum; I sharpen. Acouo, I hear. 
Adulor, I flatter. iEdes, a building. Aer, air. Adelphos, brother. 
tresis, a taking. Ago; I do, drive. Agito, I toss about. Agon, com- 
bat. Ager, agri; field. Agoreuo, I speak. Alius, another. Alios, 
other. Amo, I love. Ambulo, I walk about. Altus, high. Amplus, 
large. Anemos, wind. Animus, mind. Anima, soul. Annus, year. 
Anthos, flower. Anthropos, man. Aperio, I open. Aptus, fit. Aqua, 
water. Aro, aratum; 1 plow. Arbor, tree. Arche ; beginning, govern- 
ment. Arctos, north. Ardeo, arsum; I burn. Areo, I dry. Aristos, 
best. Arithmos, number. Arma, arms, iri, artis; art. Articulus, 
Joint. Asper, rough. Astron, star. Aimos, air. Atra, black. Atrox, 
fierce. Audax, bold. Audio, auditum ; 1 hear. Augeo, auctum ; I in- 
crease. Augustus, noble. Aulos, pipe. Auris, ear. Aurum, gold. 
Auspicium ; sign, token. Auster, south. Autos, oneself. Auxiliuro, 
help. Avant, Fr., before. Avarus; desirous, greedy. Avidus, eager. 
Avis, bird. Axilla, armpit. 

Analyze and define* ; — 

Acuteness, acoustics, adulation, aphseresis, allegory, ammunition, ani- 



WORDS. — ROOTS. 527 

mal, aquatic, misanthropy, autobiography, autograph, aviary, auction, 
aristocracy, artificial, ardent, arson, atrabilious. 

* Formule. — The root, or radical, is , signifying ; the prefix is , signify- 
ing ; the suffix is , signifying ; hence the word signifies 

B. 

Bacca, berry. Bacchus, the god of wine. Bapto ; I dip, wash, 
sprinkle. Barba, beard. Barbarus; rude, savage. Basis; bottom, 
support. Baros, weight. Beatus, blessed. Bellum, war. Bellus, fair. 
Bene; well, kindly. Benignus, kind. Bestia, beast. Biblos, book. 
Bibo, I drink. Bios, life. Bini, two by two. Blandus, mild. Boleo, 
hallo; I throw, put. Bonus, good. Boreas, north-wind. Botane ; herb, 
plant. Brevis, short. Briller, Fr., to shine. Bronchos, throat. Bryo, 
I grow. Bucolos, shepherd. Bulla, bubble. Byssos, bottom. 

Baccalaureate, bacchanalian, beatitude, belligerent, embellish, barom- 
eter, benevolent, benefit, Bible, bibliography, binary, hyperbole, boreal, 
botany, abbreviate, bronchitis, embryonic, ebullition. 

C 

Cacos—kaJcos, bad. Cado, casum, -cido ; I fall. Casdo, csesum, -cisum ; 
I cut, kill. Calculus, a pebble. Caleo, I am warm. Calos, beautiful. 
Calypto, I conceal. Candeo, I shine. Candidus, white. Cano, cantum ; 
I sing. Capio, captum, cepi, -ceptum; I take, hold. Capillus, hair. 
Caput, capitis ; the head. Capsula, small chest. Carbo, a coal. Career, 
prison. Cardia, the heart. Caro, carnis; flesh. Castigo, I chastise. 
Catena, chain. Cavallo, Ital., horse. Cavilla; jest, vaunt. Caulis; 
stem, stalk. Causticos, burning. Cele, swelling. Cedo, cessum ; I go, 
yield. Celebris, renowned. Celer, swift. Ccelum, heaven. Ccelebs, 
unmarried. Celsus, high. Celo, I hide. Censeo, censum ; I think, 
judge. Centum, hundred. Cephale, head. Cera, wax. Ceras, horn. 
Ceres, the goddess of grain. Cerno, cretum ; I judge, distinguish. Carpo, 
carptum, -cerptum ; I pluck. Certo, I strive. Cesso, I cease. Cheva), 
Fr., horse. Cheir, chir- ; hand. Chole, bile. Choreo, I retire. Choros, 
place. Christos, anointed. Chronos, time. Chrysos, gold. Cingo; 
cinctum; I gird, surround. Cito; I move, stir, rouse. Clamo ; I call, 
cry, shout. Clarus, clear. Claudo, clausum, clu- ; I shut, close. Clesis, 
act of calling. Clino ; I bend, lean. Clivus, slope. Colo, cultum; I 
till, inhabit. Come, village. Comes, comitis; companion. Concha, 
shell. Concilio; I draw together, make friends. Contemplor; I view 
meditate. Copia, abundance. Cope, a cutting. Co^uo, coctum; I boil, 
make ready. Cornu, horn. Corpus, corporis; body, Coruscus, shining. 
Cosmos; order, ornament. Costa, rib. Cras, to-morrow. Crassus, 
thick. Cratos ; power, government. Crepo, crepitum ; I crackle. Cresco, 
cretum; I grow, increase. Creta, chalk. Crimen, criminis; crime. 
Crit.es ; judge, critic. Crux, crucis; cross. Crypto, I conceal. Cubo, 
cubitum; I lie down, recline. Calco, I tread. Culina, kitchen. Culpa, 
blame. Cumulo, I heap up. Cuneus, wedge. Cupib, cupitum ; I desire. 
Cura, care. Curro, cursum; I run. Curtus, short. Cuspis, a point. 
Cutis, the skin. Cutio, cussum; I shake, agitate. Cyclos, circle. Cyon, 
cyn-; dog. 

Cachetic, cadence, accident, incision, homicide, apocalypse, candidate, 



528 APPENDIX. 

incantation, capital, capture, recipient, castigation, cavalry, intercession, 
rhinoceros, discretion, chevalier, chirography, include, excitement, pro- 
crastinate, democracy, crucifixion. 

D. 

Dactylos, finger. Daguerre, a French artist. Damao; I tame, conquer. 
Damnum, loss. Debilis, weak. Deca, decern; ten. Decor; grace, 
beauty. Deus, God. Delicise, niceties. Demos, people. Dendron, tree. 
Dens, dentis; tooth. Deuteros, second. Dexter, right-handed. Dicha, 
in two parts. Dico, dicatum ; I show, devote. Dico, dictum ; I say, 
speak. Didasco, didact- ; I teach. Dignus, worthy. Diluvium, flood. 
Disco, I learn. Do, datum, dit-; I give. Doceo, doctum ; I teach. 
Doleo, I grieve. Dominus, Lord. Domo, domitnm ; I tame, subdue. 
Domus, house. Donum, gift. Dormio, dormitum; I sleep. Dorsum, the 
back. Dotos, given. Doxa ; opinion, glory. Dromos, a running. 
Drus, oak. Dubius, doubtful. Duco, due turn, -duce; I lead. Dulcis, 
sweet. Duo, two. Duo, I put on. Durus, hard. Dynamis, power. 
Dys; bad, difficult. 

Adamant, indication, prediction, disciple, didactic, document, predom- 
inate, antidote, doxology, dormitory, donation, dyspepsy. 

E. 

Ebrius, drunken. Edo, I eat. Egesis, a leading. Ego, I. Elao, I 
drive. Electron, amber. Emo, emptum ; I buy. Ensis, sword. Ens ; 
being, existing. Entera, bowels. Entomon, insect. Eo, itus ; I go. 
Epicurus, a sensual philosopher. Epos; word, narration. Eques, equitis ; 
horseman. Equus, equal. Arceo, -erceo ; I drive. Eremos, lonely. 
Ergon, work. Erro, erratum ; I wander. Eso, within. Estimo ; I 
value, esteem. Ethov, custom. Ethnos ; tribe, nation. Elymos, true. 
Eu; well, good. iEvum ; age, time. Examen, balance. Exemplum, 
pattern. Externus ; outside, foreign. 

Inebriated, exegesis, spheroid, preemption, nonentity, circuit, exercise, 
hermit, aberration, exoteric, mediaeval, external, examination. 

r. 

Fabricor; I make, frame. Fabula, fable. Facetus, humorous. Facies, 
-fice; face, form. Facilis, easy. Facio, feci, factum, -fy, -feet; I make. 
Falcatus, cut or lopped off. Fallo, falsurn ; I slip, deceive. Fari, -face; 
to speak. Fatuus, foolish. Febris, fever. Fcedus, foederis; bond, 
league. Femur, thigh. Feles, cat. Fendo, fensum ; I ward off. Fera, 
a wild beast. Fero ; I carry, suffer. Ferrum, iron. Ferveo, I boil. 
Fateor, fassum, -fessum ; I own, acknowledge. Fides, faith. Filius, 
son. Filum, thread. Findo, fissum, -fid ; cut, cleave. Findo, fictum ; 
I make, feign. Finis, end. Fiscus ; bag, basket, purse. Figo, fixus ; I 
stitch. Flagitium, foul deed. Flagro ; I burn, flame. Flatus; puff, 
blast. Flecto, flexum ; I bend, turn. Fligo, flictum ; I strike, beat. 
Flos, floris ; flower. Fluctuo ; I am wavy, unsettled. Fluo, fluxum ; I 
flow. Folium, leaf. Floris, out of doors. Formido ; fear, dread. Foro ; 
I bore, pierce. Fors, fortis ; chance. Fortis, brave. Fragrum, straw- 
berry. Frango. fractum ; I break. Frater, brother. Frico, frictum ; 



WORDS. — ROOTS. 529 

I rub. Frigus, frigoris ; cold. Frio, I crumble. Frons, frondis ; leaf. 
Frons, frontis ; forehead. Fruges, fruit. Frumentum ; corn, grain. 
Fructus, fruit. Fruor, fruitus ; I enjoy. Frustra, vain. Fugio, fugi- 
tum j I fly. Fulgeo, I shine. Fuligo ; soot, smoke. Fulmen, thunder- 
bolt. Functus, performed. Fundo, fusum ; I spread out, pour. Fundus, 
bottom. Funis, cord. Funus, funeris ; burial. Fur, thief. Fnrca, fork. 
Fuscus, tawny. Futare ; to blame, disprove. 

G. 

Gala, Sp., fine dress. Galax, milk. Gallia, France. Gallina, hen. 
Galvani, a Professor of Anatomy. Gameo, I marry. Garrio, I prattle. 
G aster ; stomach, belly. Ge, earth. Gelu ; frost, cold. Geminus, 
double. Gemma, a bud. Genea ; race, tribe. Genu, knee. Genus, 
generis ; kind, sort. Gero, gestum ; I carry : gerous, bearing. Gladius, 
sword. Glomus, glomeris ; ball, clue. Glossa ; tongue, language. 
Glutio, I swallow. Glypho, I carve. Gonia, angle. Gradior, gressus ; 
I step, proceed. Gramen, graminis ] grass. Gramma; mark, letter. 
Grapho ; I write, describe. Gratus ; kind, pleasing. Gravis, heavy. 
Grex, gregis ; herd, flock. Gruo ; I agree, suit. Guberno, I govern. 
Gurges, gurgitis ; whirlpool. Gustus, taste. Guttur, throat. Gymnos, 
naked. Gyne, woman. 

Galaxy, bigamy, garrulous, genealogy, congress, gladiator, hiero- 
glyphics, armigerous, gesticulation, geography, cosmography, gelid, con- 
glomerate, congregation, incongruous, disgust, gymnastics. 

H. 

Habeo, habitus ; I have. Hsereo, hsesum ; I stick. Heres, heredis ; 
heir. Haurio, haustum ; I draw up. Halo, I breathe. Hebdomas, week. 
Hebes, hebetis ; dull. Helios, sun. Haima, blood. Hedra ; seat, side. 
Hemera, day. Hepar, hepatos ; the liver. Hepta, seven. Her e sis ; a 
taking, opinion. Heteros ; other, dissimilar. Hex, six. Hexis ; having, 
state of mind or body. Hieros, sacred. Hilaris, cheerful. Hippos, 
horse. Histor, a knower. Histrio, player. Hodie, to-day. Holos ; 
all, whole. Homilos, assembly. Homo, hominis ; man. Homos, alike. 
Hora, hour. Horreo; I am rough, I bristle. Hortor, hortatus; I en- 
courage. Hortus, a garden, Hospes; host, guest. Hostis, enemy. 
Humeo, I am moist or wet. Humerus, shoulder. Humus, the ground. 
Hydor, water. Hiems, winter. Hygros, wet. Hysteros ; lower, the 
womb. 

Cohesion, hereditary, exhaustion, heterogeneous, hierarchy, hippo- 
potamus, homogeneous, horrible, horticulture, exhortation, cachexy, 
posthumous. 

I. 

Ibi, there. Ichthys, fish. Icon, image. Idem, the same. Idios ; pe- 
culiar, private. Ignis, fire. Impero, I command. Iniquus; uneven, 
unjust. Insula, island. Indigena, a native. Intus, within. Isos y equal. 
Iterum ; a second time, again. Iter, itineris; journey. 

Ichthyology, iconoclast, idiom, imperative, intimate, reiteration, 
itinerant. 

J. 

Jaceo^I lie or repose. Jacio, jactum, ject-; I throw, dart. Jaloux, 
45 



530 APPENDIX. 

Fr.; emulous, suspicious. Janua ; gate, door. Jour, Fr., day. Judico, 
judicatum ; I judge. Jugum, yoke. JuDgo, junct- ; I join. Juro, jurat- 
um ; I swear. Jus, juris ; right, law. Juvenis, young. Juvo, jutum ; 
I help. 

Circumjacent, projection, journeyman, judicature, conjuncture, per- 
jury, jurisdiction, adjutant. 

L. 

Labium, lip. Lambano, lab-] I take. Labor, lapsus; I glide, fall. 
Labyrinthus, a place of intricate windings. Lac, lactis ; milk. Lacer, 
torn. Lachryma, a tear. Laconia, Sparta. Lana, wool. Langueo ; I 
droop, faint. Laos, the people. Lapis, lapidis ; stone. Lassus, weary. 
Lateo, I lie concealed. Latreia; service, worship. Latro, latratum; I 
bark. Latum; carried, brought. Latus, lateris; side. Latus; broad, 
wide. Laus, laudis ; praise. Lavo, lotum; I wash. Lego, legatum ; I 
send as an ambassador, I leave by will. Lego, lectum ; I choose, gather, 
read. Lenis ; soft, mild. Lino ; I smear, blot. Lepsis, a taking. Lev- 
igo, I polish. Levo, levatum ; I lift up, lighten. Lex, legis; law. Li- 
ber, free. Liber, libri ; book. Libido ; desire, lust. Libo; I lessen, 
impair. Libra, a balance. Licet, licitum ; it is allowed. Licio, licitum ; I 
allure. Laedo, laesum, -lis-; I strike, hurt. Lignum, wood. Ligo, ligatum ; 
I bind. Limen, liminis; threshold. Limes, limitis; boundary. Linea, 
line. Lingua, tongue. Linquo, lictum ; I leave, forsake. Leipo, lip- ; 
I leave out, fail. Liqueo, I melt. Lira; furrow, ridge. Lis, litis; strife. 
Litera, letter. Lithos, stone. Leitos, lit- ; public. Livrer, Fr., to give or 
deliver up. Locus, place. Logos ; word, speech, discourse. Loquor, locu- 
tus ; I speak. Loi, Fr., law. Lubricus ; smooth, slippery. Luceo, I 
shine. Lucrum ; gain, profit. Luctor, luctatus ; I struggle. Ludo, lu- 
sum; I play, deceive. Lumbus, a loin. Lumen, luminis; light. Luna, 
the moon. Luo, lutum; I wash. Lupus, wolf. Lutum, clay. Lysis; 
a loosing, untying. 

Syllable, relapse, lapidary, translation, laundry, liniment, lineament, 
levity, collision, relict, ellipsis, lucrative, reluctant, loyal, luminary, 
delusion, analysis, ablution. 

M. 

Maceo, I am lean or thin. Machomai, I fight. Macula; spot, stain. 
Magister, master. Magnus, great. Male ; bad, ill, evil. Malleus, ham- 
mer. Mamma, breast or pap. Manteia, -mancy ; prophecy, prediction. 
Mando, mandatum ; I command, bid. Mando, I chew. Maneo, man- 
sum ; I stay, abide. Mano, manatum; I drop, flow. Manus, hand. 
Mare, sea. Maritus, a married man. Mars, Martis; the god of war. 
Materia, matter. Mater, matris, matern-; mother. Motus, a moving. 
Matutinum, morning. Maxilla, jaw-bone. Mechanaomai; I con- 
trive, invent. Medius, middle. Medeor, medi- ; I cure, heal. Me- 
dulla, marrow. Megas, great. Mel, mellis; honey. Melan, black. 
Melior, better. Melos, song. Memor, mindful. Menda ; blemish, fault. 
Mendax, mendacis ; false. Mendicus, beggar. Mens, mentis ; mind. 
Mensura, measure. Meo; I go, glide, pass. Mercor; I buy, traffick. 
Mergo, mersum ; I dip, plunge. Meridies, midday. Mesos, middle. 
Metallum, metal. Meter, metros ; mother. Metron, measure. Micros, 
little. Migro, I remove. Miles, militis ; soldier. Mille, thousand. 
Minaa, min-; threats. Mineo, I stand out. Minuo, minutum ; I lessen, 



WORDS. — ROOTS. 531 

diminish. Minis, strange. Misceo, mixtum ; I mingle. Miser, wretched. 
Misos, hatred. Mitto, missum; I send, Mnaomai, mnem-; I remind. 
Mola, millstone. Molior ; I throw down, destroy. Mollis, soft. Moneo> 
monitum ; I warn. Monos ; alone, one. Monstro, I point out. Morbus, 
disease. Mordeo, morsum; I gnaw. Morphe, form. Mors, mortis; 
death. Mos, moris ; manner. Moveo, motum ; I move. Multus, many. 
Mundus, world. Municipium, a free town. Munio, munitum ; I wall 
in, fortify. Munus, muneris; gift. Muria, salt-water. Murus, wall. 
Mustela, weasel. Mutilus, maimed. Muto, mutatum; I change. Mys- 
tes, one initiated into secrets. 

Emaciated, logomachy, immaculate, malediction, mansion, mechanic, 
melancholy, mellifluous, permeable, immersion, metropolis, demolition, 
monody, morality, amorphous, ammunition, remuneration, mystical. 

'N. 

Narce ; numbness, torpidness. Nascor, natus, I am born. Nasus, 
nose. Nato, I swim. Nauta, sailor. Navis, ship. Nebula ; mist, cloud. 
Necesse, what must be. Necros, dead. Necto, nexum ; I tie, bind, knit. 
Nee; nor, not. Nego, I deny. Negotium, business. Nemus, nemoris; 
grove. Neos, new. Nesos } island. Nex, necis, -neci-; death. Nicto, 
-nive ; I wink. Nidus, nest. Niger, black. Nihil, nothing. Noceo, I 
hurt. Nodus, knot. Nomas, pasturing. Nomen, nominis; name. 
Nomos ; law, science. Non, not. Nox, noctis ; night. Norma, rule. 
Nosos, disease. Nosco, notum; I know. Nota, mark, Novus, new. 
Nubes, cloud. Nubo, nuptum; I veil myself, marry. Nudus, naked. 
Nugae, trifles. Numerus, number. Nummus, a coin. Nuncio, I bring 
news. Nu to, I nod. Nutrico, I nourish. Nux, nucis; a nut. Nyx, 
nyctos; nigh-t. 

Narcotic, natural, negotiate, neophyte, necromancy, pernicious, no- 
madic, innovation, nutritious, abnormal, annihilate, anomaly. 



Octo, eight. Oculus, the eye. Odos, way. Odous, odontos; tooth* 
Oleo, I emit odor. Oligos, few. Oleum (from "oliva," olive), oil- 
Omalos; even, like, regular. Omnis, all. Onyma, name. Onta, being- 
Onus, oneris ; burden, load. Opus, operis ; work. Ophis, serpent. 
Ophthalmos, the eye. Opla, arms. Oplos, seen. Opto, I wish. Orama, 
a sight. Orcos, oath. Ordior, I begin. Ordo, ordinis ; order, rank. 
Orior, ortus ; I rise, come forth. Ornis, bird. Orno, ornatum ; I deck, 
dress. Oro, oratum; I speak. Orthos ; erect, straight, accurate, Os, 
ossis; bone. Osteon, bone. Oscillum, something swinging. Oscito; I 
yawn, gape. Ostracon, a small shell used in voting to banish. Ovis, 
sheep. Ovum, egg. Oxys; sharp, sour. 

Octagon, method, redolent, oligarchy, synonym, ontology, operation, 
optics, option, panorama, exordium, ornithology, oration, coordinate, 
osteology. 

P. 

Pagiscor, pactus ; bargained, agreed. Pango, pactus ; driven or pressed 
close. Pays, peas-, Fr.; the country. Palea, chaff. Palaios, pale-; an- 
cient. Palpo, palpatum; I touch gently, feel. Pas, pantos ; all. Pando, 
pansum ; I unfold, spread. Panis, bread. Papaver, poppy. Papilio, 



532 APPENDIX. 

butterfly. Papyrus, an Egyptian plant. Par, paris ; equal. ParadeisoSj 
a pleasure-garden. Pardonner, Fr., to forgive. Pareo, paritum; I ap- 
pear. Paries, wall. Pario, partum; I bring forth, produce. Parler f 
Fr., to talk. Paro, palatum ; I make ready. Pars, partis ; part. Pasco, 
pastum ; I feed. Passus ; step, pace. Pateo ; I tread, walk. Pateo, pa- 
tens: I lie open. Pater, patris; father. Pathos, feeling. Patior, pas- 
sus; I suffer. Patria, one's native country. Pauci, few. Pauper, poor. 
Pax, pacis ; peace. Pecco, peecatum ; I do wrong. Pectus, pectoris ; 
breast. Peculium, private property. Peculatus, embezzled. Pecunia, 
money. Paideia, peda- ; learning. Pelages, sea. Pellis, a skin. Pello. 
pulsurn; I drive. Pendeo, pendum; I hang. Pendo, pensum; I weigh. 
Pene, almost. Poenitet; it grieves me, I repent. Penna ; feather, wing. 
Pente, five. Pep to ; I boil, cook. Perior, peritus; I try. Pes, pedis; 
foot. Petaion, flower-leaf. Petit, Fr., little. Peto, petitum; I seek. 
Peira, rock. Petratum ; done, effected. Phago, I eat. Phaino-, I make 
appear, bring to light. Pharmacol), a medicine. Pherne, dowry. Phero; 
I bear, bring. Phllos, lover. Phlegma, a burning. Phleps, phlebos ; 
a vein. Phone, sound. Phos, photos; light, fire. Phren, mind. 
Phthegma, a saying. Phyllon, leaf. Physis ; a bringing-forth, nature. 
Phyton, plant. Pilo, pilatum; I rob, plunder. Pilus, a hair. Pingo, 
pictum ; I paint. Pio, piatum; i atone. Piraio, -pir-\ 1 try. Placeo, 
placens ; I please. Placo, I appease. J'Iar,e, a wandering-about. Plan- 
go, planctum; I beat, bemoan. Plasso ; I smear, mould. Plato, an 
Athenian philosopher. Plaudo, plausum; 1 clap the hands. Plebs, the 
common people. Plectos, struck. Plenus, full. Pleo, pletum; 1 fill. 
Plethos, fullness. Plico, plicatuni ; 1 fold, lay to. Ploro, ploratum; I 
wail. Plumbum, lead. Plus, pluris; more. Pluvia, rain. Pneuma 1 
air. Poico, I make. Polemos ) war. Polys, many: polls, city. Pomum ; 
apple, fruit. Pondus, ponderis ; weight. Pono, positum ; I put or place. 
Pons, pontis; bridge. Populus, the people. Porio, portatum ; I carry. 
Posse, potens; to be able. Posterus; after, behind. Postulo, postula- 
tum ; 1 demand. Potamos, rivef. Polo, potum; I drink. Pons, podis ; 
the foot. Pravus, crooked. Practos, done. Precor, preeatus; I entreat. 
Preda, plunder. Prehendo, 1 lay hold of. Premo, pressum ; I press. 
Privus, being one's own. Probo, probatum; I try. Probrum, a shame- 
ful action. Proles, offspring. Propago, a shoot or branch. Prope, 
near. Proprius ; peculiar to, being one's own. Protos, first. Proxi- 
mus, nearest. Psallo, I make music on a stringed instrument. Pseudos 7 
false. Psyche; breath, soul. Ploma, a fall. Phyo, I spit. Pubes, soft 
hair. Pudeo, 1 am ashamed. Puer, boy. Pugna, a battle. Pulmones r 
the lungs. Pulvus, pulveris ; dust. Pungo, punctum ; 1 puncture or 
point. Punio, punitum; I punish. Pupa; a young child, apple of the 
eye. Purgo, purgatum ; 1 make clean. Pus, puris ; pus. Pusillus ; 
very small, insignificant. Puto, putatum ; I think. Pyr, pyros ; fire. 

Compact, impact, palpable, pantheistic, incomparable, papilionaceous 7 
apparition, impartial, pasture, patent, peripatetic, expatiate, repulsive,, 
penitentiary, pedestrian, anthropophagi, phonetics, complacency, com- 
pletion, polyglot, possible, psychological, polytechnic, psalm, pyro- 
technics. 

a. 

Quadra, four. Quasro, qusesitum, -quir-; 1 ask r seek. Qualis, of what 



WORDS. — ROOTS. 533 

kind. Quantus, how great. 'Quartus, fourth. Quatio, quassum; I 
shake. Queror, I complain. Quinque, five. Quot, how many. 

Quadrangular, inquisitive, perquisite, inquiry, quality, quantity, 
querulous. 

H. 

Radius, spoke of a wheel. Radix, radicis ; root. Rado, rasum ; I gnaw. 
Ramus, branch. Rang, Fr. ; a row, rank. Rapio, raptum, -rep-; I 
snatph. Ratus; judged, fixed, — a rate. Rego, rectum; I set right, rule. 
Remus, oar. Repo, reptum ; I creep. Res, re- ; thing. Rete, net. Rex, 
regis ; king. Rheo, I flow. Ehin, nose. Rideo, risum ; I laugh. Rigeo, 
I am cold or stiff. Rigo, rigatum; I water a field. Rivus, a small 
stream of water. Robur, roboris; strength. Rodo, rosum; I gnaw. 
Rogo, rogatum; I ask. Ros, roris; dew. Rota, wheel. Roi, Fr., king. 
Ruber, red. Ructus, belching? Ruga, wrinkle. Ruminor, I chew the 
cud. Ruptus, broken. Rus, ruris ; country. 

Eradicate, erasure, ramify, correct, rigidity, irrigate, real, interroga- 
tive, rotation, eructate, interruption, rusticate, 

S. 

Sabbatum, Heb. ; to cease, rest. Sagus, wise. Sagitto, arrow. Sal, 
salt. Salio, saltum ; I leap. Salus; safety, health. Sanctus, holy. 
Sanguis, sanguinis; blood. Sapio, -sip-; I have a taste of, am wise. 
Sapo, soap. Sar (Arab ), desert. Sarx, flesh. Satis, enough. Saxum, 
rock. Scala, ladder. Scalenos / uneven, unequal. Scando, scansum, 
-scend; I climb. Scapula, shoulder-blade. Sceptomai, I look about. 
Schole ; leisure, school. Scia, shadow. Scindo, scissum; I cut. Scin- 
tilla, spark. Sclavi, a people of northern Europe. Scleros, hard. Scopeo, 
I look. Scorbutum, the scurvy. Scribo, scriptum ; I write. Scrutor; I 
seek, I search into diligently. Sculpto, sculptum ; I carve in stone. 
Scurra; scoffer, buffoon. Scutum, shield. Sebum; tallow, fat. Seco, 
sectum ; I cut. Sedeo, sessum, -sid- ; I sit. Semen, seminis; seed. 
Semper, always. Senex, senis; old man. Sentio, sensum ; I feel, think. 
SepOj I make putrid. Septem, seven. Septuaginta, seventy. Sequor, 
secutus; I follow. Serpo, I creep. Serra, saw. Sertum ; knit, joined 
in discourse. Servio, servitum ; I serve. Servo, servatum; I keep, save. 
Seta, bristle. Sex, six. Sibilo, I hiss. Sidus, sideris; a star. Signum : 
sign, seal. Siiva, wood. Similis, like. Simul, at the same time. Si- 
nus; bosom, bend, gulf. Sisto; I set, stand. Sitos ; corn, food. Socio; 
I join, unite. Sol, sun. Soleo; I use, am accustomed to. Solor, I com- 
fort. Solus, alone. Solvo, solutum ; I loosen, free, pay. Somnus, 
sleep. Sonus, sound. Sophia; learning, wisdom. Sopor, sleep. Sor- 
beo, sorptum; I suck in. Spargo, sparsum, -sperse ; I scatter. Spa- 
tium, space. Specio, -spect, -spic- ; I see. Sperma, seed. Sphen, wedge. 
Spiro, spiratum; I breathe. Spissus, thick. Splendeo, I shine. Spon- 
deo, sponsum ; I promise. Spuma ; foam, froth. Sputo, I spit often. 
Squama, a scale. Stabilis, firm. Stagnum, pool. Stasis, a standing. 
Statuo, -stit- ; I set so as to stand. Stella, star. Stello, -stol- ; I send. 
Stenos ; narrow, short. Stereos, standing firm. Sterno, stratum ; I 
spread. Sternuto, I sneeze. Stethos, the breast. Stichos ; a row, line. 
Stizo, -stig- ; I spur. Stilla, a drop. Stinguo, stinctum; I thrust, mark. 
Stipo, stipatum; I fill up closely. Stirps, -tir-; a root or stem. Sto, 



534 APPENDIX. 

statum ; I stand, set. Stoa, portico. Stauro, -stor- ; I give, bring. 
Stratos, army. Strepo, I make a noise. Strideo, I creak. Stringo f 
strictum, -strain ; I hold fast, bind. Strophe, a turning. Struo, struc- 
tum ; I build. Stultus, foolish. Stylos; column, sharp-pointed iron 
pencil. Stypho, -styp- ; I astringe, thicken. Suadeo, suasum ; I advise. 
Suavis, sweet. Suber, cork. Sudo, sudatum ; I sweat. Sueo, suetum ; 
I use, am accustomed to. Sugo, suetum ; I suck. Sulcus, furrow. Su- 
mo, sumptum ; I take. Surdus, deaf. Surgo, surrectum ; I rise, or lift 
up. Sycos, a fig. 

Sagacity, salient, sarcophagus, abscission, scintillation, prescribe, som- 
niferous, consonant, dissonant, retrospection, restrict, apostrophe, disso« 
lution, instruction, seminary, resurrection, sycophant. 

T. 

Taberna: shed, shop. Tabula; board, table. Taceo, taciturn; lam 
silent. Tactos ; placed, arranged. Tailler, Fr.; to cut, deal. Talis ; 
such, of this kind. Tango, tactum ; I touch. Tantalus, a king of Lydia. 
Tantus, so great. Taphos, tomb. Tardus ; slow, dilatory. Tautos, the 
same. Techne ; art, science. Tecton, an artist. Tego, tectum : I cover. 
Telos, end. Tempus, temporis ; time. Tendo, tensum ; I stretch. Te- 
neo, tentum ; I hold. Tenuis; thin, slender. Tepeo, I am warm. Ter- 
geo, tersum ; I wipe. Tertius, third. Tero, tritum ; I rub. Terra, earth. 
Terreo, I make afraid. Testa, a shell. Testis, a witness. Tetra, four. 
Textus, woven. Theoros; a viewer, beholder. Theos, God. Therapeuo ; 
T nurse, cure. Thermos, heat. Thesis, a placing. Thorax, thoracis; 
chest. Tibia, shin-bone. Tingo, tinctum ; I dip, color. Titillo, I tickle. 
Tollo ; I raise, lift. Tomos, a cutting. Tonos, tension. Topos, place. 
Torpeo, I benumb. Tortus ; twisted, writhed. Totus, whole. Toxicum, 
poison. Trado, traditum ; I deliver. Traho, tractum; I draw. Tremo; 
I shake, shudder. Tres, tria ; three. Tribo, I rub. Tribuo, I give. 
Tricae, impediments. Trochaios, that runs. Tropos ; turning, change. 
Trouver, -trive, -trieve, Fr.; to find. Trudo, trusum; I thrust. Trunco, 
truncatum ; I lop. Tuber; swelling, bump. Tueor, tuitus; I perceive. 
Turoeo, I swell. Tundo, tusum ; 1 beat, bruise. Turba, troub- ; distur- 
bance. Turgeo, I swell. Typos ; mark, emblem. 

Epitaph, telescope, technical, distinguish, extol, intoxicated, tautology, 
retribution, intuitive, contusion, turbulent, hypothesis, antithesis, helio- 
trope, typography. 

Uber; fertile, plentiful. Ubi, where. Umbra, shadow. Unda, a wave. 
Unguo, unctum ; I anoint. Unus, one. Uranos, heaven. Urbs, city. 
Urgeo, I press on. Uro, ustum ; I burn. Uxor, wife. Ultra, beyond. 

Suburban, uranography, uxorious, combustion. 

V. 

Vacca, a cow. Vaco, I am empty. Vado, vasum; I go. Vagus, wan- 
dering. Valeo; I am well, strong, worthy. Vallum; rampart, space. 
Vastus ; large, desert. Vates, prophet. Veho, vectum ; I carry. Velio, 
vulsum ; I pull, pluck. Velo, I cover. Venum, sale. Vendo, I sell. 
Venor, venatus ; 1 hunt. Venio, ventum ; I go, come. Venter, ventris ; 



WORDS. — ROOTS. 535 

the abdomen. Ventus, wind. Ver, the spring. Verbero, I beat. Verb- 
um, word. Vereor, I fear. Vergo, versi ; I lie or look towards. Vermis, 
worm. Vernaculus, homeborn. Verto, versum; I turn. Verus, true. 
Vestis, garment. Vetus ; old, of long duration. Via, way. Vicis, a 
cbange or place. Viceni, twenty. Vicinus ; near, neighboring. Vi- 
deo, visum ; I see. Vinco, victum ; I conquer. Vindex, vindicis ; ^ a 
punisher of wrong. Vinum, wine. Violo, I injure. Vir, man. Vis- 
cum, glue. Vito, I shun. Vitrium, glass. Vivo, victum; I live. 
Voco, vocatum ; I call. Volo, volatum ; I fly. Volo, volitum ; I will, 
wish. Volo, volutum ; I roll. Voro ; I eat, devour. Votum, wish. 
Vulgus, the common people. Vulnus, vulneris ; wound. 

Vaccinate, vacation, invasion, revulsion, ventriloquist, vernal, rever- 
beration, revenue, vermifuge, invest, veteran, supervision, invincible, 
survive, revival, convocation, volatile, voluntary, voracious, carnivorous, 
invulnerable. 

X. 

Xeros, dry. Xiphos, sword. Xylon, wood. 

Xerophagy, xerophthalmy, xylography, xiphoides. 

Z. 

Zeo, zel- ; I boil. Zoon, animal. Zygon or Zugon, a yoke. Zymcb 
or Zumod, I ferment. 

Zealous, zoology, zoonomy, zootomy, zymology. 

There are many words in our language which are compounds of roots : 
as, thermos, heat; metron, measure; hence, ^ermometer = heat-measurer. 
So, baro-, hydro-, gaso-, pyro-, &c. Observe that roots often are slightly 
modified in form for the sake of euphony. 



ERRATA. 



Page 11, 1th line from the top, for "you, or yours " read "your, or yours." 

" 43, 2d " " Italicize "before" in stead of " which/' 

" 61,41th " " for " Italicise " read "Italicize." 

" 65, 32d " " for the first " sixteen " read "six." 

" 97, 9th " " put a comma after " consonant." 

" 119, 4th " " for " blooms " read "bloom." 

" 120,29th " " read," A verb usually intransitive, sometimes becomes'* 

" 139, 33d " " substitute a semicolon for the comma. 

" 141, 32d " " for " intrude " read "obtrude." 

" 149, 6th " " for " participles " read " adjectives." 

" 155,40th " " for "should be " read "should not be." 

" 168,33d " " for " abstractedly " read "abstractly." 

" 207,24th " " for " balls " read " halls." 

" 224, 42d " " for "cine" read "line." 

" 228,45th " " accent "this" instead of "and." 

" 230, 15th " " omit the comma after " syllable." 

" 235, 15th " " for dame read dame. 

" 236,35th " " omit "other." 

" 238, 9th stanza, for " Ne" read " No." 

" 238, 20th « for " a " read " a." 



536 APPENDIX. 

Page 238, 11th line from the top, for "2 % " read " 2/." 

239, 28th " " for " 3 i" read " 3 i -}-." 

239,30th " " for " rounding " read "winding." 

239, 34th " " for " Col-eridge " read " Cole-ridge." 
240,41st " " for "call" read "called." 

240, 42d " " for " without" read "without." 

252, 8th " " for " clime " read " clime." 

253, 52d " " for u far" read "far." 
253,53d " " for " Balquhither " read " Balquhither." 
327, 2d " " for " day ;" read " day ; — ." [ter." 
349, 23d-25th lines " put a comma after " Person," a semicolon after " Neu- 

353, 25th line " for " Harpers 1 " read " Harper's." 

354, 17th " " for " Ball " read " ball." 
362,40th " " for "comma" read " common." 
367,34th " " for "found the" read "found a." 
382,44th " " for "wrath " read "wraths." 
402, 27th " " for " flayed " read " fiead." 
454, 17th " c * for " he " read " the person." 

469, 46th " " for "and daguerreotypes" read "or daguerreotypes." 

476, 46th " " omit the interrogation point. 

492, 6th " " for "tale" read "tales." 

Never " Douglass," " Thompson," or " Pollock," but " Douglas," " Thomson," 
" Pollok." 

A few trivial errata, which any ordinary reader can correct for himself, have been 
omitted. 









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